Heat and Mass Transfer Prof.

Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
Module 8: Learning objectives


In this chapter, the focus is on convection processes associated with the change in
phase of a fluid, particularly those processes that can occur at a solid-liquid interface,
namely, boiling and condensation.
For these processes, the latent heat associated with the phase change are significant.
Because there is phase change, heat transfer to and from the fluid can occur without
influencing the fluid temperature. Hence, in boiling and condensation, large heat
transfer rates may be achieved with small temperature differences.
The heat transfer coefficient associated with boiling and condensation depends on
several parameters, such as surface tension between liquid-vapour interface, latent
heat, density difference between liquid and vapour, length scale, specific heat and
viscosity.
It is apparent that boiling and condensation are complicated processes for which the
existence of generalized relations in somewhat limited. This chapter identifies the
essential physical features of the processes and presents correlations suitable for the
approximate engineering calculations.

Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore

MODULE 8

BOILING AND CONDENSATION

8.1 Boiling: General considerations

Boiling is associated with transformation of liquid to vapor at a
solid/liquid interface due to convection heat transfer from the
solid.
Agitation of fluid by vapor bubbles provides for large
convection coefficients and hence large heat fluxes at low-to-
moderate surface-to-fluid temperature differences



Special form of Newtons law of cooling:
e sat s s
T h T T h q = = ) (
where is the saturation temperature of the liquid, and
sat
T )
sat s e
T T T =
is the excess temperature.

8.2 Special cases
Pool Boiling:Liquid motion is due to natural convection and
bubble-induced mixing.
Forced Convection Boiling:Fluid motion is induced by external
means, as well as by bubble-induced mixing.
Saturated Boiling:Liquid temperature is slightly larger than
saturation temperature
Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore

Subcooled Boiling:Liquid temperature is less than saturation
temperature

8.3 The boiling curve
The boiling curve reveals range of conditions associated with
saturated pool boiling on a
s
q vs.
e
T plot.

Water at Atmospheric Pressure


Free Convection Boiling (
e
T <5C)
Little vapor formation.
Liquid motion is due principally to single-phase natural
convection.

Onset of Nucleate Boiling ONB (
e
T 5C)

Nucleate boiling (5C < <30C)
e
T
Isolated Vapor Bubbles (5C <
e
T <10C)
Liquid motion is strongly influenced by nucleation
of bubbles at the surface.
h and rise sharply with increasing
s
q
e
T
Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore

Heat transfer is principally due to contact of liquid
with the surface (single-phase convection) and not
to vaporization

J ets and Columns (10C <
e
T <30C)
Increasing number of nucleation sites causes
bubble interactions and coalescence into
jets and slugs.
Liquid/surface contact is impaired.
continues to increase with
s
q
e
T while h begins to decrease

Critical Heat Flux - CHF, (
e
T 30C)
Maximum attainable heat flux in nucleate boiling.

2
max
1MW/m for water at atmospheric pressure. q

Potential Burnout for Power-Controlled Heating
An increase in
s
q beyond
max
q causes the surface to be
blanketed by vapor and its temperature to spontaneously
achieve a value that can exceed its melting point
If the surface survives the temperature shock, conditions are
characterized by film boiling

Film Boiling
Heat transfer is by conduction and radiation across the vapor
blanket
A reduction in follows the cooling the cooling
s
q
curve continuously to the Leidenfrost point corresponding to
the minimum heat flux
min
q for film boiling.
A reduction in
s
q below
min
q causes an abrupt reduction in
surface temperature to the nucleate boiling regime


Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore

Transition Boiling for Temperature-Controlled Heating
Characterised by continuous decay of
s
q (from to
max
q
min
q )
with increasing
e
T
Surface conditions oscillate between nucleate and film
boiling, but portion of surface experiencing film boiling
increases with
e
T
Also termed unstable or partial film boiling.


8.4 Pool boiling correlations
Nucleate Boiling
Rohsenow Correlation, clean surfaces only, 100% errors

( )
,
3
1/ 2
,
Pr
p l
l v
l fg
n
s f f
e
g l
s
c T
q
g
h
C h

,
, Surface/Fluid Combination (
s f
C n

Critical heat flux:

( )
1/ 4
max
2
0.149
l v
fg v
v
g
q h

=





Film Boiling
( )
( )
1/ 4
3
l v fg
conv
D
v v v s sat
g h D
h D
Nu C
k k T T

= =

Geometry
Cylinder(Hor.) 0.62
C
Sphere 0.67



Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore


8.5 Condensation: General considerations
Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapour is
reduced below its saturation temperature
Condensation heat transfer
Film condensation
Dropwise condensation
Heat transfer rates in dropwise condensation may be as much
as 10 times higher than in film condensation


8.6 Laminar film condensation on a vertical wall



Condensate Film
g
y
( y
x
T
sat
( (x)
A
T
(
y
x
A
A
y
y
y
u
l

y y
y
u
l
+

y gA )
v
l
(
A









4 / 1
3
4 / 1
) ( 4
) (
) (
) (
) ( 4
) (

=
l w sat
l v l fg
v l fg
l w sat l
T T x
k g h
x h
g h
T T xk
x

Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore


fg
w sat L
fg
w sat L
l w sat
l v l fg
L
h
T T A h
h
q
m
T T A h q
T T L
k g h
h
) (
) (
) (
) (
943 . 0
4 / 1
3

= =
=

=
: rate on Condensati
: rate transfer heat Total
length. plate the is L where
coeff. Average

Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
Module 8: Solved Problems



1. A long, 1-mm-diameter wire passes an electrical current dissipating
3150W/m and reaches a surface temperature of 126C when submerged
in water at 1atm. What is the boiling heat transfer coefficient? Estimate
the value of the correlation coefficient C
s,f
.

Known: long wire, 1mm-diameter, reaches a surface temperature of
126C in water at 1atm while dissipating 3150W/m.


Find: (1) Boiling heat transfer coefficient and (2) correlation coefficient
C
s,f
, if nucleate boiling occurs

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Nucleate boiling.

Table: Water (saturated, 1atm) T
s
=100C,
l
=1/v
f
=957.9kg/m
3
,

f
=1/v
g
=0.5955kg/m
3
, c
p,l
=4217 J/kg.K,
l
=279*10
-6
N.s/m
2
, p
rl
=1.76,
h
fg
=2257 KJ/kg, =58.9*10
-3
N/m.


Analysis: (a) For the boiling process, the rate equation can be rewritten as


K m W C
m
W
C
m
m W
h
T T
D
q
T T
q
h
sat s
s
sat s
s
. / 600 , 38 26 / 10 00 . 1 ) 100 126 /(
001 . 0
/ 3150
) /(
) (
2
2
6
_
' "
_
= =

=
=

Note that heat flux is very close to q
max
, and nucleate boiling exists.


Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
(b) For nucleate boiling, the Rohsenow correlation may be solved for
C
s,f
, to give

=
n
g f
e p
s
g f
h
T c
g
q
h

Pr
) (
C
,
,
6 / 1
3
1
'
,
s,f

Assuming the liquid surface combination is such that n=1 and
substituting numerical values with T
e
=T
s
-T
sat
, find


017 . 0
76 . 1 / 10 2257
26 . / 4217
/ 10 9 . 58
/ 5955 . 0 9 . 957 ( / 8 . 9
/ 10 00 . 1
/ 10 22257 / . 10 279
,
3
6 / 1
3
3 2
3 / 1
2 6
3 6
,
=

f s
f s
C
kg J
K K kg J
m N
m kg s m
m W
kg J m s N
C

Comments: By comparison with the values for other water-surface
combinations (given in standard tables), the value for the wire is
quite large suggesting that its surface must be highly polished. Note that
the value of the boiling heat transfer coefficient is much larger that for
other convection processes previously encountered.
f s
C
,
f s
C
,


















Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
2. The bottom of a copper pan, 150 mm in diameter, is maintained at 115C
by the heating element of an electric range. Estimate the power required
to boil the water in this pan. Determine the evaporation rate. What is the
ratio of the surface heat flux to the critical heat flux? What pan
temperature is required to achieve the critical heat flux?

Known: copper pan 150 mm in diameter and filled with water at 1atm,
maintained at 115C.

Find: the power required to boil the water and the evaporation rate; ratio
of the heat flux to the critical heat flux; pan temperature is required to
achieve the critical heat flux.

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) Nucleate pool boiling, (2) Copper pan is polished
surface.

Properties: Table: Water (1atm) T
sat
=100C,
l
=957.9kg/m
3
,

v
=0.5955kg/m
3
, c
p,l
=4217 J/kg.K,
l
=279*10
-6
N.s/m
2
, p
rl
=1.76,
h
fg
=2257 KJ/kg, =58.9*10
-3
N/m.

Analysis: the power requirement for boiling and the evaporation rate can
be expressed as follows,

g f boil s s boil
h q A q q
,
.
"
/ m . = =


The heat flux for nucleate pool boiling can be estimated using the
Ronsenow Correlation.


3
, ,
,
2 / 1
,
s
"
Pr
) (
q

=
n
g f f s
e p
g f
h C
T c
g
h

Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore

Selecting =0.013 and n=1 from standard table for the polished
copper finish, find
f s
C
,

2 5
,
3
6 / 1
3
3 2 3 6
,
/ 10 619 . 4
76 . 1 / 10 2257
26 . / 4217
/ 10 9 . 58
/ 5955 . 0 9 . 957 ( / 8 . 9 / 10 2257 / . 10 279
m W C
kg J
K K kg J
m N
m kg s m kg J m s N
C
f s
f s
=

The power and evaporation rate are


h kg s kg kg J kW m
kW m m W q
boil
boil
/ 13 / 10 62 . 3 / 10 2257 / 16 . 8
16 . 8 ) 150 . 0 (
4
/ 10 619 . 4
3 3
.
2 2 5
= = =
= =

The maximum or critical heat flux was found as

Q
max
=1.26MW/m
2
.

Hence, the ratio of the operating to maximum heat flux is
367 . 0 / 26 . 1 / / 10 619 . 4
2 2 5
"
max
"
= = m MW m W
q
q
s


From the boiling curve, T
e
30C will provide the maximum heat flux

















Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
3. A silicon chip of thickness L=25 mm and thermal conductivity
k
s
=135W/m.K is cooled by boiling a saturated fluorocarbon liquid
(T
sat
=57C) on its surface. The electronic circuits on the bottom of the
chip are perfectly insulated.

Properties of the saturated fluorocarbons are c
p,l
=110J?kg.K,
h
fg
=84,400J/kg,
l
=1619.2kg/m
3
,

=13.4kg/m
3
,=8.1*10
-
3
kg/s
2
,
l
=440*10
-6
kg/m.s and p
rl
=9.01. In addition the nucleate boiling
constants are C
s,f
=0.005 and n=1.7. What is the steady-state temperature
T
o
at the bottom of the chip? If, during testing of the chip, q
o
is
increases to 90% of the critical heat flux, what is the new steady-state
value of T
o
?


Known: Thickness and thermal conductivity of a silicon chip. Properties
of saturated fluorocarbon liquid on top side.

Find: (a) Temperature at bottom surface of chip for a prescribed heat
flux, (b) Temperature of bottom surface at 90% of CHF.

Schematic:



Assumptions: (1) steady-state conditions, (2) uniform heat flux and
adiabatic sides, hence one-dimensional conduction in chip, (3) Constant
properties, (4) Nucleate boiling in liquid.

Properties: Saturated fluorocarbon (given): , . / 1100
,
K kg J c
p
=

h
f,g
=84,400
J/kg,

=1619.2kg/m3,

=13.4kg/m3,=8.1*10
-3
kg/s
2
,

=440*10-
6kg/m-s, =9.01.
r
P

Analysis: (a) Energy balances yield . / ) (
" " "
b s o s cond o
q L T T k q q = = =
Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore

Obtain T
s
from the Rohsenow correlation.

C C T
C
m kg s m
s kg
kg J s m kg
m W
K kg J
kg J
T T
g h
q
c
h C
T T
s
sat s
g f
s
p
n
g f f s
sat s
= + =
=

9 . 72 ) 57 9 . 15 (
9 . 15
/ ) 4 . 13 2 . 1619 ( / 807 . 9
/ 10 1 . 8
/ 400 , 84 . / 10 440
/ 10 5
. / 1100
01 . 9 ) / 400 , 84 ( 005 . 0
3 / 1
) (
Pr
6 / 1
3 2
2 3
6
2 4 7 . 1
6 / 1
,
'
,
, ,

From the rate equation,
C
K m W
m m W
C
k
q
T T
s
o
s o
=

+ = + =

8 . 73
. / 135
0025 . 0 / 10 5
9 . 72
2 4 "


(b) With the heat rate 90% of the critical heat flux (CHF)

C
q m W q
m kg
m kg s m
m kg kg J
v
g
v hfg q
v l

=

+ =
= + = = = =
= = =

=
0 . 82
135W/m.K
.0025 W/m 10 13.9
79.4C T
C 79.4 C 57 C 22.4 T C 22.4 1.41 C 15.9 ) /q (q ) T T
W/m 10 13.9 9 . 0 q / 10 5 . 15
/ 4 . 13
/ ) 4 . 13 2 . 1619 ( / 807 . 9 10 1 . 8
/ 4 . 13 / 400 , 84 149 . 0
) (
149 . 0
2 4
o
s
1/3 "
a o,
"
o a e e
2 4 "
max
"
o
2 4 "
max
4 / 1
3
3 2 3
3
4 / 1
2
"
max

Comments: Pool boiling is not adequate for many VLSI chip design





Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
4. As strip steel leaves the last set of rollers in a hot rolling mill, it is
quenched by planar water jets before being coiled. Due to the large plate
temperatures, film boiling is achieved shortly downstream of the jet
impingement region.

Consider conditions for which the strip steel beneath the vapor blanket is
at a temperature of 907K and has an emissivity of 0.35. Neglecting the
effects of the strip and jet motions and assuming convection within the
film to be approximated by that associated with a large horizontal
cylinder of 1-m-diameter, estimate the rate of heat transfer per unit
surface area from the strip to the wall.


Known: Surface temperature and emissivity of strip steel.

Find: heat flux across vapor blanket.



Schematic:




Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Vapor/jet interface is at
T
sat
for P=1atm, (3) Negligible effect of jet and strip motion.

Properties: Table: saturated Water (100C 1atm)
l
=1/v
f
=957.9kg/m
3
,
h
fg
=2257 KJ/kg: saturated water vapor (T
f
=640K):
v
=175.4kg/m
3
,
c
p,v
=42 J/kg.K,
v
=32*10
-6
N.s/m
2
,k=0.155W/m.K,
v
=0.182*10
-6
m
2
/s.

Analysis: The heat flux is

Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
J/kg 10 2.02 ) T (T 0.80c h h with
h h h h and
534K 373K 907K T Where
T h q
7
sat s v p, fg
'
fg
1/3 _
rad
conv
4/3 - 4/3 -
e
e
_
"
x
= + =
+ =
= =
=

2 5 2 "
s
_
_
4 4 4 2 8 4 4
_
2 2
_ _
4 / 1
2 6
3 7 3 2
_
/ 10 265 . 5 ) 373 907 ( . / 986 q and
. 2 / 986 ) . 2 / 24 )( 4 / 3 ( . 2 / 968 h hence,
. 2 / 24
) 373 907 (
) 373 907 ( . / 10 67 . 5 35 . 0 ) (
. / 968 ) 1 / . / 155 . 0 ( . / 6243 /
,
6243
) 373 907 )( . / 155 . 0 ( / 10 182 . 0
) 1 )( / 10 02 . 2 ( / ) 4 . 175 9 . 957 ( / 8 . 9
62 . 0
m W K k m W
K m W K m W K m W
K m W h
K
K k m W
T T
T T
h
K m W m K m W K m W D k u N h
hence
K K m W s m
m kg J m kg s m
u N
rad
sat s
sat s
rad
v D
conv
D
= =
= + =
=

=
= = =
=

Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
5. Saturated steam at 0.1 bars condenses with a convection coefficient of
6800 W/m
2
.K on the outside of a brass tube having inner and outer
diameters of 16.5 and 19mm, respectively. The convection coefficient
for water flowing inside the tube is 5200W/m
2
.K. Estimate the steam
condensation rate per unit length of the tube when the mean water
temperature is 30C.


Known: saturated steam condensing on the outside of a brass tube and
water flowing on the inside of the tube; convection coefficients are
prescribed.

Find: Steam condensation rate per unit length of the tube.

Schematic:


Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions.

Properties: Table: Water, vapor (0.1 bar): T
sat
320K, h
fg
=2390*103J/kg;
Table: Brass ( k=110W/m.K. ); 300 2 / ) (
_
K Tsat Tm T + =

Analysis: The condensation rate per unit length is written as

(1) /
' '
'
.
fg
h q m =

Where the heat rate follows from equation using overall heat transfer
coefficient

(2) ) ( .
'
m sat o o
T T D U q =

Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore

K m W K m W U
K m W
n
K m W
m
K m W
U
h D
D
D
D
n
k
D
h
U
o
o
i i
o
i
o o
o
o
. / 2627 . / 10 3 . 192 10 18 . 12 10 1 . 147
. / 5200
1
5 . 16
19
5 . 16
19
. / 110
0095 . 0
. / 6800
1
(3)
1 2 / 1
2 2 6 6 6
1
2 2
1
= + + =

+ + =

+ + =

Combining equations, (1) and (2) and substituting numerical values, find

s kg kg J K m K m W m
h T T D U m
fg m sat o o
/ 10 11 . 1 / 10 2410 / ) 303 320 )( 019 . 0 ( . / 2627
/ ) (
3 3 2
'
.
'
'
.
= =
=

Comments: (1) Note from evaluation of equation. (3) That the thermal
resistance of the brass tube is not negligible.

(2) With note from expression
for U
]. 68 . 0 1 [ , / ) (
'
, ,
Ja h h h T T c Ja
fg
fg
g f s sat p
+ = =

o
, that the internal resistance is the largest. Hence, estimate
. 313 ) )( / (
,
K T T R R T T
m o o o o s
Hence

K T T
kg kJ h
kg J K K kg J kg J h
o o s
fg
fg
317 2 / ) ( T at evaluated is liquid) for water( c Where
/ 2410
] / 10 2390 / ) 313 320 ( . / 4179 68 . 0 1 [ / 10 2390
, f p,
'
3 3 '
+ =
=
+

Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. Pradip Dutta










Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
Module 8: Short questions

1. What mechanisms are responsible for the very high heat transfer coefficients in
nucleate boiling?

2. Does the amount of heat absorbed as 1 kg of saturated liquid water boils at 100C
have to be equal to the amount of heat released as 1 kg of saturated water vapour
condenses at 100C?

3. What is the difference between evaporation and boiling?

4. What is the difference between pool boiling and flow boiling?

5. What is the difference between subcooled and saturated boiling?

6. Suggest some methods of enhancing pool boiling heat transfer coefficient.

7. What is the meaning of burnout point in a boiling curve? How is burnout avoided in
the design of steam boilers?

8. Using concepts of thermodynamics, explain how condensation occurs.

9. Why is higher heat transfer coefficient generally associated with dropwise
condensation than with film condensation?