Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Quizzes Exams
Solutions
Quiz 1
Midterm1
HW 1
Quiz 2
Midterm2
HW 2
Quiz 3
Final
HW 3
Quiz 4
HW 4
Quiz 5
HW 5
Quiz 6
HW 6
Quiz 7
HW 7
Quiz 8
HW 8
Quiz 9
Quiz 10
Mathematical Induction
I. Prove by induction the following identities:
n(n + 1)
.
2
1.
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
2.
1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n 1) = n2 .
3.
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n2 =
4.
1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + . . . + (n 1)n =
5.
1
1
1
1
n1
+
+
+ ... +
=
.
12 23 34
(n 1)n
n
6.
7.
8 .
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
.
6
n(n 1)(n + 1)
.
3
1
1
1
1
n
+
+
+ ... +
=
.
13 35 57
(2n 1)(2n + 1)
2n + 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
... 1
= .
2
3
4
n
n
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ ... +
= n 1.
n1+ n
1+ 2
2+ 3
3+ 4
sin
n
(n + 1)
sin
2
2
.
sin
2
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7 .
8 .
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
.
.
.
+
< 2 for any integer n 1.
12 22 32
n2
n
an1 + an2
a1 + a2
10 .
2.
3.
4.
1
5 .
5
!n
1+ 5
!n !
1 5
is integer for any positive integer n.
2
2. Use mathematical induction to prove that n2n+1 (n!)2 for any integer n 1.
3. Use mathematical induction to prove that 43n 1 is divisible by 63 for any integer n 0.
()
?
(1 + 4)5k+1 1 = 5k+2 1
k+1
55
1 = 5k+2 1.
2. Use mathematical induction to prove that n2n+1 (n!)2 for any integer n 1.
Proof:
STEP 1: For n=1 this is true, since 121+1 = (1!)2 .
STEP 2: Suppose n2n+1 (n!)2 for some n = k 1, that is k 2k+1 (k!)2 .
?
STEP 3: Prove that () is true for n = k + 1, that is (k + 1)2(k+1)+1 ((k + 1)!)2 . We have
ST.2
2k+1
k
(k + 1)2k+1 .
3. Use mathematical induction to prove that 43n 1 is divisible by 63 for any integer n 0.
Proof:
STEP 1: For n=0 this is true, since 430 1 is divisible by 63.
STEP 2: Suppose 43n 1 is true for some n = k 0, that is 63 | 43k 1.
STEP 3: Prove that 63 | 43(k+1) 1. We have
43(k+1) 1 = 43k+3 1 = 43k 64 1 = 43k (63 + 1) 1 = 4| 3k{z 63} +
div. by 63
4| 3k{z 1} .
St. 2
div. by 63
II. (10 points) Consider various ways of ordering the letters in the word EXCELLENCE:
EEXCLLENCE, LENCEEXCEL, LEXCNCEEEL,
How many distinguishable orderings are there?
and so on.
III. (10 points) Construct a truth table for the statement form ( p q) (q r).
IV. (10 points) Use a truth table to show that the following argument form is valid:
pq
q
r
(p r)
V. (10 points) Use the theorem about logical equivalences to prove that
( p q) (p (p q)) p q.
VI. (10 points) Derive the following set property from those given in the theorem about set
identities and theorem about set properties that involve :
For all sets A and B we have A [(B Ac ) B c ] = .
1.
2: b0 = 1 + 20 = 2, b1 = 1 + 21 = 3, b2 = 1 + 22 = 5, b3 = 1 + 23 = 9.
i+1
15: One solution is ai = (1)i i+2
for i 0.
21:
34:
36:
55:
P4
1
m=0 2m
Q4
i=1
1
21
1
22
i
i=1 (i+1)!
1
23
1
24
1
1
1
2
1
4
1
8
1
16
31
16
(
(((
n(n1)(nk+1)(
(nk)21
(
(
(
(
(nk)21
(
2.
7:
1 ri .
Pn
n!
(nk)!
1
20
= n(n 1) (n k + 1).
(k + 1)(2(k + 1) 1) = 2k2 + 3k + 1.
(k+2)2
z
}|
{
2
k
+
4k
+
4
= (k + 1)2
22
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
,
2
1
1 2
i
Y
k
1
=
1 2
i
i=2
(k + 1)2 1
k+1
=
(k + 1)2
2k
k(k + 2)
(k+1)
(k + 1) + 1
=
=
,
(k+ 1)(k + 1)2
k
2(k + 1)
1
1
(k + 1)2
where the inductive hypothesis has been used in the second equality.
3.
10: Again, the base step is trivial (3 divides 3). For the inductive step observe
that the dierence between the term for n = k + 1 and the term for n = k is
(k + 1)3 7(k + 1) + 3 k3 7k + 3
= k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 7k 7 + 3 k3 + 7k 3
= 3k2 + 3k 6,
utive terms,
(k + 1) (k + 1)2 + 5 k k2 + 5 = = 3k2 + 3k + 6,
()
4k 1 .
| {z }
St. 2
div. by 3
()
()
()
STEP 3: Prove that () is true for n = k + 1, that is 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2k 1) + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 . We have:
ST.2
n(n + 1)
2
()
1(1 + 1)
.
2
k(k + 1)
.
2
? (k + 1)(k + 2)
STEP 3: Prove that () is true for n = k + 1, that is 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k + 1) =
. We have
2
STEP 2: Suppose () is true for some n = k 1, that is 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k =
ST.2
1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k + 1) =
k(k + 1)
? (k + 1)(k + 2)
+ (k + 1) =
,
2
2
k 2 + k + 2k + 2 = k 2 + 3k + 2.
EXAMPLE 6: Prove that
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n2 =
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
()
1(1 + 1)(2 1 + 1)
.
6
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
.
6
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
STEP 3: Prove that () is true for n = k + 1, that is 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2 + (k + 1)2 =
.
6
We have
STEP 2: Suppose () is true for some n = k 1, that is 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2 =
ST.2
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2 + (k + 1)2 =
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
? (k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
+ (k + 1)2 =
,
6
6
2k 3 + k 2 + 2k 2 + k + 6k 2 + 12k + 6 = 2k 3 + 3k 2 + 6k 2 + 9k + 4k + 6.
EXAMPLE 7: Prove that
2n > n
for any integer n 1.
Proof:
STEP 1: For n=1 () is true, since 21 > 1.
STEP 2: Suppose () is true for some n = k 1, that is 2k > k.
()
2k+1 = 2 2k > 2k k + 1,
which is true, since k 1.
EXAMPLE 8: Prove that
n! nn
()
(k + 1)! = k! (k + 1) k k (k + 1) (k + 1)k+1 ,
which is true, since k k < (k + 1)k .
I. Prove by induction the following identities:
1
1
1
1
1
1.
1
1
1
... 1
= .
2
3
4
n
n
2.
1
1
1
1
n
+
+
+ ... +
=
.
13 35 57
(2n 1)(2n + 1)
2n + 1
3.
1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + . . . + (n 1)n =
4 .
n(n 1)(n + 1)
.
3
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ ... +
= n 1.
n1+ n
1+ 2
2+ 3
3+ 4
sin
(n + 1)
n
sin
2
2
.
sin
2
2.
3.
4.
5 .
6 .
7 .
an1 + an2
8 .
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 2 + . . . + 2 < 2 for any integer n 1.
12
2
3
n
a1 + a2
2
n
for any positive numbers a1 , a2 and for any integer n 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6 .
7 .
8 .
!n
1+ 5
!n !
1 5
is integer for any nonnegative integer n.
2
2. Use mathematical induction to prove that 7 4n3 < n! for any integer n 5.
3. Use mathematical induction to prove that 72n 1 is divisible by 48 for any integer n 0.
?
k+1
(1 + 4)5
1 = 5k+2 1
5 5k+1 1 = 5k+2 1.
2. Use mathematical induction to prove that n2n+1 (n!)2 for any integer n 1.
Proof:
STEP 1: For n=1 this is true, since 121+1 = (1!)2 .
STEP 2: Suppose n2n+1 (n!)2 for some n = k 1, that is k 2k+1 (k!)2 .
?
STEP 3: Prove that () is true for n = k + 1, that is (k + 1)2(k+1)+1 ((k + 1)!)2 . We have
ST.2
2k+1
k
(k + 1)2k+1 .
3. Use mathematical induction to prove that 43n 1 is divisible by 63 for any integer n 0.
Proof:
STEP 1: For n=0 this is true, since 430 1 is divisible by 63.
STEP 2: Suppose 43n 1 is true for some n = k 0, that is 63 | 43k 1.
STEP 3: Prove that 63 | 43(k+1) 1. We have
43(k+1) 1 = 43k+3 1 = 43k 64 1 = 43k (63 + 1) 1 = 4| 3k{z 63} +
div. by 63
4| 3k{z 1} .
St. 2
div. by 63
n
n(n 1)
.
(b) Show that
=
2
2
10
10
10
10
10
10
(c) Show that
+
... +
= 0.
0
1
2
3
4
10
True
Not true
III. (10 points) Let A = {10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, . . . , 73}. Prove that if 12 integers are selected
from A, then at least one pair of integers has a sum of 83.
IV. (10 points) Find a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation ak = ak1 + 2ak2 for
all integers k 2 and that also satisfies the initial conditions a0 = 2 and a1 = 7.
V. (10 points)
Statement
3x8 5x3 + 1 is O(x8 )
3x8 5x3 + 1 is O(x9 )
3x8 5x3 + 1 is (x3 )
3x3 5x + 1 is (x8 )
3x3 5x + 1 is (x4 )
True
Not true
VI. (10 points) Let A = {7, 10, 15, 40} and B = {4, 8, 22, 27, 28} and let R be the following
relation:
For all (x, y) A B, x R y x > y.
State explicitly which ordered pairs are in R and R1 .
7: m c.
13:
p q
p q (p q) (p q) (p q)
15:
p r qr
p (q r)
p q
22:
are
logically equivalent:
qr pq pr
p (q r) (p q) (p r)
p q
24:
pq pr
not
logically equivalent:
(p q) (p r) (p q) r
p q
*
*
*
45:
(8)
(p q) ( p q) ( p q) ( p q)
(3)
(5)
(4)
p (q q) p t p.
21:
A conditional statement is
p q
p q
not
conditional inverse
pq
p q
23:
p q
p q
are
logically equivalent:
converse inverse
q p p q
30:
p q r q ( p q) (r q) = ?;
(b) ? (p q) ( r q) ((p q) ( r q)).
(a)
35:
39:
45
If this computer program is correct, then it does not produce error messages.
()
k 3 k + 3k 2 + 3k .
| {z }
| {z }
div. by 3
St. 2
div. by 3
()
k 5 k + 5k 4 + 10k 3 + 10k 2 + 5k .
|
| {z }
{z
}
div. by 5
St. 2
div. by 5
()
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
... 1
=
3
4
n
n
()
1
1
2
=
1
.
2
1
1
1
1
1
STEP 2: Suppose () is true for some n = k 2, that is 1
1
1
... 1
= .
2
3
4
k
k
1
1
1
1
1
?
STEP 3: Prove that () is true for n = k + 1, that is 1
1
1
... 1
1
=
2
3
4
k
k+1
1
. We have:
k+1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
ST.2 1
?
1
1
1
... 1
1
=
1
=
,
2
3
4
k
k+1
k
k+1
k+1
=
k k+1 k+1
k+1
1 k+11 ? 1
=
k
k+1
k+1
1
k
1
?
=
k k+1
k+1
k
1
=
.
k(k + 1)
k+1
1
k
1 ? k
1
=
k+1
k+1
k + 1 ? k(k + 1)
=
(k + 1)
k+1
k+1
k + 1 1 = k.
1
k
()
1
1
=
.
13
21+1
1
1
1
1
k
+
+
+...+
=
.
13 35 57
(2k 1)(2k + 1)
2k + 1
1
1
1
1
STEP 3: Prove that () is true for n = k + 1, that is
+
+
+ ... +
+
13
35
57
(2k 1)(2k + 1)
1
k+1
?
=
. We have
(2(k + 1) 1)(2(k + 1) + 1)
2(k + 1) + 1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ ... +
+
13 35 57
(2k 1)(2k + 1) (2(k + 1) 1)(2(k + 1) + 1)
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ... +
+
13 35 57
(2k 1)(2k + 1) (2k + 2 1)(2k + 2 + 1)
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ... +
+
13 35 57
(2k 1)(2k + 1) (2k + 1)(2k + 3)
k
1
k+1
ST.2
?
=
+
=
,
2k + 1 (2k + 1)(2k + 3)
2(k + 1) + 1
k
1
? k+1
+
=
2k + 1 (2k + 1)(2k + 3)
2k + 3
k(2k + 3)
1
? k+1
+
=
(2k + 1)(2k + 3) (2k + 1)(2k + 3)
2k + 3
k(2k + 3) + 1 ? k + 1
=
(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
2k + 3
k(2k + 3) + 1 ?
=k+1
2k + 1
k(2k + 3) + 1 = (k + 1)(2k + 1)
2k 2 + 3k + 1 = 2k 2 + k + 2k + 1.
EXAMPLE 6: Prove that
1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + . . . + (n 1)n =
n(n 1)(n + 1)
3
()
2(2 1)(2 + 1)
.
3
k(k 1)(k + 1)
.
3
(k + 1)k(k + 2)
STEP 3: Prove that () is true for n = k +1, that is 12+23+34+. . .+(k 1)k +k(k +1) =
.
3
We have
STEP 2: Suppose () is true for some n = k 2, that is 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + . . . + (k 1)k =
ST.2
1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + . . . + (k 1)k + k(k + 1) =
k(k 1)(k + 1)
? (k + 1)k(k + 2)
+ k(k + 1) =
,
3
3
(k 2 k)(k + 1) + 3k 2 + 3k = (k 2 + k)(k + 2)
k 3 + k 2 k 2 k + 3k 2 + 3k = k 3 + 2k 2 + k 2 + 2k.
EXAMPLE 7: Prove that
2n < n!
()
STEP 3: Prove that () is true for n = k + 1, that is 2k+1 < (k + 1)!. We have
ST.2
2<k+1
1 < k.
EXAMPLE 8: Prove that
3n < n!
()
STEP 3: Prove that () is true for n = k + 1, that is 3k+1 < (k + 1)!. We have
ST.2
3<k+1
2 < k.
EXAMPLE 9: Prove that
3n 2n + 1
()
3(2k + 1) 2(k + 1) + 1
6k + 3 2k + 2 + 1
4k 0.
EXAMPLE 10: Prove that
2n+2 2n + 5
for any integer n 1.
Proof:
()
3(2k + 5) 2(k + 1) + 5
6k + 15 2k + 2 + 5
4k + 8 0.
n
X
m=1
V. (15 points)
Let U = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 10} and let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {1, 2, 4, 8}, C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}, and
D = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Determine each of the following:
(a) (A B) C
(b) C c Dc
(c) A (B C)
(d) (B C) D
(e) (A B) (C D)
(f) (A B) (C D)c
(g) (A B)c (C D)
(b) Suppose 6 integers are chosen from T. Must there be two integers whose sum is 24?
X. (10 points)
Use the definition of O-notation to show that 10x3 + 7x + 3 is O(x3 ).
1.
11: The argument is valid, since whenever the premises are both true, the con-
clusion is true:
p q
T
T
F
F
premises
conclusion
p q q
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
T
T
12:
(b) This argument is not valid, because there is a case where both premises
are true, but the conclusion is false:
p q
T
T
F
F
premises
conclusion
p q p
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
T
F
T
19: The truth table shows that whenever the premises are both true, the con-
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
premises
conclusion
pq qr
pr
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
T
T
T
*
*
*
where m stands for \I go to the movies", h stands for \I will nish my homework", and e stands for \I will do well on the exam tomorrow".
It is valid by the rule of hypothetical syllogism.
2.
is
an integer.
11:
30: a computer program P, such that P is correct and P doesn't compile without
error messages).
3.
(b) both statements are true. For the original statement, take x to be a nonnegative number, which is certainly bigger than any negative number. For the
statement in (a), for every x R, if x is negative one can take y = x 1, which
4.
4:
1 4
52
= 5( 2 4) .
1
pq
T
F
T
T
q
T
F
T
F
DEFINITION: Given statement variables p and q, the biconditional of p and q is p if, and
only if, q and is denoted p q. It is true if both p and q have the same truth values and is
false if p and q have opposite truth values.
p
T
T
F
F
pq
T
F
F
T
q
T
F
T
F
DEFINITION: An argument form is a sequence of statements. All statements but the final
one are called premises (or assumptions or hypotheses). The final statement is called the
conclusion.
EXAMPLE:
If the last digit of this number is a two, then this number is divisible by two.
The last digit of this number is a two.
Therefore this number is divisible by two.
1
EXAMPLE:
If the last digit of this number is even, then this number is divisible by two.
If this number is divisible by two, then the last digit of this number is even.
Therefore the last digit of this number is even or this number is divisible by two.
DEFINITION: To say that an argument form is valid means that no matter what particular
statements are substituted for the statement variables in the premises, if the resulting premises
are all true, then the conclusion is also true.
1.
2.
2: 39602/10000 = 19801/5000
15: Let m =
a
b
and n =
c
d
mn=
=
,
b d
bd bd
bd
(p q) p p
2.
(p q) (p q) p
3.
( p q) (p q) p
4.
p ( q p) p
5.
(p q) ( p q) q
6.
(p q) ( p q) c
7.
(p q) [ p (p q)] t
8.
[( p q) (p r)] ( p q) (p r)
9.
(r p) [( r (p q)) (r q)] p q
10. [( p q) ( p q)] (p q) p.
1.
a1
a0
an n
c + + c +
= 0,
bn
b1
b0
case.
2.
3.
2: 56 = 5 11 + 1.
18: Let m and m + 1 be the two consecutive integers. We have two cases:
Case 1: m even. Then m = 2k for some integer k, and m(m+1) = 2k(2k+1)
is even, by denition.
Case 2: m odd. Then m = 2k + 1 for some integer k, and m(m + 1) =
(2k + 1)(2k + 2) = 2(2k + 1)(k + 1), which is also even.
Therefore, m(m + 1) is even.
4.
c1
c2
b1
b2
a1
a2
c1 a2 c2 a1
c2 a2
b1
b2
b1
b2
, and c =
c1
c2
, with
b2 (c1 a2 c2 a1 )
,
b1 c2 a2
1 If
by
4;
and if
if
r = 2, then n + 2 is divisible
2. Derive the following set property from those given in the Theorem About Set Identities and
Theorem About Set Properties That Involve :
For all sets A and B we have (B A) (A B) = A.
9:
3 {1, 2, 3}
{3} {1, {2} , {3}}
{1} {1, 2}
{1} {1}
{x R
{x R
{x R
{x R
)
$
14:
)
:
:
:
:
!
%
1 * {1}
1 {1}
1 6 {{1} , 2}
2 x < 3}
x < 2 1 < x}
x < 2 3 x}
x 1 1 < x}
"#
%
"#
&'
{x R
{x R
{x R
{x R
{2} 6 {1, 2}
{2} * {1, {2} , {3}}
{1} {1, {2}}
:
:
:
:
1 < x 1}
x 1 3 x}
x 1 1 < x}
x < 2 3 x}
A (B C) = (A B) (A C) = {a, b, c} =
6
(A B) C = {b, c}
A (B C) = (A B) (A C) = {b, c}
6
=
(A B) C = {b, c, e}
(A B) C = {a}
6
=
A (B C) = {a, b, c}
15:
C
A (B C)
C
BC
C
AB
C
!
(A B)c
Ac
C
"#
Ac Bc
18:
A (B C) =
{(1, (u, m)), (1, (u, n)), (1, (v, m)), (1, (v, n)),
(2, (u, m)), (2, (u, n)), (2, (v, m)), (2, (v, n)),
(3, (u, m)), (3, (u, n)), (3, (v, m)), (3, (v, n))}
(A B) C) = {((1, u), m), ((1, u), n), ((1, v), m), ((1, v), n),
((2, u), m), ((2, u), n), ((2, v), m), ((2, v), n),
((3, u), m), ((3, u), n), ((3, v), m), ((3, v), n)}
ABC=
{(1, u, m), (1, u, n), (1, v, m), (1, v, n),
(2, u, m), (2, u, n), (2, v, m), (2, v, n),
(3, u, m), (3, u, n), (3, v, m), (3, v, n)}
)
*+
-,
2E
HG'IKJMLKN?OPQOSRT)UVP'RW?P
4: 0
B 6B A@:CD> >FA@
A B
. /21!1436587:9;<;=?> A A@
2f &gES&
2E
\G'IKJKL]N^O_P`OaRT!UbP'RW?P
"
@
=!@h=
A B B X Y[Z
x AB
x B X YdceC
&
8j
Ek%
& _
8j
9
@ =!@i x A =)B x B @ > x A i
@M> @
A B i x B @ > x B i
ES%
_lg l
& &mEk%
GmWnOoUpWnOqP#TsrJtOaRuT)Upv
@
6B C x B 7:= @
B > i x B
YaX
11: wBk9
)
.0/21!1436x
x (A B) (C B) x (A B) x (C B)
(x A x 6 B) (x C x 6 B)
(x A x C) x 6 B
x A C x 6 B
x (A C) B.
l )z{ $ p
"
= B A = {1} , B = {} , C = {}
)
12: y >
31: |~}
2"
B @
_
>
=w
=)B
_b+*+*?
(10)
(2)
(10)
(2)
(A B) C = (A Bc ) Cc = A (Bc Cc )
(A C) B = (A Cc ) Bc = A (Cc Bc ),
A@
ES%
E~
=6B
qn
9<
lu
C (1)
34: |~}
_"
B @
_
E
>
=w
=)B
b+*+*?
(10)
(2)
(A B) C = (A Bc ) Cc = A (Bc Cc )
(10)
(7)
A (B C) = A (B C)c = A (Bc Cc ).
36: |~}
2"
B @
_
>
=w
=)B
_b+*+*?
(10)
(9)
(5)
DEFINITION:
A predicate is a sentence that contains a
finite number of variables and becomes a
statement when specific values are substituted for the variables.
DEFINITION:
A predicate is a sentence that contains a
finite number of variables and becomes a
statement when specific values are substituted for the variables.
Example: n divides 8
DEFINITION:
A predicate is a sentence that contains a
finite number of variables and becomes a
statement when specific values are substituted for the variables.
Example: n divides 8
DEFINITION:
The domain D of a predicate variable is
the set of all values that may be substituted in place of the variable.
DEFINITION:
A predicate is a sentence that contains a
finite number of variables and becomes a
statement when specific values are substituted for the variables.
Example: n divides 8
DEFINITION:
The domain D of a predicate variable is
the set of all values that may be substituted in place of the variable.
The truth set is the set of all elements
of D that make a predicate true.
DEFINITION:
A predicate is a sentence that contains a
finite number of variables and becomes a
statement when specific values are substituted for the variables.
Example: n divides 8
DEFINITION:
The domain D of a predicate variable is
the set of all values that may be substituted in place of the variable.
The truth set is the set of all elements
of D that make a predicate true.
Example: Predicate: n divides 8
Domain : D = Z +
Truth set : {1, 2, 4, 8}
IMPORTANT:
A predicate is not a statement!
IMPORTANT:
A predicate is not a statement!
IMPORTANT:
A predicate is not a statement!
IMPORTANT:
A predicate is not a statement!
EXAMPLES OF QUANTIFIED
STATEMENTS:
EXAMPLES OF QUANTIFIED
STATEMENTS:
1. x R, x2 0. (T)
EXAMPLES OF QUANTIFIED
STATEMENTS:
1. x R, x2 0. (T)
2. x R | x2 < 0. (F)
EXAMPLES OF QUANTIFIED
STATEMENTS:
1. x R, x2 0. (T)
2. x R | x2 < 0. (F)
3. x R, if x > 2 then x2 > 4. (T)
EXAMPLES OF QUANTIFIED
STATEMENTS:
1. x R, x2 0. (T)
2. x R | x2 < 0. (F)
3. x R, if x > 2 then x2 > 4. (T)
4. x R | x > 2 and x2 4. (F)
NEGATION RULES
( x D, Q(x)) x D | Q(x)
( x D | Q(x)) x D, Q(x)
2. Suppose three members of a group of 9 insist on working together any team must either
contain all of them or neither. How many distinct 6-person teams can be formed?
6:
B
A
A
11:
A c
B
A
76876:9
?>@?>BA
)<; [.] ,=-/.10
"-2'="354
22: !#"%$&"%'("*) "+ (.) ,(-/.10
"-2'("*354
(7,5)
(10)
A (A B) = A (A Bc )c = A (Ac B)
(3)
[2]
[1]
= (A Ac ) (A B) = (A B) = (A B)
76876:9
?>@?>BA
)<; [.] ,=-/.10
"-2'="354
24: !#"%$&"%'("*) "+ (.) ,(-/.10
"-2'("*354
(10)
(3)
(A B) B = (A B) Bc = (A Bc ) (B Bc )
(10)
[2]
[1]
= (A B) (B Bc ) = (A B) = (A B)
76876:9
?>@?>BA
)<; [.] ,=-/.10
"-2'="354
27: !1"*$C"*'("*) "+ (.) ,(-/.10
"-2'("*354
(10)
z }| {
[2]
= = (A B) (A B)c =
35:
ED
"F+
9IH<H 9
OA ED
)
-G 4
" 'J+1,LKNM "
"
"F+
SR
9
38: Q
P "+
,T$&-VUWU-FKX+T$Y'(-V3 =, 0<"[Z]\
-2,=M"*)^,`_a1"3 M)<;"*'G.#0
"*-2'("3
9
D
"*U-V)cB+e,=-f-V)
" )<;g-V)<U V
- )<"-2$h,=0<"cdMWid"*)j+k"*,(+
lR
40: ;
)g,=0<"
-8-Vm
,=0
9
,G" b
0 M)B,("%cd"%'
68
npo
5:
A
9
H
D
A
H
L M { qr.r. , .rqr. , .r.rq } s '(MWUMt, 3/8 uMM { .rqXq , qr.rq , qNqr. , qNqNq } s '(- _
9
D
A
H 9
D
MUWMW, 4/8 = 1/2 uWM MM { .#.#. } s (' MUMt, 1/8
>@
nv
14: "
9^
26 10 9 8 = 18720
30:
6! = 720
5! = 120 3! = 6
9 9
9
9
9
9 9
9 9
9 9
9 9
33:
s
; s s w
; s ; s ; s
s
;ws s ;s ; s ; s
s
; s
w
s
9
9
9
9
9
w
; s ; s ; <
s ;
s<;
s ;
<
s ;
s ;
s ;
<
36: ;
39:
7 6 5 = 210
z }| {
= ((n + 1) (n 2)) n(n 1) = 3P(n, 2)
x
n
10:
5! + 5! = 240
9^
9
H
9
H
9
22:
b1000/2c = 500 '("]3y\
UW,=M UW"F+e-2$ 2 s b1000/9c = 111 '="z3y\
Ut,(M U"+1-2$ 9 s
) ;
9
H
AJ
H
b1000/18c = 55 '("{3y\
Ut,(M U"+N-2$ 18 uM " -2$ 2 |d}~ 9 .10
"*'="*$C-2'("Vs,=0
"{3y\
UW,=M WU "F+
9
-2$ 2 d 9 '=" 500 + 111 55 = 556
556/1000 = 139/250
1000 556 = 444
I. Rational Numbers:
1. Z, Q.
2. , Q, + Q.
3. , Q, Q.
4. , Q, Q.
5. , Q, / Q.
6. , Q, if 6= 0 then / Q.
7. , Q, Q.
8. Q, if Z+ then Q.
II. Inequalities:
c
a
< then:
b
d
a
a+c
c
<
< ;
b
b+d
d
at + c
c
a
<
< ;
b
bt + d
d
a
at + c
c
<
< , where t, > 0;
b
bt + d
d
a
at + c
c
<
< , where t, 6= 0;
b
bt + d
d
a
at1 + c1
c
<
< , where t1 , t2 , 1 , 2 > 0.
b
bt2 + d2
d
1. a, b, c, d R+ , if
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2. a, b, c R+ we have:
(a) a + b 2 ab.
1
(b) a + 2.
a
1
(c) a + 3.
a
a b
(d) + 2.
b a
1 1 1
(e) (a + b + c)
+ +
9.
a b c
(f) a2 + b2 + c2 ab + bc + ca.
(g) ab(a + b) + bc(b + c) + ac(a + c) 6abc.
a b c
+ + 3.
b c a
a
b
c
3
(j)
+
+
.
b+c c+a a+b
2
3
3
3
(k) a + b + c 3abc.
(h)
III. Divisibility:
a, b, c, k Z+ we have:
1. (3k + 1)(3k + 2)(3k + 3) is divisible by 3.
2. If n = 4k + 1, then 8 divides n2 1?
3. If a|b and a|c, then a|(b + c).
4. If a|b and b|a, then a = b or a = b
5. If a b 6= 0, then (a b)|(a2 b2 ).
6 . (a2 + a + 1)|(a3 1).
7 . (a + 1)|(ab + a + b + 1).
8 . (a2 + b2 + ab)|(a4 + a2 b2 + b4 ).
IV. Irrationality:
1. 2 6 Q.
2. 5 + 2 6 Q.
3 . 3 6 Q.
4 . 2 + 3 6 Q.
5 . log2 3 6 Q.
6 . 2 + 3 3 6 Q.
2. Let n and k be positive integers and suppose k n. Prove that
n
n
n+1
+
=
.
k1
k
k
14
7:
= 3432
7
"! 8 6
#$%! 14
& ''"!
8
=
1400
= 3424
4 3
7
7
( 14 12 = 2640
7
5
) 12
12
+
= 1584
5
7
10
10!
= 5!5!
13:
= 252
5
( 10 + 10 = 10 + 1 = 11
9
10
* 10 + 10 = 1 + 10 = 11
0
1
20:
(
8
1
6
6
8
2
6
5
8
3
6
4
= 1016
12!
= 9979200
2!2!1!3!2!1!1!
10!
= 75600
2!2!3!2!1!
9!
= 30240
1!1!1!3!2!1!
+,
'
>+@?A$BDC
'E1FGB * )
7: -/.
.10$243%57698;:
0'=< <
n+3
573 n H
(n + 3)
(n + 3)((n + 3) 1)
=
,
(n + 3) 2
2
3 (n + 3) 2
C *
FKB *
J3 57698@:
0
69: %3 576 n = r H
LE
BNMBDC *POQSR F r
M
?AC
* DB C @
(
* TAQUR F r+1 = 1
3J
0
=1
r
r+1
L BDC *
F/B *
V! M
BDC * W
E $BA
'FKB *
3J57698@:
0
69: 3%576 n = k k r
6D: 3J576 n = k + 1 H
3
16: I
X
k
k+2
k+1
k+1
i
k+1
,
=
+
=
+
=
r
+
1
r
+
1
r
r
r
r
i=r
i=r
?AC * * BDC * F *X( E ) *Y
$B 'FBDC * $E ) ( BD E4C
B9C FD'FNM E ) BDC *
FGB E * F
6
5
:1Z0 2
:
5
2,.5 *
0'
5
[ F (
F
^?A$BDC
$E
M E )
$E
!V
_
(
*
_
(
*
k+1
r+1
Z0]\ 3%57698;:
0'
.10'
573 n
.10'
573 r
k+1
X
i
`a
b
8: 27 33
10
3
= 414720
c
db
Pe PfKhg
E *i(
2:
5
5
) q * * ErB ) * E
13
6
5 8
j
Ss * FNM BDC * [ g
2
E BD E1FN
5
4:
8:
) F * *X( B
) C m *
B9C =
gl$m * EnF $ BNMo?AC
( Cp?
* ( k6 ) F 7
5 :
0
j
0
Z 0'0
5 3
:
5j:
0
$E BD EF_
5
) q * * EwB ) * E
M Fu'E (N* BDC *
t
E
x
* 5 E
C 5j0 * [ 6 'E ( 1
. 0*
2vZ6 * 5 0 2 13
6
5j8
) $q * * ErB
s * F_MtFu'E N( * B9C *
E
FDFD BD * F
DB C ;
* z 6 FuB E )
2yk6 * 5 02 26 26 = 676
6
. 5
o
0
%3 576
FGB{'E
$BD F
F p
E F9F
'Eg}BDC * E
F
$ E~BDC *
DB 'E
C B !V
0'
Z0 7
5 3|@. * 6 5
:
8
8 * k 6 *
0
Z$0 . *
e
5
&fKhg
( C
F
5,5 * {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
16: 81
E !
5 *
18: 16
) DB C *
'EyBDC * ?
FGB ( F * M
m
E Eax ) $m,Fu *
M E ) E DB C *
80 5
576
2l5j:\ * . (9j*
0
2 5
5
6
) $ q * * EwB *
) ma'FD E
M
FD$E (N* DB C *
'E ) * F
2 k6 * 15
~
6
6 8
6 3J576
5
2 15
B $E M,Fu'E _( *
'F
28: * 6 02
366 4 = 1464
9B C )
B
FGB
F E1FNM,BDC *
6
N
2 573| 8}5
4. * 6 5
)
F9F|BDC E
m
9B C * *
?
0*
2000 3 * * u6 2 _2=573
2 k6 * 6 *
) * B
FuB
F
E FV!V
6 *( 5j:
0
}
8 5
1464 . * 6 5
I. RATIONAL NUMBERS
1. Z, Q. (TRUE)
Proof. We have
.
1
Therefore, since Z, 1 Z, and 1 6= 0, by the definition of rational numbers
we get Q.
=
2. , Q, + Q. (TRUE)
Proof. We have
=
hence
+ =
p1
,
q1
p2
,
q2
p1 p2
p 1 q2 + p 2 q1
+
=
.
q1
q2
q1 q2
p1
,
q1
p2
,
q2
p 1 q2 p 2 q 1
p1 p2
=
.
q1
q2
q1 q2
p1
,
q1
p1 p2
.
q1 q2
=
hence
p2
,
q2
5. , Q, / Q. (FALSE)
Counter-Example. Put
= 1,
= 0.
6. , Q, if 6= 0 then / Q. (TRUE)
Proof. We have
p1
,
q1
/ =
p 1 q2
.
q1 p 2
=
hence
p2
,
q2
= 1/2,
hence
= 21/2 =
2.
On theone hand, 2 and 1/2 are both rational numbers. On the other
hand, 2 is irrational (see below). This is a contradiction.
8. Q, if Z+ then Q. (TRUE)
Proof. We have
=
hence
=
p1
,
q1
Z+ ,
p1
p1
p
...
= 1 .
q
q
| 1 {z 1} q1
times
II. INEQUALITIES
1. a, b, c, d R+ , if
<
then:
b
d
a+c
c
a
(a)
<
< ; (TRUE)
b
b+d
d
Proof 1. We have
a
c
< .
b
d
Multiplying both sides of () by bd (note, that bd is positive), we get
ad < bc.
()
()
If we divide both sides of the last inequality by d(b + d) (note, that d(b + d) is positive),
we get
a+c
c
< .
()
b+d
d
It is clear, that () and () give the desired result.
Proof 3 (Correct Students Version Of Proof 1). We have
()
a
a + c divide by b(b+d)
factor a
+ab
<
a(b + d) < b(a + c) ab + ad < ab + bc ad < bc.
factor b
b(b+d)>0
b
b+d
The last inequality follows from
a
c
< .
b
d
Similarly,
()
a+c
c divide by d(b+d)
factor c
+cd
< d(a + c) < c(b + d) ad + cd < bc + cd ad < bc.
factor d
d(b+d)>0
b+d
d
The last inequality follows from
a
c
< .
b
d
It is clear, that () and () give the desired result.
Proof 4 (Incorrect Students Version Of Proof 1). We have
a
a + c multiply by b(b+d)
expand
ab
<
a(b + d) < b(a + c) ab + ad < ab + bc ad < bc...
b(b+d)>0
b
b+d
(b)
a
b
<
at + c
bt + d
<
c
d
a
at + c divide by b(bt+d)
factor a
+abt
<
a(bt + d) < b(at + c) abt + ad < abt + bc ad < bc.
factor b
b(bt+d)>0
b
bt + d
The last inequality follows from
a
c
< .
b
d
Similarly,
()
at + c
c divide by d(bt+d)
factor c
+cd
< d(at + c) < c(bt + d) adt + cd < bct + cd adt < bct.
factor d
d(bt+d)>0
bt + d
d
The last inequality follows from
a
c
< .
b
d
It is clear, that () and () give the desired result.
(c)
a
b
<
at + c
<
bt + d
c
d
c
a
< .
b
d
Similarly,
()
c divide by d(bt+d)
at + c
+cd
factor c
< d(at+c) < c(bt+d) adt+cd < bct+cd adt < bct.
factor d
d(bt+d)>0
bt + d
d
The last inequality follows from
a
c
< .
b
d
It is clear, that () and () give the desired result.
(d)
<
at + c
b
bt + d
Counter-Example. Put
<
c
d
, where t, 6= 0; (FALSE)
a = 1, b = 2, c = 1, d = 1, t = 1, = 1.
On the one hand,
a
1
1
c
= < = .
b
2
1
d
On the other hand,
1 1 + 1 (1)
1
1
6<
< .
2
2 1 + 1 (1)
1
(e)
<
at1 + c1
b
bt2 + d2
Counter-Example. Put
<
c
d
a = 1, b = 2, c = 1, d = 1, t1 = t2 = 1, 1 = 1, 1 = 3.
On the one hand,
a
1
1
c
= < = .
b
2
1
d
On the other hand,
1
11+11
1
6<
< .
2
21+13
1
2. a, b, c R+ we have
root
factor
+4ab
a + b 2 ab (a + b)2 4ab a2 + 2ab + b2 4ab a2 2ab + b2 0.
all
>0
a, b R+ | a + b < 2 ab.
We have
square
expand
4ab
a + b < 2 ab (a + b)2 < 4ab a2 + 2ab + b2 < 4ab a2 2ab + b2 < 0.
all
>0
(b) a +
1
a
2. (TRUE)
1
< 2.
a
We have
1
a2 + 1
a
< 2
< 2 a2 + 1 < 2a a2 2a + 1 < 0.
a>0
a
a
We obtain a contradiction, since the last inequality is false. In fact,
a+
a2 2a + 1 = (a 1)2 ,
which is always nonnegative.
1
3. (FALSE)
a
Counter-Example. Put a = 1, then
(c) a +
1+
1
= 2 < 3.
1
6
(d)
a
b
b
a
2. (TRUE)
a
Proof. Put x = , then
b
a b
1
+ =x+ ,
b a
x
which is 2 by (b).
+ +
9. (TRUE)
a
b
c
Proof. Expanding parentheses, we obtain
1 1 1
a a a b b b c c c
(a + b + c)
+ +
= + + + + + + + +
a b c
a b
c a b c a b c
(e) (a + b + c)
a a b
b c c
+ + +1+ + + +1
b
c a
c a b
a b
b c
c a
=3+
+
+
+
+
+
.
b a
c b
a c
=1+
1 1 1
+ +
a b c
3 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 9.
(f ) a2 + b2 + c2 ab + bc + ca. (TRUE)
Proof. By (a) we have
x, y R+ , x2 + y 2 2xy,
therefore
a2 + b2 2ab,
b2 + c2 2bc,
c2 + a2 2ca.
()
(i)
3. (TRUE)
b
c
a
Proof. It follows from (h) that
+
x, y, z R+ , x + y + z 3 3 xyz.
Put
a
x= ,
b
b
y= ,
c
()
c
z= .
a
(j)
b+c
Proof. Put
b
c+a
c
a+b
x = b + c,
3
2
. (TRUE)
y = c + a,
z = a + b.
()
2b = x + z y,
8
2c = x + y z.
()
By () and () we have
2a
2b
2c
+
+
b+c c+a a+b
y+zx x+zy x+yz
=
+
+
x
y
z
y z x x z y x y z
= + + + + +
x x x y y y z z z
y z
x z
x y
= + 1+ + 1+ + 1
x x
y y
z z
y x
z y
z x
=
+
+
+
+
+
3,
x y
x z
y z
which is
2+2+23=3
by (d). So,
2a
2b
2c
+
+
3,
b+c c+a a+b
and the result folows.
III. DIVISIBILITY
a, b, c, k Z+ we have:
1. (3k + 1)(3k + 2)(3k + 3) is divisible by 3.
2. If n = 4k + 1, then 8 divides n2 1.
3. If a|b and a|c, then a|(b + c).
4. Let a, b Z, a 6= 0, b 6= 0. If a|b and b|a, then a = b or a = b.
5. If a b 6= 0, then (a b)|(a2 b2 ).
6 . (a2 + a + 1)|(a3 1).
7 . (a + 1)|(ab + a + b + 1).
8 . (a2 + b2 + ab)|(a4 + a2 b2 + b4 ).
9 . 3 6 | k2 2.
10 . 4 6 | k2 3.
11 . 4 6 | a2 + b2 3.
12 . 8k + 7 6= a2 + b2 + c2 .
IV. IRRATIONALITY
1.
2 6 Q.
2. 5 +
3 .
4 .
2 6 Q.
3 6 Q.
2+
3 6 Q.
5 . log2 3 6 Q.
6 .
2+
3 6 Q.
10
V. EXTRA INEQUALITIES
a, b, c R+ we have:
1.
3
a+b+c
<
1
a+b
1
b+c
1
c+a
2 . a2 (1 + b2 ) + b2 (1 + c2 ) + c2 (1 + a2 ) 6abc.
3 . a2 b2 + b2 c2 + c2 a2 abc(a + b + c).
4 . If a + b 1, then a4 + b4 1/8.
11
2. Use the definition of O-notation to show that 5x9 20x5 + 2x3 x + 15 is O(x9 ).
III. DIVISIBILITY
DEFINITION: If n, d Z and d 6= 0, then n is divisible by d if, and only if, n = d k
for some k Z.
NOTATION: d | n means n is divisible by d or d divides n.
1. k Z+ , (3k + 1)(3k + 2)(3k + 3) is divisible by 3. (TRUE)
Proof. We have
(3k + 1)(3k + 2)(3k + 3) = 3(3k + 1)(3k + 2)(k + 1).
()
Since k Z, it follows that (3k + 1)(3k + 2)(k + 1) Z. This, () and the definition
above give the desired result.
2. k Z+ , if n = 4k + 1, then 8 divides n2 1. (TRUE)
Proof. We have
n2 1 = (4k + 1)2 1 = 16k 2 + 8k + 1 1 = 16k 2 + 8k = 8(2k 2 + k).
()
c = a k2
()
a = bk2
()
()
()
()
()
()
where 0 r < d.
9 . k Z, 3 6 | k2 2. (TRUE)
Proof (Indirect). Suppose, contrary to our claim, that
k Z | 3 divides k 2 2.
By the definition above we have
k 2 2 = 3m
()
for some m Z. On the other hand, by the theorem above we have only three possibilities:
k = 3q,
k = 3q + 1,
or k = 3q + 2,
or
k 2 = (3q + 2)2 = 9q 2 + 12q + 4 = 9q 2 + 12q + 3 + 1 = 3(3q 2 + 4q + 1) + 1 = 3r + 1,
|
{z
}
r
()
for some m Z. On the other hand, by the theorem above we have only two possibilities:
k = 2q
or k = 2q + 1,
()
where r Z, for q Z. From this it follows that for a2 + b2 3 we have only three
possibilities:
a2 + b2 3 = 4r1 + 4r2 3 = 4(r1 + r2 ) 3 = 4R 3,
| {z }
R
or
a2 + b2 3 = 4r1 + 4r2 + 2 3 = 4(r1 + r2 ) 1 = 4R 1,
| {z }
R
()
On the other hand, by the theorem above for any k Z we have only eight possibilities:
k = 8q,
k = 8q + 1, . . . , k = 8q + 6,
or k = 8q + 7,
where q Z. From this one can deduce that for k 2 we have only three possibilities:
k 2 = 8r,
k 2 = 8r + 1,
or k 2 = 8r + 4,
2. For each of the following graphs, determine whether there is an Euler path from u to w. If
there is, find such a path.
and (b) B A B.
and B C,
then A C.
Proof:
1(a). Suppose A and B are any sets and suppose x is any element of A B. Then x A
and x B by definition of intersection. So, x A.
1(b). Suppose
and
are any sets and suppose
and
by definition of intersection. So,
.
is any element of
. Then
2(a). Suppose
by definition of
and
is any element of
. Then
2(b). Suppose
by definition of
and
is any element of
. Then
3. Suppose A, B, and C are any sets and suppose A B and B C. To show that A C,
we must show that every element in A is in C. To this end we note that if x A, then
x B (because A B) and therefore x C (because B C). Hence A C.
EXAMPLES:
1. Prove that for all sets A and B,
A B A.
Proof:
Suppose
and
are any sets and suppose
by definition of
. So,
.
is any element of
. Then
and
EXERCISE SET:
For all sets A, B, and C,
1. (A B) (A B) = A.
2. (A B) C = (A C) (B C).
3. (A B) (C A) = A (B C).
4. (A B) (B C) = A B.
5. (A B) (B A) = (A B) (A B).
6. [(Ac B c ) A]c = A.
and (b) B A B.
and B C,
then A C.
Proof:
1(a). Suppose A and B are any sets and suppose x is any element of A B. Then x A
and x B by definition of intersection. So, x A.
1(b). Suppose A and B are any sets and suppose x is any element of A B. Then x A
and x B by definition of intersection. So, x B.
2(a). Suppose A and B are any sets and suppose x is any element of A. Then x A B
by definition of union.
2(b). Suppose A and B are any sets and suppose x is any element of B. Then x A B
by definition of union.
3. Suppose A, B, and C are any sets and suppose A B and B C. To show that A C,
we must show that every element in A is in C. To this end we note that if x A, then
x B (because A B) and therefore x C (because B C). Hence A C.
SOLUTIONS
1. (A B) (A B) = A.
Solution. We have:
(10)
(A B) (A B) = (A B c ) (A B)
(3)
= A (B c B)
def.
= AU
(4)
= A.
2. (A B) C = (A C) (B C).
Solution. We have:
(1)
(A B) C = C (A B)
(3)
= (C A) (C B)
(1)
= (A C) (B C).
3. (A B) (C A) = A (B C).
Solution. We have:
(10)
(A B) (C A) = (A B) (C Ac )
(10)
= (A B) (C Ac )c
(7)
= (A B) (C c (Ac )c )
(5)
= (A B) (C c A)
(1)
= (A B) (A C c )
(3)
= A (B C c )
(10)
= A (B C).
4. (A B) (B C) = A B.
Solution. We have:
(10)
(A B) (B C) = (A B c ) (B C c )
(10)
= (A B c ) (B C c )c
(2)
= A [B c (B C c )c ]
(7)
= A [B (B C c )]c
(9)
= A Bc
(10)
= A B.
1
5. (A B) (B A) = (A B) (A B).
Solution. We have:
(10)
(A B) (B A) = (A B c ) (B Ac )
(3)
= [(A B c ) B] [(A B c ) Ac ]
(1)
= [B (A B c )] [Ac (A B c )]
(3)
def.
= [(B A) U ] [U (Ac B c )]
(1)
= [(B A) U ] [(Ac B c ) U ]
(4)
= (B A) (Ac B c )
(7)
= (B A) (A B)c
(1)
= (A B) (A B)c
(10)
= (A B) (A B).
6. [(Ac B c ) A]c = A.
Solution. We have:
(7)
= [(A B)c Ac ]c
(7)
(5)
= (A B) A
(1)
= A (A B)
(9)
= A.
EXERCISES:
1. We toss three coins.
(a) Write the sample space of possible outcomes.
(b) What is the probability that 0 heads are obtained?
(c) What is the probability that 1 head is obtained?
(d) What is the probability that 2 heads are obtained?
(e) What is the probability that 3 heads are obtained?
2. We toss a die.
(a) Write the sample space of possible outcomes.
(b) What is the probability that the number showing face up is 1?
(c) What is the probability that the number showing face up is even?
(d) What is the probability that the number showing face up is prime?
3. We toss two dice.
(a) How many possible outcomes are there?
(b) What is the probability that the numbers showing face up are equal?
(c) What is the probability that the numbers showing face up have a sum 6?
(d) What is the probability that the numbers showing face up are different?
NOTATION: For any finite set, n(A) denotes the number of elements in A.
EXAMPLES:
1. A code word consists of from one to three letters chosen from the 26 in the alphabet with
repetitions allowed. How many different code words are possible?
Solution: By Theorem 1, the total number of code words equals the
number of code words of length 1 (which = 26)
+
number of code words of length 2 (which = 262 )
+
number of code words of length 3 (which = 263 ).
Hence, the total number of code words
= 26 + 262 + 263 = 18, 278.
2. How many integers from 1 through 999 do not have any repeated digits?
Solution: By Theorem 1, the number of integers from 1 through 999 with no repeated digits
equals the
number of integers from 1 through 9 with no repeated digits (which = 9)
+
number of integers from 10 through 99 with no repeated digits (which = 9 9)
+
number of integers from 100 through 999 with no repeated digits (which = 9 9 8).
Hence, the total number of integers from 1 through 999 with no repeated digits
= 9 + 9 9 + 9 9 8 = 738.
3. How many integers from 1 through 999 have at least one repeated digit?
Solution: By Theorem 2, the number of integers from 1 through 999 with at least one
repeated digit equals the
total number integers from 1 through 999 (which = 999)
number of integers from 1 through 999 with no repeated digits (which = 738).
Hence, the total number of integers from 1 through 999 with at least one repeated digit
= 999 738 = 261.
EXERCISES:
1. How many arrangements of no more that three letters can be formed using the letters
of the word N ET W ORK with
(a) repetitions allowed?
(b) no repetitions allowed?
2. (a) How many ways can the letters of the word QU ICK be arranged in a row if the Q
and the U must remain next to each other in the order QU ?
(b) How many ways can the letters of the word QU ICK be arranged in a row if the
letters QU must remain together but may be in either the order order QU or the
order U Q?
3. A group of eight people are attending the movies together.
(a) Two of the eight insist on sitting together. In how many ways can the eight be seated
in a row?
(b) Two of the people do not like each other and do not want to sit side-by-side. Now
how many ways can the eight be seated in a row?
4. (a) Assuming that any ten digits can be used to form a telephone number, how many
seven-digit telephone numbers do not have any repeated digits?
(b) How many seven-digit telephone numbers have at least one repeated digit?
(c) What is the probability that a randomly chosen seven-digit telephone number has
at least one repeated digit?
5. How many integers from 1 through 100,000 contain the digit 3 exactly once?
6. How many integers from 1 through 1,000 are multiples of 4 or multiples of 7?
7 . Suppose a public opinion polltaker reports that out of a national sample of 1,200 adults
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
DEFINITION 2:
n
The symbol
, read n choose r, denotes the number of r-combinations that can be
r
chosen from a set of n elements.
4
= 1.
4
EXAMPLE 3: We have
4!
4!
4
=
=
2
2! (4 2)!
2! 2!
4
4!
4!
=
=
3
3! (4 3)!
3! 1!
4
4!
4!
=
=
4
4! (4 4)!
4! 0!
8!
8
8!
=
=
5
5! (8 5)!
5! 3!
1234
34
=
= 6,
(1 2) (1 2)
12
1234
4
= = 4,
(1 2 3) 1
1
1234
1
= = 1,
(1 2 3 4) 1
1
12345678
678
78
=
=
= 56.
(1 2 3 4 5) (1 2 3)
123
1
PROBLEMS:
1. Suppose 5 members of a group of 12 are to be chosen to work as a team on a special
project. How many distinct 5-person teams can be formed?
2. Suppose two members of the group of 12 insist on working as a pair any team must
either contain both or neither. How many distinct 5-person teams can be formed?
3. Suppose two members of the group of 12 refuse to work together on a team. How many
distinct 5-person teams can be formed?
4. Suppose the group of 12 consists of 5 men and 7 women.
(a) How many 5-person teams can be chosen that consist of 3 men and 2 women?
(b) How many 5-person teams contain at least one man?
(c) How many 5-person teams contain at most one man?
5. Consider various ways of ordering the letters in the word MISSISSIPPI:
IIMSSPISSIP, ISSSPMIIPIS, PIMISSSSIIP,
How many distinguishable orderings are there?
and so on.
SOLUTIONS:
1. Suppose 5 members of a group of 12 are to be chosen to work as a team on a special
project. How many distinct 5-person teams can be formed?
Solution: The number of distinct 5-person teams is the same as the number of subsets of
size 5 (or 5-combinations) that can be chosen from the set of 12. This number is
12
12!
12!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
=
=
=
5
5! (12 5)!
5! 7!
(1 2 3 4 5) (1 2 3 4 5 6 7)
=
8 9 10 11 12
9 10 11 12
=
= 3 2 11 12 = 792.
12345
135
2. Suppose two members of the group of 12 insist on working as a pair any team must
either contain both or neither. How many distinct 5-person teams can be formed?
Solution: Call the two members of the group that insist on working as a pair A and B.
Then any team formed must contain both A and B or neither A nor B. By Theorem 1 (The
Addition Rule) we have:
3. Suppose two members of the group of 12 refuse to work together on a team. How many
distinct 5-person teams can be formed?
Solution: Call the two members of the group that refuse to work together A and B. By
Theorem 2 (The Difference Rule) we have:
that contain
=
that dont contain
5-person teams
both A and B
both A and B
12
10
=
= 210.
3
2
contain 3 men and 2 women
.
with at least one man
of 5-person teams
that do not contain any men
and so on.
= 34, 650.
4
4
2
position all the letters
EXERCISE SET:
1. For all integers n 2 we have
n
n(n 1)
=
.
2
n2
=2
.
k
k
k1
k
k1
5 . For all integers n 1 we have
2
3
n+1
n+2
+
+ ... +
=
.
2
2
2
3
6 . Are there integer numbers n, k such that
n
n
= 1001,
= 2002,
k
k+1
n
= 3003?
k+2
EXERCISE SET:
1 . For all integers n 1 we have
n
n
n
n n
+
. . . + (1)
= 0.
0
1
2
n
2 . Let n 0 be an integer number. Find
n
n
n
+
+
+ ...
0
2
4
3 . Let n 1 be an integer number. Find
n
n
n
+
+
+ ...
1
3
5
4 . For all integers n 0 we have
n
n
2 n
n n
+2
+2
+ ... + 2
= 3n .
0
1
2
n
5 . For all integers n 0 we have
2
2 2 2
n
2n
n
n
n
=
.
+
+ ... +
+
n
n
1
2
0
(x+1)0 = 1
(x+1)1 = x+1
(x+1)2 = x2 +2x+1
(x+1)3 = x3 +3x2 +3x+1
(x+1)4 = x4 +4x3 +6x2 +4x+1
(x+1)5 = x5 +5x4 +10x3 +10x2 +5x+1
(x+1)6 = x6 +6x5 +15x4 +20x3 +15x2 +6x+1
(x+1)7 = x7 +7x6 +21x5 +35x4 +35x3 +21x2 +7x+1
(x+1)8 = x8 +8x7 +28x6 +56x5 +70x4 +56x3 +28x2 +8x+1
(x+1)9 = x9 +9x8 +36x7 +84x6 +126x5 +126x4 +84x3 +36x2 +9x+1
(x+1)0 = 1
(x+1)1 = x+1
(x+1)2 = x2 +2x+1
(x+1)3 = x3 +3x2 +3x+1
(x+1)4 = x4 +4x3 +6x2 +4x+1
(x+1)5 = x5 +5x4 +10x3 +10x2 +5x+1
(x+1)6 = x6 +6x5 +15x4 +20x3 +15x2 +6x+1
(x+1)7 = x7 +7x6 +21x5 +35x4 +35x3 +21x2 +7x+1
(x+1)8 = x8 +8x7 +28x6 +56x5 +70x4 +56x3 +28x2 +8x+1
(x+1)9 = x9 +9x8 +36x7 +84x6 +126x5 +126x4 +84x3 +36x2 +9x+1
(x+1)10 = x10 +10x9 +45x8 +120x7 +210x6 +252x5 +210x4 +120x3 +45x2 +10x+1
(x+1)11 = x11 +11x10 +55x9 +165x8 +330x7 +462x6 +462x5 +330x4 +165x3 +55x2 +11x+1
(x+1)12 = x12 +12x11 +66x10 +220x9 +495x8 +792x7 +924x6 +792x5 +495x4 +220x3 +66x2 +12x+1
(x+1)13 = x13 +13x12 +78x11 +286x10 +715x9 +1287x8 +1716x7 +1716x6 +1287x5 +715x4 +286x3 +78x2 +13x+1
(x+1)14 = x14 +14x13 +91x12 +364x11 +1001x10 +2002x9 +3003x8 +3432x7 +3003x6 +2002x5 +1001x4 +364x3 +91x2 +14x+1
(x+1)15 = x15 +15x14 +105x13 +455x12 +1365x11 +3003x10 +5005x9 +6435x8 +6435x7 +5005x6 +3003x5 +1365x4 +455x3 +105x2 +15x+1
(x+1)16 = x16 +16x15 +120x14 +560x13 +1820x12 +4368x11 +8008x10 +11440x9 +12870x8 +11440x7 +8008x6 +4368x5 +1820x4 +560x3 +120x2 +16x+1
(x+1)17 = x17 +17x16 +136x15 +680x14 +2380x13 +6188x12 +12376x11 +19448x10 +24310x9 +24310x8 +19448x7 +12376x6 +6188x5 +2380x4 +680x3 +136x2 +17x+1
(x+1)18 = x18 +18x17 +153x16 +816x15 +3060x14 +8568x13 +18564x12 +31824x11 +43758x10 +48620x9 +43758x8 +31824x7 +18564x6 +8568x5 +3060x4 +816x3 +153x2 +18x+1
PRINCIPLE:
If we put N + 1 or more pigeons into N pigeon holes, then at least one pigeon hole will
contain two or more pigeons.
FIRST SIMPLE EXAMPLES:
1. Among any group of 367 people, there must be at least two with the same birthday, because
there are only 366 possible birthdays.
2. Among a group of 11 people in the elevator of a 10 story building, there must be at least
two who will exit the elevator on the same floor.
3. One million trees grow in a forest. It is known that no tree has more than 600,000 leaves.
Show that at any moment there are at least two trees in the forest that have exactly the
same number of leaves.
Solution: Trees are pigeons and numbers of their leaves are pigeon holes. As there are more
pigeons than pigeon holes, there will be a pigeon hole with more than one pigeon
in it.
FURTHER EXAMPLES:
1. 12 students wrote a dictation. John Smart made 10 errors, each of the other students
made less than that number. Prove that at least two students made equal number of
errors.
Solution: Let us pretend that the students are pigeons and put them in 11 holes numbered
0, 1, 2, ... , 10, according to the number of errors made. In hole 0 we put those
students who made no errors, in hole 1 those who made exactly 1 error, in hole 2
those who made 2 errors, and so on. Certainly, hole 10 is occupied solely by John
Smart. Now apply the Pigeonhole Principle.
2. How many cards must be selected from a standard deck of 52 cards to ensure that we get
at least 3 cards of the same suit?
Solution: Since there are 4 suits, if we only select 8 cards then it is possible that we get 2
cards of each suit. So 8 is not enough to guarantee at least 3 cards of the same
suit. However, if we select 9 cards then the Pigeonhole Principle tells us that we
will get at least 9/4 = 3 cards of the same suit. So 9 is the least we can select to
guarantee at least 3 cards of the same suit.
3. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Prove that if five integers are selected from A, then at least
one pair of integers have a sum of 9.
Solution: Partition the set A into 4 subsets:
{1, 8},
{2, 7},
{3, 6},
each consisting of two integers whose sum is 9. If 5 integers are selected from A,
then by the Pigeonhole Principle at least two must be from the same subset. But
then the sum of these two integers is 9.
4. A plane is colored blue and red. Is it always possible to find two points of the same color
exactly 1 inch apart?
Solution: Think of an equilateral triangle with each side exactly 1 inch long. At least two
of its vertices have to be of the same color (colors are pigeon holes, and vertices
of the triangle are pigeons). This proves that there have to be two points of the
same color exactly 1 inch apart.
5. 51 points were placed, in an arbitrary way, into the square of side 1. Prove that some 3
of these points can be covered by a circle of radius 1/7 .
Solution: Divide the square into 25 smaller squares of side 1/5 each. Then at least one of
these small squares - holes- would contain at least three pigeons - points. Indeed,
if this is not true, then every small square contains 2 points or less; but the the
total number of points is no more that 2 25 = 50. This contradicts to the assumption that we have 51 points.
Now the circle circumvented around the square with the three points inside also
contains these three points and has radius
s
r
r
2 r
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
r=
+
=
=
<
= .
10
10
100
50
49
7
PROBLEMS:
1. Population of Greater Manchester is above 6,000,000 people, and each has no more than
100,000 hairs on his or her head. Prove that some 60 residents of Greater Manchester
have equal number of hairs.
2. There are 30 classes and 1000 students in the school. Prove that at least one class has
at least 34 students.
3. A group of 25 students wrote a dictation. John Smart made 10 errors, and each of the
2
rest made less than 10 errors. Prove that at least 3 students made equal number of errors.
4. Prove that, given any 12 natural numbers, we can chose two of them and such that their
difference is divisible by 11.
5 . 5 points are positioned inside of the equilateral triangle of side 2. Prove that there are
two of them at the distance less than 1 from each other.
6 . Prove that of any 52 natural numbers one can find two numbers m and n such that
either their sum m + n or their difference m n is divisible by 100. Is the same
statement true for 51 arbitrary natural numbers?
7 . Prove that some integral power of 2 has the decimal expansion which starts with the
digits 1999:
2n = 1999...
3. A group of 25 students wrote a dictation. John Smart made 10 errors, and each of the
rest made less than 10 errors. Prove that at least 3 students made equal number of errors.
Solution: Assume that no three students made equal number of errors. It means that each
of 10 holes 0, 1, 2, 3, ... , 9 contains less than three students. Therefore all these
holes together contain less than 10 2 = 20 students. Add John Smart to this
number, and we get only 21 students, not 25 as given in the problem. We reached
a contradiction.
4. Prove that, given any 12 natural numbers, we can chose two of them and such that their
difference is divisible by 11.
Solution: There are 11 possible remainders upon division by 11:
0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 10.
But we have 12 numbers. if we take the remainders for holes and the numbers
for pigeons then by the Pigeonhole Principle there are at least two pigeons sharing
the same hole, i.e. two numbers with the same remainder. The difference of these
two numbers is divisible by 11.
(a) Write the vertex set and the edge set, and give a table showing the edge-endpoint function;
(b) Find all that are incident on v1 , all vertices that are adjacent to v1 , all edges that are
adjacent to e1 , all loops, all edges, all vertices that are adjacent to themselves, all isolated
vertices.
Solution:
(a) We have: vertex set = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 }
edge set = {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 , e5 , e6 , e7 }
edge-endpoint function :
Edges
e1
e2
e3
e4
e5
e6
e7
Endpoints
{v1 , v2 }
{v1 , v3 }
{v1 , v3 }
{v2 , v3 }
{v5 , v6 }
{v5 }
{v6 }
(b) We have:
, and
and
are incident on v1 .
are adjacent to v1 .
, and
are adjacent to e1 .
and
are loops.
and
are parallel.
and
is an isolated vertex.
DEFINITION 2:
A simple graph is a graph that does not have any loops or parallel edges. In a simple graph,
an edge with endpoints v and w is denoted {v, w}.
EXAMPLE:
Draw all simple graphs with the four vertices {u, v, w, x} and two edges, one of which is {u, v}.
Solution:
There are 5 such graphs:
DEFINITION 3:
A complete graph on n vertices, denoted Kn , is a simple graph with n vertices v1 , v2 , . . . , vn
whose set of edges contains exactly one edge for each pair of distinct vertices.
EXAMPLE:
Draw the complete graphs K2 , K3 , K4 , and K5 .
Solution:
DEFINITION 4:
A complete bipartite graph on (m, n) vertices, denoted Km,n , is a simple graph with
vertices v1 , v2 , . . . , vm and w1 , w2 , . . . , wn that satisfies the following properties:
for all i, k = 1, 2, . . . , m and all j, l = 1, 2, . . . , n,
1. There is an edge from each vertex vi to each vertex wj ;
2. There is not an edge from any vertex vi to any other vertex vk ;
3. There is not an edge from any vertex wj to any other vertex wl .
EXAMPLE:
Draw the bipartite graphs K3,2 and K3,3 .
Solution:
DEFINITION 5:
A graph H is said to be a subgraph of a graph G if, and only if, every vertex in H is also a
vertex in G, every edge in H is also an edge in G, and every edge in H has the same endpoints
as in G.
EXAMPLE:
List all nonempty subgraphs of the graph G with vertex set {v1 , v2 } and edge set {e1 , e2 , e3 },
where the endpoints of e1 are v1 and v2 , the endpoints of e2 are v1 and v2 , and e3 is a loop at
v1 .
Solution:
We first draw the graph:
DEFINITION 6:
Let G be a graph and v a vertex of G. The degree of v, denoted deg(v), equals the number
of edges that are incident on v, with an edge that is a loop counted twice. The total degree
of G is the sum of the degrees of all the vertices of G.
EXAMPLE:
Find the degree of each vertex of the graph G shown below. Then find the total degree of G.
Solution:
THEOREM:
If G is any graph, then the sum of the degrees of all the vertices of G equals twice the number
of edges of G.
COROLLARY 1:
The total degree of a graph is even.
EXAMPLE:
Draw a graph with the specified properties or show that no such graph exists.
(a) Graph with four vertices of degrees 1, 1, 2, and 3.
(b) Graph with four vertices of degrees 1, 1, 3, and 3.
(c) Simple graph with four vertices of degrees 1, 1, 3, and 3.
Solution:
COROLLARY 2:
In any graph there are an even number of vertices of odd degree.
PROBLEM: Is it possible in a group of 9 people for each to shake hands with exactly 5 other
persons?
Solution: The answer is no. In fact, imagine a graph in which each of the 9 people is represented by a dot and two dots are joined by an edge if, and only if, the people they represent
shook hands. Suppose each of the people shook hands with exactly 5 others. Then we have an
odd number (nine) vertices of odd degree. This contradicts Corollary 2.