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Organization development

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This article is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay that states the
Wikipedia editor's particular feelings about a topic, rather than the opinions
of experts. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (March
2012)
Organization development OD! is a deliberately planned, organi"ation#wide effort to increase
an organi"ation$s effectiveness and%or efficiency and%or to enable the organi"ation to achieve its
strategic goals. &' theorists and practitioners define it in various ways. (ts multiplicity of
definition reflects the comple)ity of the discipline and is responsible for its lack of
understanding. For e)ample, *asudevan has referred to &' being about promoting
organi"ational readiness to meet change,
+citation needed,
and it has been said that &' is a systemic
learning and development strategy intended to change the basics of beliefs, attitudes and
relevance of values, and structure of the current organi"ation to better absorb disruptive
technologies, shrinking or e)ploding market opportunities and ensuing challenges and chaos. (t is
worth understanding what &' is not. (t is not training, personal development, team development
or team building, human resource development -.'!, learning and development /0'! or a
part of -. although it is often mistakenly understood as some or all of these. &' interventions
are about change so involve people # but &' also develops processes, systems and structures.
The primary purpose of &' is to develop the organi"ation, not to train or develop the staff.
Contents
+hide,
1 &verview
o 1.1 -istory
o 1.2 3ore *alues
1.2.1 &b4ective of &'
o 1.5 3hange agent
o 1.6 7ponsoring organi"ation
o 1.8 9pplied behavioral science
o 1.: 7ystems conte)t
o 1.; The holistic and futuristic view of organi"ation
2 (mproved organi"ational performance
o 2.1 &rgani"ational self#renewal
5 <nderstanding organi"ations
o 5.1 =odern development
6 9ction research
8 (mportant figures
: &' interventions
; 7ee also
> .eferences
? Further reading
1@ A)ternal links
Overviewedit!
&rgani"ation development is an ongoing, systematic process of implementing effective
organi"ational change. &' is known as both a field of science focused on understanding and
managing organi"ational change and as a field of scientific study and inBuiry. (t is
interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, particularly industrial and
organi"ational psychology, and theories of motivation, learning, and personality. 9lthough
behavioral science has provided the basic foundation for the study and practice of &', new and
emerging fields of study have made their presence felt. A)perts in systems thinking and
organi"ational learning, structure of intuition in decision making, and coaching to name a few!
whose perspective is not steeped in 4ust the behavioral sciences, but a much more multi#
disciplinary and inter#disciplinary approach, have emerged as &' catalysts or tools.
&rgani"ation development is a growing field that is responsive to many new approaches.
"istoryedit!
Curt /ewin 1>?>D1?6;! is widely recogni"ed as the founding father of &', although he died
before the concept became current in the mid#1?8@s.
+1,
From /ewin came the ideas of group
dynamics and action research which underpin the basic &' process as well as providing its
collaborative consultant%client ethos. (nstitutionally, /ewin founded the E.esearch 3enter for
Froup 'ynamicsE .3F'! at =(T, which moved to =ichigan after his death. .3F' colleagues
were among those who founded the Gational Training /aboratories GT/!, from which the T#
groups and group#based &' emerged.
Curt /ewin played a key role in the evolution of organi"ation development as it is known today.
9s early as World War ((, /ewin e)perimented with a collaborative change process involving
himself as consultant and a client group! based on a three#step process of planning, taking action,
and measuring results. This was the forerunner of action research, an important element of &',
which will be discussed later. /ewin then participated in the beginnings of laboratory training, or
T#groups, and, after his death in 1?6;, his close associates helped to develop survey#research
methods at the <niversity of =ichigan. These procedures became important parts of &' as
developments in this field continued at the Gational Training /aboratories and in growing
numbers of universities and private consulting firms across the country. Two of the leading
universities offering doctoral level
+2,
degrees in &' are Henedictine <niversity and the Fielding
Fraduate <niversity.
'ouglas =cFregor and .ichard Heckhard while Econsulting together at Feneral =ills in the
1?8@s, the two coined the term organization development &'! to describe an innovative
bottoms#up change effort that fit no traditional consulting categoriesE Weisbord, 1?>;, p. 112!.
+5,
The failure of off#site laboratory training to live up to its early promise was one of the important
forces stimulating the development of &'. /aboratory training is learning from a person$s Ehere
and nowE e)perience as a member of an ongoing training group. 7uch groups usually meet
without a specific agenda. Their purpose is for the members to learn about themselves from their
spontaneous Ehere and nowE responses to an ambiguous hypothetical situation. Problems of
leadership, structure, status, communication, and self#serving behavior typically arise in such a
group. The members have an opportunity to learn something about themselves and to practice
such skills as listening, observing others, and functioning as effective group members.
+6,
9s formerly practiced and occasionally still practiced for special purposes!, laboratory training
was conducted in Estranger groups,E or groups composed of individuals from different
organi"ations, situations, and backgrounds. 9 ma4or difficulty developed, however, in
transferring knowledge gained from these Estranger labsE to the actual situation Eback homeE.
This reBuired a transfer between two different cultures, the relatively safe and protected
environment of the T#group or training group! and the give#and#take of the organi"ational
environment with its traditional values. This led the early pioneers in this type of learning to
begin to apply it to Efamily groupsE I that is, groups located within an organi"ation. From this
shift in the locale of the training site and the reali"ation that culture was an important factor in
influencing group members along with some other developments in the behavioral sciences!
emerged the concept of organi"ation development.
+6,
Core #aluesedit!
<nderlying &rgani"ation 'evelopment are humanistic values. =argulies and .aia 1?;2!
articulated the humanistic values of &' as follows:
1. Providing opportunities for people to function as human beings rather than as resources
in the productive process.
2. Providing opportunities for each organi"ation member, as well as for the organi"ation
itself, to develop to their full potential.
5. 7eeking to increase the effectiveness of the organi"ation in terms of all of its goals.
6. 9ttempting to create an environment in which it is possible to find e)citing and
challenging work.
8. Providing opportunities for people in organi"ations to influence the way in which they
relate to work, the organi"ation, and the environment.
6. Treating each human being as a person with a comple) set of needs, all of which are
important to their work and their life.
+8,
'ifferentiating &' from other change efforts such as# 1. &peration management 2. Training and
'evelopment 5. Technological innovations....etc
Ob$ective of ODedit!
The ob4ective of &' is:
1. To increase the level of inter#personal trust among employees.
2. To increase employees$ level of satisfaction and commitment.
5. To confront problems instead of neglecting them.
6. To effectively manage conflict.
8. To increase cooperation and collaboration among the employees.
:. To increase the organi"ation$s problem solving.
;. To put in place processes that will help improve the ongoing operation of the organi"ation
on a continuous basis.
9s ob4ectives of organi"ational development are framed keeping in view specific situations, they
vary from one situation to another. (n other words, these programs are tailored to meet the
reBuirements of a particular situation. Hut broadly speaking, all organi"ational development
programs try to achieve the following ob4ectives:
1. =aking individuals in the organi"ation aware of the vision of the organi"ation.
&rgani"ational development helps in making employees align with the vision of the
organi"ation.
2. Ancouraging employees to solve problems instead of avoiding them.
5. 7trengthening inter#personnel trust, cooperation, and communication for the successful
achievement of organi"ational goals.
6. Ancouraging every individual to participate in the process of planning, thus making them
feel responsible for the implementation of the plan.
8. 3reating a work atmosphere in which employees are encouraged to work and participate
enthusiastically.
:. .eplacing formal lines of authority with personal knowledge and skill.
;. 3reating an environment of trust so that employees willingly accept change.
9ccording to organi"ational development thinking, organi"ation development provides managers
with a vehicle for introducing change systematically by applying a broad selection of
management techniBues. This, in turn, leads to greater personal, group, and organi"ational
effectiveness.
Change agentedit!
9 change agent in the sense used here is not a technical e)pert skilled in such functional areas as
accounting, production, or finance. The change agent is a behavioral scientist who knows how to
get people in an organi"ation involved in solving their own problems. 9 change agent$s main
strength is a comprehensive knowledge of human behavior, supported by a number of
intervention techniBues to be discussed later!. The change agent can be either e)ternal or
internal to the organi"ation. 9n internal change agent is usually a staff person who has e)pertise
in the behavioral sciences and in the intervention technology of &'. Heckhard reports several
cases in which line people have been trained in &' and have returned to their organi"ations to
engage in successful change assignments.
+:,
(n the natural evolution of change mechanisms in
organi"ations, this would seem to approach the ideal arrangement. Jualified change agents can
be found on some university faculties, or they may be private consultants associated with such
organi"ations as the Gational Training /aboratories (nstitute for 9pplied Hehavioral 7cience
Washington, '.3.! <niversity 9ssociates 7an 'iego, 3alifornia!, the -uman 7ystems
(ntervention graduate program in the 'epartment of 9pplied -uman 7ciences 3oncordia
<niversity, =ontreal, 3anada!, Gavitus Pvt! /td Pakistan!, =a)Foster Flobal and similar
organi"ations.
The change agent may be a staff or line member of the organi"ation who is schooled in &'
theory and techniBue. (n such a case, the Econtractual relationshipE is an in#house agreement that
should probably be e)plicit with respect to all of the conditions involved e)cept the fee.
%ponsoring organizationedit!
The initiative for &' programs often comes from an organi"ation that has a problem or
anticipates facing a problem. This means that top management or someone authori"ed by top
management is aware that a problem e)ists and has decided to seek help in solving it. There is a
direct analogy here to the practice of psychotherapy: The client or patient must actively seek help
in finding a solution to his problems. This indicates a willingness on the part of the client
organi"ation to accept help and assures the organi"ation that management is actively concerned.
+;,
&pplied behavioral scienceedit!
&ne of the outstanding characteristics of &' that distinguishes it from most other improvement
programs is that it is based on a Ehelping relationship.E 7ome believe that the change agent is not
a physician to the organi"ation$s illsK that s%he does not e)amine the Epatient,E make a diagnosis,
and write a prescription. Gor does she try to teach organi"ational members a new inventory of
knowledge which they then transfer to the 4ob situation. <sing theory and methods drawn from
such behavioral sciences as industrial%organi"ational psychology, industrial sociology,
communication, cultural anthropology, administrative theory, organi"ational behavior,
economics, and political science, the change agent$s main function is to help the organi"ation
define and solve its own problems. The basic method used is known as action research. This
approach, which is described in detail later, consists of a preliminary diagnosis, collecting data,
feedback of the data to the client, data e)ploration by the client group, action planning based on
the data, and taking action.
+>,
%ystems contextedit!
'he holistic and futuristic view of organizationedit!
&' deals with a total system I the organi"ation as a whole, including its relevant environment
I or with a subsystem or systems I departments or work groups I in the conte)t of the total
system. Parts of systems I for e)ample, individuals, cliBues, structures, norms, values, and
products I are not considered in isolationK the principle of interdependency I that change in
one part of a system affects the other parts I is fully recogni"ed. Thus, &' interventions focus
on the total culture and cultural processes of organi"ations. The focus is also on groups, since the
relevant behavior of individuals in organi"ations and groups is generally a product of the
influences of groups rather than of personalities.
+;,
(mproved organizational performanceedit!
The ob4ective of &' is to improve the organi"ation$s capacity to handle its internal and e)ternal
functioning and relationships. This includes improved interpersonal and group processes, more
effective communication, enhanced ability to cope with organi"ational problems of all kinds. (t
also involves more effective decision processes, more appropriate leadership styles, improved
skill in dealing with destructive conflict, as well as developing improved levels of trust and
cooperation among organi"ational members. These ob4ectives stem from a value system based on
an optimistic view of the nature of man I that man in a supportive environment is capable of
achieving higher levels of development and accomplishment. Assential to organi"ation
development and effectiveness is the scientific method I inBuiry, a rigorous search for causes,
e)perimental testing of hypotheses, and review of results.
%elf)managing work groups allows the members of a work team to manage, control, and
monitor all facets of their work, from recruiting, hiring, and new employees to deciding when to
take rest breaks. 9n early analysis of the first#self#managing work groups yielded the following
behavioral characteristics -ackman, 1?>:!:
Amployees assume personal responsibility and accountability for outcomes of their work.
Amployees monitor their own performance and seek feedback on how well they are
accomplishing their goals.
Amployees manage their performance and take corrective action when necessary to
improve their and the performance of other group members.
Amployees seek guidance, assistance, and resources from the organi"ation when they do
not have what they need to do the 4ob.
Amployees help members of their work group and employees in other groups to improve
4ob performance and raise productivity for the organi"ation as a whole.
Organizational self)renewaledit!
The ultimate aim of &' practitioners is to Ework themselves out of a 4obE by leaving the client
organi"ation with a set of tools, behaviors, attitudes, and an action plan with which to monitor its
own state of health and to take corrective steps toward its own renewal and development. This is
consistent with the systems concept of feedback as a regulatory and corrective mechanism.
+;,
*nderstanding organizationsedit!
Weisbord presents a si)#bo) model for understanding organi"ation:
1. Purposes: The organi"ation members are clear about the organi"ation$s mission and
purpose and goal agreements, whether people support the organi"ation$ purpose.
2. 7tructure: -ow is the organi"ation$s work divided upL The Buestion is whether there is an
adeBuate fit between the purpose and the internal structure.
5. .elationship: Hetween individuals, between units or departments that perform different
tasks, and between the people and reBuirements of their 4obs.
6. .ewards: The consultant should diagnose the similarities between what the organi"ation
formally rewarded or punished members for.
8. /eadership: (s to watch for blips among the other bo)es and maintain balance among
them.
:. -elpful mechanism: (s a helpful organi"ation that must attend to in order to survive
which as planning, control, budgeting, and other information systems that help
organi"ation member accomplish.
+?,
+odern developmentedit!
(n recent years, serious Buestioning has emerged about the relevance of &' to managing change
in modern organi"ations. The need for EreinventingE the field has become a topic that even some
of its Efounding fathersE are discussing critically.
+1@,
With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun to e)amine organi"ation
development from an emotion#based standpoint. For e)ample, deClerk 2@@;!
+11,
writes about
how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. 'ue to downsi"ing, outsourcing,
mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of privacy, harassment, and abuses of power,
many employees e)perience the emotions of aggression, an)iety, apprehension, cynicism, and
fear, which can lead to performance decreases. deClerk 2@@;! suggests that in order to heal the
trauma and increase performance, &.'. practitioners must acknowledge the e)istence of the
trauma, provide a safe place for employees to discuss their feelings, symboli"e the trauma and
put it into perspective, and then allow for and deal with the emotional responses. &ne method of
achieving this is by having employees draw pictures of what they feel about the situation, and
then having them e)plain their drawings with each other. 'rawing pictures is beneficial because
it allows employees to e)press emotions they normally would not be able to put into words. 9lso,
drawings often prompt active participation in the activity, as everyone is reBuired to draw a
picture and then discuss its meaning.
The use of new technologies combined with globali"ation has also shifted the field of
organi"ation development. .oland 7ullivan 2@@8! defined &rgani"ation 'evelopment with
participants at the 1st &rgani"ation 'evelopment 3onference for 9sia in 'ubai#2@@8 as
E&rgani"ation 'evelopment is a transformative leap to a desired vision where strategies and
systems align, in the light of local culture with an innovative and authentic leadership style using
the support of high tech tools.
&ction researchedit!
Wendell / French and 3ecil Hell defined organi"ation development &'! at one point as
Eorgani"ation improvement through action researchE.
+>,
(f one idea can be said to summari"e &'$s
underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it was conceptuali"ed by Curt /ewin and
later elaborated and e)panded on by other behavioral scientists. 3oncerned with social change
and, more particularly, with effective, permanent social change, /ewin believed that the
motivation to change was strongly related to action: (f people are active in decisions affecting
them, they are more likely to adopt new ways. E.ational social managementE, he said, Eproceeds
in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact#finding
about the result of actionE.
+12,
Figure 1: 7ystems =odel of 9ction#.esearch Process
/ewin$s description of the process of change involves three steps:
+12,
E<nfree"ingE: Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomes aware
of a need to change.
E3hangingE: The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are e)plored and tested.
E.efree"ingE: 9pplication of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforced, adopted.
Figure 1 summari"es the steps and processes involved in planned change through action
research. 9ction research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle begins with a
series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent working together. The
principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data gathering, feedback of
results, and 4oint action planning. (n the language of systems theory, this is the input phase, in
which the client system becomes aware of problems as yet unidentified, reali"es it may need
outside help to effect changes, and shares with the consultant the process of problem diagnosis.
The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stage includes
actions relating to learning processes perhaps in the form of role analysis! and to planning and
e)ecuting behavioral changes in the client organi"ation. 9s shown in Figure 1, feedback at this
stage would move via Feedback /oop 9 and would have the effect of altering previous planning
to bring the learning activities of the client system into better alignment with change ob4ectives.
(ncluded in this stage is action#planning activity carried out 4ointly by the consultant and
members of the client system. Following the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps
are carried out on the 4ob as part of the transformation stage.
+6,
The third stage of action research is the output, or results, phase. This stage includes actual
changes in behavior if any! resulting from corrective action steps taken following the second
stage. 'ata are again gathered from the client system so that progress can be determined and
necessary ad4ustments in learning activities can be made. =inor ad4ustments of this nature can be
made in learning activities via Feedback /oop H see Figure 1!. =a4or ad4ustments and
reevaluations would return the &' pro4ect to the first, or planning, stage for basic changes in the
program. The action#research model shown in Figure 1 closely follows /ewin$s repetitive cycle
of planning, action, and measuring results. (t also illustrates other aspects of /ewin$s general
model of change. 9s indicated in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfree"ing, or
problem awareness.
+12,
The action stage is a period of changing, that is, trying out new forms of
behavior in an effort to understand and cope with the system$s problems. There is inevitable
overlap between the stages, since the boundaries are not clear#cut and cannot be in a continuous
process!. The results stage is a period of refree"ing, in which new behaviors are tried out on the
4ob and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system$s repertoire of problem#
solving behavior.
9ction research is problem centered, client centered, and action oriented. (t involves the client
system in a diagnostic, active#learning, problem#finding, and problem#solving process. 'ata are
not simply returned in the form of a written report but instead are fed back in open 4oint sessions,
and the client and the change agent collaborate in identifying and ranking specific problems, in
devising methods for finding their real causes, and in developing plans for coping with them
realistically and practically. 7cientific method in the form of data gathering, forming hypotheses,
testing hypotheses, and measuring results, although not pursued as rigorously as in the
laboratory, is nevertheless an integral part of the process. 9ction research also sets in motion a
long#range, cyclical, self#correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness
of the client$s system by leaving the system with practical and useful tools for self#analysis and
self#renewal.
+6,
(mportant figuresedit!
3hris 9rgyris
.ichard Heckhard
.obert .. Hlake
/ouis /. 3arter
'avid 3ooperrider
W. Adwards 'eming
Fred Amery
3harles -andy
Alliott JaBues
Curt /ewin
.ensis /ikert
Jane =outon
'erek 7. Pugh
William J. .othwell
Adgar 7chein
'onald 7chon
Peter 7enge
-erbert 7hepard
Aric Trist
=argaret J. Wheatley
Pulin Farg
(chak 9di"es
3layton 9lderfer
Wilfred Hion
9. Cenneth .ice
OD interventionsedit!
E(nterventionsE are principal learning processes in the EactionE stage see Figure 1! of
organi"ation development. (nterventions are structured activities used individually or in
combination by the members of a client system to improve their social or task performance. They
may be introduced by a change agent as part of an improvement program, or they may be used
by the client following a program to check on the state of the organi"ation$s health, or to effect
necessary changes in its own behavior. E7tructured activitiesE mean such diverse procedures as
e)periential e)ercises, Buestionnaires, attitude surveys, interviews, relevant group discussions,
and even lunchtime meetings between the change agent and a member of the client organi"ation.
Avery action that influences an organi"ation$s improvement program in a change agent#client
system relationship can be said to be an intervention.
+15,
There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. 7everal assumptions
about the nature and functioning of organi"ations are made in the choice of a particular strategy.
Heckhard lists si) such assumptions:
1. The basic building blocks of an organi"ation are groups teams!. Therefore, the basic
units of change are groups, not individuals.
2. 9n always relevant change goal is the reduction of inappropriate competition between
parts of the organi"ation and the development of a more collaborative condition.
5. 'ecision making in a healthy organi"ation is located where the information sources are,
rather than in a particular role or level of hierarchy.
6. &rgani"ations, subunits of organi"ations, and individuals continuously manage their
affairs against goals. 3ontrols are interim measurements, not the basis of managerial
strategy.
8. &ne goal of a healthy organi"ation is to develop generally open communication, mutual
trust, and confidence between and across levels.
:. People support what they help create. People affected by a change must be allowed active
participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and conduct of the change.
+:,
(nterventions range from those designed to improve the effectiveness of individuals through
those designed to deal with teams and groups, intergroup relations, and the total organi"ation.
There are interventions that focus on task issues what people do!, and those that focus on
process issues how people go about doing it!. Finally, interventions may be roughly classified
according to which change mechanism they tend to emphasi"e: for e)ample, feedback,
awareness of changing cultural norms, interaction and communication, conflict, and education
through either new knowledge or skill practice.
+16,
&ne of the most difficult tasks confronting the change agent is to help create in the client system
a safe climate for learning and change. (n a favorable climate, human learning builds on itself
and continues indefinitely during man$s lifetime. &ut of new behavior, new dilemmas and
problems emerge as the spiral continues upward to new levels. (n an unfavorable climate, in
contrast, learning is far less certain, and in an atmosphere of psychological threat, it often stops
altogether. <nfree"ing old ways can be inhibited in organi"ations because the climate makes
employees feel that it is inappropriate to reveal true feelings, even though such revelations could
be constructive. (n an inhibited atmosphere, therefore, necessary feedback is not available. 9lso,
trying out new ways may be viewed as risky because it violates established norms. 7uch an
organi"ation may also be constrained because of the law of systems: (f one part changes, other
parts will become involved. -ence, it is easier to maintain the status Buo. -ierarchical authority,
speciali"ation, span of control, and other characteristics of formal systems also discourage
e)perimentation.
+15,
The change agent must address himself to all of these ha"ards and obstacles. 7ome of the things
which will help him are:
1. 9 real need in the client system to change
2. Fenuine support from management
5. 7etting a personal e)ample: listening, supporting behavior
6. 9 sound background in the behavioral sciences
8. 9 working knowledge of systems theory
:. 9 belief in man as a rational, self#educating being fully capable of learning better ways to
do things.
+15,
9 few e)amples of interventions include team building, coaching, /arge Froup (nterventions,
mentoring, performance appraisal, downsi"ing, TJ=, and leadership development.

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