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Shailesh A Shirali
Note that Euler's result is stronger than Euclid's. infinite; the infinitude
of the primes thus
Convergence and Divergence follows as a corollary.
cause the partial sums assume the values 1,0, 1,0, 1;0, ..., and
this sequence clearly does not possess a limit.
. A more interesting example: 1 - 1/2 + 1/3 - 1/4 + ... ; a careful
analysis shows that it too is convergent, the limiting sum being
In 2 (the natural logarithm of 2)
1 1 1 1
-+-+-+
1 2 3 4
=00
.
This rather non-obvious result is usually referred to as thediver-
gena of the harmonicseries.The proof given below is due to the
Frenchman Nicolo Oresme and it dates to about 1350.We note
the following sequence of equalities and inequalities:
1 1
2 = 2'
1 1 1 1 1
-+->-+-=-
3 4 4 4 2'
The earliest
1 111 1 1 111
known proof of the
-+-+-+->-+-+-+-=-
5 6 7 8 8 8 8 2' 8
divergence of the 11 111 11
harmonic series is due 9 + 10 + ... + 16 > 16 + 16 + ... + 16 = 2'
to the Frenchman
Nicolo Oresme and it and so on. This shows that it is possible to group consecutive sets
dates to about 1350. of terms of the series 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + . . . in such a manner that
each group has a sum exceeding 1/2. Since the number of such
groups is infinite, it follows that the sum of the whole series is
itself infinite. (Note the crisp and decisive natUre of the proof!)
1 1 1 1
-+-+-+... +-
1 2 3 n'
n (3.1)
S(2") > 1 + 2.
(Please fill in the details of the proof on your own.) This means
that by choosing n to be large enough, the value of S(2") can be
made to exceed any given bound. For instance, if we wanted the
sum to exceed 100, then.(3.1) assures us that a mere i98terms
would suffice! This suggests the extreme slowness of growth of
S(n) with n. Nevertheless it does grow without bound; loosely
stated, S( 00) = 00.
The result obtained above, (3.1), can also be written in the form,
Exercise:,!rite out
__ a proof
u _of_the
_ __above
_ inequality.
1 1 1. 1
lnn +-<-+-+-+...+-<lnn+l 1 (3.3)
n 1 2 3 n
shown in another manner that is both elegant and e1emen~: is finite can be shown
We start with the inequalities, 22> 1 x 2, 32> 2 x 3,42 > 3 x 4, in a manner that is
. . " and deduce from these that
both elegant and
1 1 1 1 1 1 elementary.
1 +-+-+-+...< 1 +-+-+-+...
22 32 42 1x 2 2x 3 3x4
1 ! _ ! ! _ ! ! _ ! ... (3.4)
+ 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + ,
( ) ( ) ( )
which (after a whole feast of cancellations) simplifies to 1 + 1/1,
that is, to 2.(This is sometimes described by stating that the series
'telescopes' to 2.) Therefore the sum 1 + 1122+ 1132+ 1142+. . .
is less than 2.We now call upon a theorem of analysis which states
that if the partial sums of any series form an increasing sequence
and are at the same time bounded, that is, they do not exceedsome
fixed number, then they possess a limit. We conclude, therefore,
that the series 1: 1Ii2does possess a finite sum which lies between
1 and 2.
1 n-l 1 1 1
-= = + +...+-,
n n(n-l) n(n-l) n(n-l) n(n-l)
The divergence of the
harmonic series with (n -1) fractions on the right side. Next he writes the resulting
was independently fractions in an array as shown below:
proved by 112 116 1112 1120 1130 1142 1156
Johann Bernoulli in
116 1112 1120 1130 1142 1156
1689 in a completely 1112 1120 1130 1142 1156
different manner. 1142
1/20 1130 1/56
1/30 1142 1156
1142 1156
1156
Note that the column sums are just the fractions .112,1/3, 114,
115, ... ; thus S is the sum of all the fractions occurring in the
array. Bernoulli now sums the rows using the telescoping tech-
. -
nique used above (see equation (3.4». Assigning symbols to the
row sums as shown below,
,
1111111
A =2"+6+12+ 20 + 30 + 42 + 56 + ...,
1 1 1 1 1 1
B =6 + 12+ 20 + 30 + 42 + 56 + ...,
1 1 1 1 1
C = 12 + 20 + 30 + 42 + 56 + " , ,
1 1 1 1
D = 20 + 30 + 42 + 56 + ...,
he finds that:
A = (1 - t) + (t - ~) + (~ - i) + (~ - t) + .,.
= 1,
B = (t - ~) + (~ - ~) + (i - t) + (t - ~) + .,.
1
= -,
2
Bernoulli's proof is
1 worthy of deep study,
C = 3' (arguing likewise),
as it shows the
counter-intuitive
1
D = 4' nature of infinity,
and so on. Thus the sumS, which wehad written in the form
A + B + C + D + "', turns outto be equal to
There are many other proofs of this beautiful result, but I shall
leave you with the pleasant task of coming up with them on your
own. Along the way you could set yourself the task ofproving ~at
each of the following sums diverge:
Elementary Results
where, in the sum on the right, each pair of indices (i, J) occurs
precisely once.
1 1 1 1 1
- = 1 + -+ - + - + - + '"
1- lJ2 2 22 23 .24 '
-=1 1 +-+
1 1
-+-+-+
1 1
....
1 - 113 3 32 33 34
. 1
L
..eA
-; = 3.
1 3 IS
L-=-=-'
. z l-l/s 4
Be B
where B denotes the set of integers of the form l' 3bS', where a, b
andc denotenon-negativeintegers.
Suppose now that there are only finitely many primes, sayP1,P2,
Euler was capable of P3' ...,P", wherePI = 2,p2 = 3,P3= S,.... We consider the product
stunning
reasoning; some of
111
---
the steps in his proofs
1_1/21-1/31-1/5
are so daring that they
would leave today's This is obviously a finite number, being the product of finitely
mathematicians
many non-zero fractions. Now this product also equals
gasping for breath.
this it follows that the expression on the right side is precisely the
sum
1 1 1 1
1+"2+3"+4"+ ...,
that is, the infinite product and the infinite sum both converge
to the same (finite) value. By a stunning piece of reasoning,
including a few daring leaps that would leave today's mathema-
ticians gasping for breath, Euler showed that both sides of the
above equation are equal to 'fil/6.Likewise, we find that
1 111
- '" = 1 + - + - + -+ ...,
1 - 1/54 24 34 44
1 1 1 1 1
2, -=-+-+-+-+...
P'
I
2 3 5 7
Leonhard. ruler i~1
Slnceunlvers~were not is itself infinite. We are now in a position to obtain this beautiful
the~f1lor researcb cen~ result. For any positive integern ~ 2, let P ndenote the set ofprime
iresfJphlsdays, Leonhard numbers less than or equal to n. We start by showing that
EdlerO~07-1783) spent n
.
(6.1)
most of,hls.llfe with the
aerli~ and Petersburg
n ~1- 4
peP.
1
> L
j=l
1
-:-.
J
Academ.les..Plous,..bUtoot
dogmatic, Eulerconduct- Our strategy will be a familiar one. We write down the following
ed p,raxersfor his large inequality for eachp E Pn,which followsfrom equation (4.1):
hou$abold, and creqfed
1 1 1 1 1
mathematiCswith.a.baby ->1+-+-+-+...+-
oobls lap and cl1i1dreo 1 - 14 P p2 p3 pn.
plt1Ylggall. around. Euler
The '>' sign holds because we have left out all the positive terms
,withheld his own wotkon
that followthe term l/pn.Multiplying together the corresponding
calculu~ of "aria~o~ so
sides 'of all these inequalities (p E P n)'we obtain:
that young Lagrange
0736"'181~1
could publISh
ijflrSf, aodshowedslmllgr
n. ->TI
peP
1
1 - 14 peP
. .(
1
1+-+-+-+...+-
P p2
1 1
p3
1
pn)
generosityOIlmany other
occaslo!:,s.Utterly free of When we expand out the product on the right side, we obtain a
fdlsepride," Euler always sum of the form 1:j e A 1/j for some set of positive integersA. This
expla!OedhowhewaSled set certainly includes all the integers from 1 to n because the set
to his results sayjog that P n contains all the prime numbers between1 and n. Inequality
"the;ath 1 followed,.will (6.1) thus follows immediately.
Perhapsbe ofsome belp".
And. 1ndE!ed,Qenera1lons Next, we already know (see equation (3.3)) that
bfma1hei'na1ldansfollO'Ned
n
1 1 (6.2)
laplace's advice: "Read
2,-:->lnn+->lnn.
J n
Euier,he,1sour master In
j=l
aIU".
.~ AccKtenWwith
this by showing that the inequality
,popers'!omUOyeors bJter
7x > In ~I-x (6.4) hisdeqlh; Qnecome ouf?9j
5
years;9fferhe diedf'~
mostovAllll...~ .
holds for 0 < x ~ 1/2. . ,;... ".:.:..J!I""""''':''.,_", .,..,..: ",,-, . :.:..,~
rn~diedwhlle~
.~il'.. LF-~l~~
To see why (6.4) is true, draw the graph of the curve r whose ,wiIh;bisgronddJildtef1
F>.
~ .'
drinlclng.. ~, "(All.boxed'
equation isy = In (1/(1- x», over the domain - < x< 1, (see00
~onEu!er:1akenffom
Figure 2). Note that r passes through the origin and is convex over
'Gibe IBM poster Men of
Motl.~1ft;M'qthefflo!l~
y
1966.r ",',f'.\,o;.,.-"L
judge for themselves. LetS denote the sum ~j 1/Pj'We shall make
use of the following result:
This series is the sum of the reciprocals of all the positive integers
whose prime factors are all distinct; equivalently, the positive
integers that have no squared factors. These numbers are some-
times referred to as the quadratfreior square-freenumbers. Let Q
denote this sum. We shall show that this series itself diverges, in
other words,that Q = 00.This willimmediatelyimplythat S =00
(for eS > Q), and Euler's result will then follow.
1 1 1
Qx 1+-+-+-+...
22 32 42
( )
This product, when expanded out, gives the following series:
1 1 1 1
-+-+-+-+...
1 234 '
that is, we obtain the harmonic series. To see why, note that every
positive integer n can be uniquely written as a product of a square-
free number and a square; for example, 1000 = 10 X 102,2000 =
5 x 202,1728 = 3 x 242, and so on. Now when we multiply
1111111111
( 1 +2+3+5+6+7+ 10+11+13"+ 14+15+... )
with
1 +1-+1-+1-+ ...
( 22 32 42
J
we find, by virtue of the remark just made, that the reciprocal of
each positive integer n occurs preciselyonce in the expanded
product. This explains why the product is just the harmonic
serieS.Now recall that the sum
GHIIardr;JiM,Wqpt.,q Therefore Q = 00, and Euler's result (1:;l/p; = 00) follows. QED!
Introduction to the
n~ ofNumber;4th
.n-&-a~ Readers who are unhappy with this style of presentation, in
~~" which 00 is treated as an ordinary real number, will find it an
Ivan Niven. Herbert S interesting (but routine) exercise to rewrite the proof to accord
Z1IekermamLAa:fatro-.
..
with more exacting standards of rigour and precision.
cJuctioa to the .~
ofNUmben..wne,Eut-
~emI':!td..1989.' Conclusion
TOIDApostoLAa:~
tiOli.to AaaIytic~
bet" Theol'J. Narosa A much deeper - but also more difficult - analysis shows that the
W Boase.I9't9. sum 1/PI + 1/P2 + 1/P3 + ... + I/P,. is approximately equal to
,94 I March
RESONANCE 1996
GENERAL I ARTICLE
JDhtlnn'$d/wNgent:fl pn»f,
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seret ex JRa Cene J f + i + 1\+ ::~+ io ' &e. fi reColvel'CtUl'me- nius by Will/11m Dllnhtlm J.
thodo Prop. X 1v. collegit p opofitionJS veriratem ex abfurditatc
manifefia, quae fequetetUr, ti Cumma. Cetia. harmonicae 6nira fiawe-.
mur. Animadvenit: eniin II
Setiem A, t + t + i + f + t + t.&~, 3) (fi.ttionibus 6nguli':
iD alias J quarum numeratores funt I, Z JJ, 4-, &~ transmuratis)
iCrieiB,f+.r+I~
- + :.t+-Io+4~ J&ce.X'C+D+E+F.&t.. -
c.j+l+I~+1\+~7~J&c-..:x> :X>C'-f:X>f
D...+H-n+~~+T~+4~'&~ perprac.il'
E. . . +T!+Y5+~+4\ &~:x>D- ~:x>t ~d~;' J
F. . . . .. "+"ik+1k+;p;~&ce.:X>E-TI:x>4. fequi..
&e.3'\ &c.Jwr,te..
(riem G 3) .of~ totUm patti J fi flUlUlll finita. elf~
Ego,
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