Educational Research - Theory and Practice PT 1

University of Exeter
Doctorate in Education (Ed.D) - SEN and Inclusive Learning

Educational Research: Theory and Practice Pt 1

To determine the prevalence of dyslexia at a Health Sciences university in Saudi Arabia and the
efficacy of its remedial English language programme.

Submitted 24 September 2013


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ABSTRACT
This paper is divided into two parts. Part one contextualises the proposed area of research; that is,
determining the prevalence of dyslexia at a Health Sciences university in Saudi Arabia, and the
efficacy of its remedial English language programme. The paper presents an overview of
previous research with respect to dyslexia assessment in Arabic, related native English language
teacher issues and the need for conducting research within this given area. The researchers
developing paradigmatic position and epistemological understandings are discussed, as well as
the research design with respect to the intended research. Part two critiques two published
research papers entitled: Dyslexia in the United Arab Emirates University A study of
prevalence in English and Arabic; and Students with dyslexia: their use of metaphors in making
sense of their disability. It also discusses the inherent implications of different methodological
positioning when designing research.

Key words: paradigm, methodology, dyslexia assessment in Arabic, metaphors.

INTRODUCTION
Educational research is a systematic analysis of observable data in the field of education, to prove or
disprove a hypothesis in order to affect change. Ontology, epistemology, methodology, method and
paradigm are all considered central to the design of sound and valid research (Creswell, 2003; Crotty,
1998). Ontology is the philosophy of reality; that is, the existence or state of a given situation, while
epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge, i.e. how we came to know that which we know (Krauss,
2005). Methodology is the means and regulations by which research is conducted, as well as the
principles, theories and values that underpin it (Somekh and Lewin, 2005), while method is the data
collection techniques employed to yield qualitative (textual) and quantitative (numerical) data such as:
interviews, case studies, Likert-type questionnaires, surveys, etc (Mackenzie and Knipe, 2006). The
term paradigm came to prominence in the 1960s with Kuhn (1962, 1970), who defined it as shared
beliefs among a community of researchers. It has also been defined as the logically related
assumptions, concepts, or propositions that orient thinking and research (Bogdan and Biklen, 1998,
p22), as well as a worldview, together with the various philosophical assumptions associated with that
point of view (Teddlie and Tashakkori, 2009, p84). However, it is the latter of these definitions that
has been adopted by some of the major writers in the field (Teddlie and Tashakkori, 2009; Creswell
and Plano Clark, 2007; Greene, 2007).

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According to Mackenzie and Knipe (2006, p194),

It is the choice of paradigm that sets down the intent, motivation and expectations for the
research. Without nominating a paradigm as the first step, there is no basis for subsequent
choices regarding methodology, methods, literature or research design.

Among the most common paradigms expressed in research literature are: positivist/postpositivist,
constructivist, transformative and pragmatism (Mackenzie and Knipe, 2006).

Positivist/postpositivist paradigm
Positivism is a rationalistic, deterministic, empirical philosophy that underpins science research
wherein causesdetermine effects and outcomes (Croswell, 2003, p7). On the other hand,
postpositivism adopts a more holistic, intuitive, inductive and exploratory approach to research. The
postpositivism assumption is that there is no absolute truth. What is truth for one may not be truth for
another (OLeary, 2004). However, both types of paradigms tend to predominantly employ
quantitative methods of data collection and analysis (Mackenzie and Knipe, 2006, p195).

Constructivist paradigm
The constructivist paradigm holds the participants experience(s) of the situation being studied as
central to the research. Unlike postpositivism, constructivism does not generally begin with a theory;
but rather it is developed as the research evolves (Creswell, 2003). Meaning is constructed from real
lived experiences, informed by the participants social, historical and cultural perspective. The
researcher interprets meaning from the data, which is also informed by the researchers social,
historical and cultural perspective (Crotty, 1998). Although constructivist researchers tend to
predominantly utilize qualitative methods of data collection, such as open-ended questions that accord
participants the opportunity to express their own views, quantitative data is sometimes used to bolster
and enrich existing qualitative data (Mackenzie and Knipe, 2006).

Transformative paradigm
The transformative paradigm emerged during the 1980s - 1990s out of a supposed need to address
issues of social injustice, as the constructivists approach to research was deemed inadequate (Creswell,
2003). The transformative perspective is that research ought to be politically oriented with an

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emancipatory action agenda for change, and focused on the marginalised sections of society such as:
women, ethnic/racial minorities, members of the gay and lesbian communities, people with
disabilities, and the poor (Mertens, 2003, pp139-140). The transformative researcher utilizes both
qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection in much the same way as the constructivist
researcher (Creswell, 2003). However, in order to capture the true essence of the issue at hand, they
adopt a mixed-methods approach, which accords them the ability to examine the issue through multiple
research lenses, thus acquiring a deeper understanding of the problem and a greater chance of arriving
at a more comprehensive solution (Somekh and Lewin, 2005).

Finding my own paradigmatic position
As an early career researcher, I was confounded by a lot of the rhetoric that epitomised most research
literature like ontology/epistemology, paradigm/philosophical framework, qualitative/quantitative,
methodology/method; and having to comprehend it all in order to find my own paradigmatic position
was challenging. Upon engaging with the literature, it soon became apparent that there were two
traditional research methodologies that had been firmly established in research: qualitative and
quantitative. There also seemed to be a dichotomy that research and researchers were either qualitative
or quantitative (Mackenzie and Knipe, 2006), and never the twain shall meet (Cambridge Idioms
Dictionary). This posed a dilemma, because on the one hand, my epistemological and ontological
perspective of reality with regards to the material and the spiritual world embraces the notion of
absolute truth, which to some extent is encapsulated within the positivist paradigm. On the other
hand, from a research perspective, I am inclined to the pragmatic paradigm and the mixed-methods
approach to research, because of the idea of having the freedom to adopt the paradigm and
methodology that is most suited to bringing about the best solution to the research problem (Creswell,
2003; Bryman, 2006, 2007).

Pragmatic paradigm
The pragmatic paradigm could be likened to a free spirit in that it is not committed to any one system
of philosophy or reality (Creswell, 2003), and is considered the paradigm that best underlies mixed-
methods research (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003). In pragmatism, the research problem is central, and
all data collection and analysis techniques are chosen based on their ability to provide the most
insightful discussion and comprehensive solution with respect to the research problem (Mackenzie and
Knipe, 2006). The pragmatic researcher is not loyal to any one system of philosophy or reality, but

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adopts that which is most suited to finding a comprehensive solution to the what and how regarding
the research problem (Creswell, 2003).

Mixed-methods methodology
Mixed-methods research has been established as the third methodological approach to research
alongside the traditional qualitative and quantitative methodologies (Creswell, 2003; Tashakkori and
Teddlie, 2003; Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004, Green, 2005). It is the use of two or more methods in
a research project that yield both qualitative and quantitative data, and is different from multi-methods,
which is the use of two or more methods in a research project that yield data of the same kind (Teddlie
and Tashakkori, 2009). The utilisation of qualitative and quantitative data, according to Creswell
(2003), enriches the research wherein the results of one compliments the other. According to Gorard
(2004, p7), mixed-methods research has come of age and is seen as a key element in the improvement
of social science, including education research.

Educational research: the hardest science of all
According to Berliner (2002), educational research is the hardest to do science of all, because it is an
area of research that is characterised by myriad social contexts in which human interactions abound.

In this hardest to do science, educators often need knowledge of the particular - the local -
while in the easier to do sciences the aim is for more general knowledge. A science that must
always be sure the myriad particulars are well understood is harder to build than a science that
can focus on the regularities of nature across contexts (p19).

It is for this reason that Berliner (2002) proposes the notion that the distinction with respect to the
sciences should not be one of hard and soft, but one of hard to do and easy to do educational science
being the hardest science of them all.


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PART ONE
Proposed area of research
This research is informed by my experiences as a PGCE
1
student and an ESOL
2
teacher for a further
education (FE) institute and College in the UK. I had been teaching ESOL for approximately three
years and in 2005 had just obtained a PGCE (ESOL, Post 16). One semester, while working at the FE
institute, I was confronted with an ESOL learner whose L1 was Arabic and who was having great
difficulty comprehending the basic elements of the English language, no matter how often they were
taught or what teaching methods were employed. It suddenly struck me that this learner could be
dyslexic. Ignorant of the basic characteristics and manifestations of dyslexia in general, dyslexia in
Arabic, in particular, and no institutional procedure to follow, I was unable to adequately facilitate this
learners needs. My similitude was like that of a builder who arrived on a building-site armed with just
a hammer and a screwdriver, only to realise that what was also needed was a pneumatic drill. It was
this feeling of inadequacy, disappointment and frustration that began seeking answers as to why I was
not furnished with the necessary tools during the PGCE programme to adequately assist such a learner;
why was SEN provisions more readily available in FE colleges and not FE institutes; and was there a
standardised Arabic dyslexic assessment tool for learners whose L1 was Arabic. It was against this
backdrop that my interest in researching dyslexia assessment in Arabic emerged and consequently the
current research project: determining the prevalence of dyslexia at a Health Sciences university in
Saudi Arabia and the efficacy of its remedial English language programme.

Dyslexia assessment in Arabic
Cross-linguistic studies of dyslexia have revealed that manifestations of dyslexia vary from language to
language, and dyslexia assessment tools that have been specifically developed and standardised for the
assessment of English L1 learners can only provide a partial assessment with respect to Arabic L1
learners. Assessment tools, therefore, need to consider the linguistic features and the cultural context of
the language of the individual being assessed, and assessors need to be equipped with rudimentary
knowledge of those considerations (Elbeheri et al. 2006). Despite efforts of Arab educational
authorities to raise awareness of dyslexia in their respective countries, dyslexia is still not widely
recognised as a specific reading difficulty. There is also a dearth of academic research with regards to

1
Post Graduate Certificate in Education
2
English for Speakers of Other Languages

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the manifestations of dyslexia and assessment in Arabic and no standardised Arabic test available to
identify, assess and diagnose dyslexic Arabic L1 learners (Elbeheri et al. 2006; Aboudan et al. 2011).

Related native English language teacher issues
When faced with an Arabic L1 learner of English, native English language teachers often resort to
using standardised English dyslexic assessment tests in the hope that the learners level of English will
be advanced enough to justify its use. Those concerned about the cultural-fairness of their assessments
opt for standardised English ability tests that have been translated and adapted into Arabic (Aboudan et
al. 2011). Of course, neither of these test are capable of capturing the salient complexities of the Arabic
language, such as its shallow (diacritical) and deep (non-diacritical) orthography or its derivational
morphology, and so cannot provide an accurate assessment of the learner due to the inappropriateness
of the test material (Elbeheri et al. 2006).

The importance of conducting research regarding dyslexia in Arabic
Although cross-linguistic studies have shown that the cognitive prerequisite of learning how to read
and spell are universal (Elbeheri et al. 2006, p144), orthographical differences in languages do impact
upon the severity of the reading, spelling and phonological difficulties that dyslexics encounter
(Paulesu et al. 2001, cited in Elbeheri et al. 2006). So the importance of conducting academic research
regarding the manifestations of dyslexia in Arabic in order to highlight and understand those
orthographical differences cannot be overemphasised. Currently, there is a dearth of academic research
regarding the manifestations of dyslexia in Arabic, and as a consequence, the conceptual awareness of
the prevalence of reading problems and dyslexia in English speaking countries has not been matched in
Arab countries (Aboudan et al. 2011, p65).

Research design
According to Mackenzie and Knipe (2006, p194),

It is the choice of paradigm that sets down the intent, motivation and expectations for the
research. Without nominating a paradigm as the first step, there is no basis for subsequent choices
regarding methodology, methods, literature or research design.


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However, I would argue that by understanding the research problem and the overall purpose of the
research, it is possible to determine what type of data (i.e. quantitative and/or qualitative), data
collection method(s), literature or research design would be most suitable in facilitating the acquisition
of a comprehensive solution to the research problem without having nominated or consciously being
aligned to a particular paradigm.

I once conducted research on a Masters TEFL programme to determine why there was a marked
disparity between FE colleges and FE providers in the UK regarding the level and quality of learning
support dyslexic learners were accorded. I was incognisant of research rhetoric like paradigms,
methodology, epistemology, ontology, etc, but I knew that in order to conduct the research and
ascertain a solution to the problem, I would need to gather information to be conversant with the
context and acquire a deeper understanding of the research problem (Sidani and Sechrest, 1996). Now,
after having acquired a better understanding of research rhetoric, I am able to discern that data obtained
during that research was both qualitative and quantitative, indicative of the use of a mixed-methods
approach. This also suggests that the underlying worldview could well have been pragmatism because
it is considered one of the paradigms that underpin mixed-methods research and which generally
focuses on solving practical problems in the real world (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Morgan,
2007, Feilzer, 2010) unlike the transformative paradigm which focuses solely on marginalised groups
of society from a political emancipatory perspective (Mertens, 2003).

Developing paradigmatic position and epistemological understandings
Trying to find my own paradigmatic position and epistemological understanding is very challenging,
least of all because it entails engaging with much research literature, understanding and analysing that
literature, and contemplating where on the continuum my paradigmatic position and epistemological
understandings lie. I would argue that such positioning is shaped by ones upbringing, life experiences
and belief system. Someone who was brought up to believe in the objective world, which is absolute,
permanent, fixed and metaphysical, and the subjective world, which is relative, temporary, flexible, and
material (Al Zeera, 2001, p45) will search for a paradigm that has the ability to accommodate both
worlds. The more I become immersed in this intellectual journey and quest for a paradigmatic position
that is a true reflection of myself, the more polarised the established paradigms and I become.


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The positivist paradigm postulates that one tangible reality exist that can only be arrived at through
quantitative and experimental methods. It is value free and untainted by external influences. The more
detached the observer and the observed, the more reliable and valid the results (Creswell, 2003).
Disillusioned with the positivist paradigm and its inability to deal with the complexities of human
science, the interpretive/constructive paradigm emerged. Social scientists postulate that reality is
socially constructed and arrived at through qualitative and hermeneutic approaches to understand
inductively and holistically human experiences in context-specific settings (Al Zeera, 2001, p32). The
observer and the observed are inseparable. The closer the two, the deeper the understanding of the
phenomenon being studied.

Positivism and constructivism occupy opposite ends of the paradigm continuum, with other paradigms
like postpositivism, transformative, pragmatic, critical theory, advocacy/participatory, lying somewhere
in between (Creswell, 2003; McKenna, 2003; Guba and Lincoln, 2005; Mackenzie and Knipe, 2006).
When I look at the existing paradigms, I see a segmented parochial perspective of reality and
knowledge. The more I engage with the literature, the more I find myself being drawn to the pragmatic
paradigm. The pragmatist is not committed to any one system of philosophy or reality (Mackenzie
and Knipe, 2006). The pragmatist is free to choose whatever approach is most suited to bringing about
a comprehensive solution to the research problem. My ontological and epistemological perspectives are
underpinned by a belief in both the physical and transcendent world. To date, I have yet to find that all
encompassing paradigm; however, as an early career researcher of the social sciences, suffice it to say,
I am inclined to pragmatism and the mixed-methods approach to research.

Methodological positioning with respect to the proposed research
The type of data required and the overall purpose of the research subsequently determines the data
collection method(s) employed (Creswell, 2003). In trying to determine the prevalence of dyslexia at a
Health Sciences university in Saudi Arabia, data regarding attitude to and preferred style of learning,
specific academic areas of difficulty and family traits that could negatively impact learning need to be
collected. The use of an open-ended interview is a means by which such data can be collected. It is a
method that is associated with qualitative research and which allows the researcher to actively engage
the participant in their world, thus gaining a deeper more comprehensive understanding of the
phenomenon being studied (Greene, 2005).While such data maybe richer and deeper, it does not lend
itself well to quantitative analysis. However, data obtained via a Likert-type questionnaire can be

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quantified and measured, which is particularly useful for satisfying the interest of stakeholders, who,
with respect to this research, have an interest in the efficacy of the remedial English language
programme and the value/worth of the computer dyslexia screening software. Quantitative data also
adds validity to the findings of qualitative research (Creswell, 2003), which some members of the
research community question on the grounds that qualitative data is borne out of an interpretive process
informed by the participants perspective of the phenomenon being studied and the subjectivity,
intuition and creativity of the researcher (Sidani and Sechrest, 1996).

Choice of paradigm with respect to the proposed research
All three approaches to research are governed by certain knowledge claims, otherwise referred to as
paradigms (Guba and Lincoln, 2005; Mertens, 1998), epistemologies and ontologies (Crotty, 1998), or
research methodologies (Neuman, 2000). Pondering on Mackenzie and Knipes statement that [i]t is
the choice of paradigm that sets down the intent, motivation and expectations for the research (2006,
p194), I cannot help but feel a sense of constraint regarding the type of research I can undertake, as
opposed to when the choice of approach is determined by the intent, motivation and expectations of the
research (Creswell, 2003), which ultimately informs the choice of paradigm. The purpose of this
research is to determine the prevalence of dyslexia in a Health Sciences university in Saudi Arabia and
to propose modifications to the existing remedial English language programme. Of the three
approaches to research: qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods, I believe the latter to be more
suited for the design and purpose of this research because it is an approach that embraces multiple
and diverse methods for gathering, analyzing and representing educational phenomena within a
framework that intentionally engages with the different ways of knowing and valuing that the different
methods embody (Green, 2005, p208). Pragmatism is considered the paradigm that best underlies
mixed-methods research (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003), and the paradigm I believe to be most
appropriate for this research design because it accords the researcher the freedom to choose the
methods, techniques and procedures of research that best meet their needs and purposes (Creswell,
2003, p12).

In determining the prevalence of dyslexia in the aforementioned institute, data regarding attitudes to
and preferred style of learning, as well as academic areas of difficulty will be collected. In the initial
phase of the research, data will be collected from a large number of individuals by means of a Likert-
type questionnaire and a dyslexia computer screening test. In the second phase of the research, data will

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be collected from a smaller number of individuals by means of an open-ended interview. Collecting
both quantitative and qualitative data is advantageous because the findings from one method can help
enhance or inform the other (Greene, Caracelli and Graham, 1989, cited in Creswell, 2003), and at the
same time, strengthen any proposal for affecting change (Mertens, 2003). In this instance, modifying
the existing remedial English language programme at the aforementioned institute.

In order to quantify and measure the students performance on the remedial English language
programme, data will be collected via a Likert-type questionnaire and analysed using the positivist
frame of reference. The positivist ontology postulates that reality is considered that which is
observable, measurable and controllable, and epistemologically, it is obtainable through objective
observation. The greater the distance between the observer and the observed, the more valid the
findings (Creswell, 2003). Being able to control and predict the environment (i.e. the curriculum)
where the course objectives and the inputs (i.e. the students, the teachers the text-books ,etc) are
reduced to the following equation: objectives + inputs = output/pass rate, in theory, should enable one
to predict the output/pass rate (McKenna, 2003). For this reason, the positivist paradigm is attractive
to university executive and academic staff who are under enormous strain to make their education
systems more efficient and to produce graduates with considerably fewer resources (Luckett, 1995,
p131, cited in McKenna, 2003, p217).

In order to add depth and richness to the research, qualitative data will be collected via an open-ended
interview, which will give the researcher a deeper insight into the phenomenon being studied. Research
in the constructivist paradigm seeks to understand the research problem from the participants point of
view, and as such, lends itself well to qualitative data analysis where meaning is interpretive and
experiential. Although the constructivist paradigm values the participants point of view, it [does] not
go far enough in advocating for an action agenda to help marginalised peoples (Creswell, 2003, p9).
In the context of this research, students on the remedial English language programme can be considered
marginalised people as they are distinct from the general student body. Personal involvement with the
remedial programme has highlighted the need for it to be modified in order to better address the
learning needs of the students. To this end, I believe the transformative paradigm is most appropriate
for such a purpose because as well as utilising both qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods
(Mackenzie and Knipe, 2006), it also contain[s] an action agenda for reform that may change the lives
of the participants, [and] the institutions in which individuals work, live [or study] (Somekh and

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Lewin, 2005, p275). It is for this reason that I have adopted the transformative paradigm for this phase
of the research.

Conclusion
The purpose of this paper was to demonstrate an understanding of some of the more common research
paradigms expressed in the literature and how they impact research design, as well as examine my own
developing paradigmatic position. Paradigms have been described as shared beliefs among a
community of researchers (Kuhn, 1962, 1970); assumptions, concepts, or propositions that inform
thinking and research (Bogdan and Biklen, 1998); as well as a philosophical worldview (Teddlie and
Tashakkori (2009). According to Mackenzie and Knipe (2006), the paradigm determines the nature of
the research and without nominating a paradigm as the first step, there is no basis for subsequent
choices regarding methodology, methods, literature or research design (p,194). However, I believe I
have empirically demonstrated that research design and all that it entails is possible without being
consciously aligned to a particular paradigm; even though, inherent in the design is a paradigmatic
position. Such positions are shaped by ones upbringing, life experiences and belief system. I believe in
freedom of speech, freedom of choice and the notion that one size does not fit all. I was brought up to
believe in the material and spiritual world, and by choice, still do today. All of these beliefs are
underpinned by different ontological and epistemological perspectives and have been instrumental in
directing my developing paradigmatic position towards pragmatism. The pragmatist is not loyal to any
one system of philosophy or reality, but adopts that which is most suited to finding a comprehensive
answer to the what and how (Creswell, 2003). In other words, the pragmatist is not hampered by
philosophical paradigmatic constraints but is free to choose whatever methods, techniques and
procedures of research best meet[s] their needs and purposes (Creswell, 2003, p12). This, I believe,
has been illustrated in my choice of approaches (positive and transformative) with regards to
investigating the prevalence of dyslexia at a Health Sciences university in Saudi Arabia and the
efficacy of its remedial English language programme.


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PART TWO
Article No.1
The article is entitled: Dyslexia in the United Arab Emirates University A Study of Prevalence in
English and Arabic. International Journal of English Linguistics, Vol 1(2), 2September 2011, pp64-72.

Research Topic
The research topic is dyslexia in the United Arab Emirates University (UAEU), and was sponsored by
the United Arab Emirates University Research Affairs (Grant No.: 01-06-1-11).

Research Problem
As the author(s), Dr Rima Aboudan, et al, states, Students in the United Arab Emirates University
(UAEU), and in the country for that matter, are not assessed systematically or otherwise, for dyslexia.
Determining the prevalence of dyslexia in higher educational institutes in the UAE is therefore a
pressing need, as it would facilitate planning for necessary intervention.

Research Focus
The research focus comprises of three elements: (1) to investigate the prevalence of dyslexia among the
female bilingual student population at UAEU, (2) to observe the vocational interests and fields of study
of students who display features of dyslexia and (3) to examine whether dyslexia transcends language
boundaries between Arabic as the L1 and English as the L2.

Data collection methods employed
During the academic year 2007/2008, data was collected from 2500 UAEU female students between
the age of 18-23 years old and whose L1 was Arabic and who had received 12 years of school exposure
to the English language. In order to collect the data, two methods were employed: a demographic
questionnaire and the Emirates Dyslexia Indicator Test (EDIT), a computerised dyslexia screening test.
The former collected personal information, information on family traits that could influence reading
difficulties, information on learning styles and attitudes to learning, as well as a self-appraisal scale to
measure their reading skills using a 1 5 rating scale: 1 = excellent & 5 = very poor; and their
enjoyment of reading using a 1 5 rating scale:1 = very much & 5 = not at all. The latter comprised of
a set of indicators which would indicate whether a reading difficulty was present.


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Summary of article
The article begins by presenting a definition of dyslexia according to Professor Margaret J Snowling,
an internationally renowned expert on child dyslexia, and the British Psychological Society who report
that 10% of the worlds population is dyslexic with 4% being severely dyslexic and 6% having mild to
moderate difficulties. The article then proceeds to give an overview of some of the internationally
recognised characteristics of dyslexia and how they negatively impact an individuals learning ability
and interpersonal skills. It then positions itself within the realms of higher education (HE) and
comments on the increasing number of dyslexic students entering into HE internationally and the
advancement of Western countries in this relatively new area of research in comparison to Arab
countries. This brings us to the essence of the study and the authors main point in which they state that
[w]hile those students in Western Universities are identified and receive the necessary assistance, such
programs do not exist in the Gulf region. The authors then go on to present an overview of the
educational context at UAEU. The university consists of 10 colleges and 60 departments. The primary
mode of instruction is English with a few programmes conducted in Arabic. At the time of the study
(2007/2008) it was the most popular destination for students seeking higher education in the UAE,
with over 16,000 students studying at its facilities. Education at the university is segregated on the
basis of gender, and Emirati women make up 75% of UAEUs student population. The remainder of
the article discusses the data collection methods employed, the types of data collected, the results,
discussion and conclusion.

Critique / Evaluation
In the introduction, the key objective was to determine the prevalence of dyslexia in the UAEU
specifically. On the other hand, the abstract, which is normally written after the completion of an article
for accuracy of information, states that the findings confirm the occurrence of dyslexia among
higher education students in the UAE generally, and in the discussion, the article further states that
this data provides much needed baseline information on the prevalence of dyslexic features among
university students. In my opinion, these are hasty generalisations as the study was only conducted
at the UAEU. According to Berliner (2002), the myriad of contexts that abound in educational research
makes generalisations extremely difficult; so at the very least, this would render the respective
information misleading when presented as being indicative of higher education universities in the UAE
in general. I believe that these generalisations may be the result of the paucity of academic research on
dyslexia in Arabic, coupled with the desire and need for such investigations.

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As mentioned above, in the introduction, the article states that one of the purposes of the study was
to determine the prevalence of dyslexia in the UAEU Emirati bilingual student population.
However, data was only obtained from the female population, which, although constituted 75% of the
UAEU student body, still left the male sector of the population undiagnosed. According to the article,
at the time of the study, the UAEU was the most popular destination for students seeking higher
education in the UAE, with over 16,000 students studying at its facilities. This meant that 4,000 male
students (25%) were not assessed for dyslexic tendencies; and if, as the British Psychological Society
claim, dyslexia affects about one in ten people (cited in the article, p65), then we are talking
about 400 students who are dyslexic or at risk of dyslexia. In my opinion, it can be argued that the first
objective of the study has not been achieved, because the research is parochial and needs to be
broadened to include the entire UAEU student population. However, if a separate study of the male
student population at UAEU has already been conducted or is pending, then the article should state that
unequivocally. The use of varied strategies of enquiries such as a closed-ended questionnaire to obtain
quantifiable data on academic areas of difficulty and attitudes to reading, and an open-ended
questionnaire to obtain qualitative data regarding learning and family traits that could negatively
impact the development of reading, as well as a computerised dyslexia screening test to determine
whether a reading difficulty was present, seems to suggest that the author(s) paradigmatic positioning is
pragmatism and that the mixed-methods approach to data collection and analysis is the underpinnings
of the research.

In my opinion, the research provides useful baseline information on the prevalence of features
consistent with dyslexia among UAEU students (i.e. 17.6%), but I feel it is limited in scope as there
remains 25% of the UAEU student population that was not included in the study. Likewise, the open-
ended questionnaire, whilst it provides useful qualitative data regarding learning difficulties and family
characteristics that could negatively impact the development of reading, its restrictive nature does not
accord the researcher and the participant the opportunity to formulate probing follow-up questions as
would a semi-structured interview. I believe the research has provided enough quantitative and
qualitative data to ensure the implementation of necessary screening procedures, as well as the
allocation of funds for remedial provisions. However, I concur with the authors that the research needs
to be broader in scope to explore the cognitive, behavioural and socioeconomic factors, as well as
genetic factors such as consanguinity in Arab communities to validate the geographical expansion of

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the research. Nevertheless, it has inspired me to conduct a similar study with regards to the prevalence
of dyslexia at a Health Sciences university in Saudi Arabia.

Article No.2
This article is entitled: Whats in a name? Students with dyslexia: their use of metaphor in making
sense of their disability. British Journal of Special Education, Vol 34(2), 2 November 2007, pp77-82.

Research Topic
The research topic is dyslexic students and the use of metaphors in making sense of their disability.

Research Problem
As the authors Professor Robert Burden and research assistant Julia Burdett state, most research on
dyslexia have tended to focus on identifying difficulties in developing literacy skills and associated
cognitive variables (p77). Comparatively, very few have focused on the affective factors or ways for
those affected to express their innermost thoughts and feelings about their difficulties.

Research Focus
The focus of this research is to investigate the use of metaphors in understanding the deep-rooted
thoughts and feelings of children and young people with dyslexia and how they come to terms with
their difficulties, as well as examining the kinds of actions they would likely embrace to deal with those
difficulties.

Research context
The context of the research is a dyslexia specialist boarding school for up to eighty boys between the
ages of 11-16. The school is renowned for its excellence in academic and sporting achievements and
only accepts individuals who are of average intelligence or above.

Data collection methods employed
Data was collected via a Likert-type questionnaire, sentence completion exercises relating to the
students feelings about themselves and their current educational experiences, and a semi-structured
interview in which particular attention was given to the responses generated by the following request:
If you were to imagine dyslexia as some kind of thing or picture in your mind, how would you

Page | 16

describe it? (p79). It was really the responses to this stimuli that was the focus of the essay; that is, the
metaphorical thinking that depicted their innermost feelings and thoughts regarding how they
conceptualised dyslexia and dealt with their difficulties.

Summary of article
Following the abstract, the authors introduce the article by setting the context of the research problem
stating that [w]hen the possibility is raised that a child or adult may be suffering from specific learning
difficulties of a dyslexic nature, a fairly standard set of assessment procedures tends to be put into
operation (p77). These procedures, by and large, focus primarily on the cognitive and linguistic
dimensions of dyslexia, but scant attention is given to the exploration of the affective dimension of
dyslexia (p77). The authors express the need for a platform from which children and adults suffering
from dyslexia can express their innermost thoughts and feelings about living with dyslexia. They
believe that one way of opening up such narratives is to explore the metaphors that people with
disabilities use to describe their condition (p77). The assumption is that such metaphors would
illuminate those thoughts and feelings and facilitate the provision of appropriate and effective
intervention. The article then goes on to discuss the works of researchers such as Sfard (1998), Reddy
(1979), Hesse (1966), Ortony (1979), Bruner (1986), Leary (1999), Ozick (1986), and Black (1979) on
the use of metaphors as a means of expressing deep-rooted thoughts and feelings. The article then
discusses the research context, a specialist boarding school for dyslexic boys aged 11-16 years old. The
school is renowned for its excellence on both the academic and sporting fronts (p78) and the authors
considered it a worthy endeavour to obtain an in-depth account of the students perspectives on their
personal experiences and how they have come to understand and conceptualise dyslexia. The paper
then discusses the data collection methods employed; that is, a Likert-type questionnaire, a series of
sentence completion items, and a semi-structured interview; all of which generated a wealth of data that
challenged common assumptions that difficulties of a dyslexic nature are automatic precursors of low
self-esteem, learnt helplessness, anxiety and depression (p78). The remainder of the article, i.e. the
results and the discussion, focuses on the responses to that pertinent question: If you were to imagine
dyslexia as some kind of thing or picture in your mind, how would you describe it (p79).

Critique / Evaluation
From the outset, I was intrigued and drawn in by the title and focus of the article: Students with
dyslexia: their use of metaphor in making sense of their disability. The title is clear, appropriate and

Page | 17

intriguing. The research problem, context, data methods, research focus, results and conclusion are
succinctly presented in the abstract; however, the hypothesis has not been mentioned. In my opinion,
mentioning the hypothesis would have complemented the abstract and enabled the reader to discern
whether the research had confirmed or disconfirmed the hypothesis.

The introduction coherently develops an argument for the intended research and adequately establishes
the research context, problem and hypothesis. The authors discuss the problem within the broader
context of disability to illustrate that the same problems therein have by and large been rectified, but in
the realms of SEN, in particular dyslexia, this has not been the case thereby establishing the importance
of the research. The purpose of the research has been made clear in the introduction, which is to
investigate the use of metaphors as a platform for children and young people to express their innermost
thoughts and feelings about dyslexia. The discussion on metaphors, which constitutes the basis of the
hypothesis, is neither inappropriate or overemphasised. Several studies on metaphors have been cited,
which allows the reader to conduct further research on the subject should they wish to do so. The
preponderance of substantiating evidences cited in the article are pertinent and current at the time of
publication. In my view, the introduction presents a perspicuous argument with respect to the purpose
and justification of the research and propelled me to read on with much interest and enthusiasm.

All social scientist, implicitly or explicitly, attribute a point-of-view to the people whose actions are
analysed (Becker, 1996, cited in Krauss, 2005, p765). Social science research is subjective by nature,
and in order to be privy to the subjects intended meaning, researches have to immerge themselves in
their world to extrapolate and/or interpret meaning. Thus a social science researcher cannot be an
objective participant, remaining aloof from the subject and the phenomenon being studied. To ascertain
data, the authors conducted semi-structured interviews related to the participants thoughts and feelings
on the process that shaped their dyslexic identity, and a Likert-type questionnaire related to matters of
self-efficacy and learnt helplessness. The data collection methods employed were appropriate for the
purposes of the research (Mackenzie and Knipe, 2006; Creswell, 2003); and although data obtained via
the Likert-type questionnaire lent itself to being quantified, the authors chose not to quantify the data,
but focused instead on the qualitative data obtained via the semi-structured interviews. Their reason for
adopting that position was not expressed in the article, but as Krauss (2005) mentions, face-to-face
interaction is the best way of getting into the mind of an individual to better understand their words and
intended meanings. So while the authors decision may not have been detrimental to the research

Page | 18

objective, as Mackenzie and Knipe (2006) report, quantitative data may be utilised in a way, which
supports or expands upon qualitative data (p195). Likewise, Greene, Caracelli, and Graham (2009) in
Creswell (2003) state that the results from one method can help develop or inform the other (p15).
Thus I believe the authors should have utilised the data obtained via the Likert-type questionnaire if
only to add richness and depth to the research.

Prior to this article, the affective dimensions of dyslexia was an area that I had previously given scant
attention; and like the authors, was really astonished and impressed by the range and creativity of the
metaphors used by the boys (p79) to depict their innermost thoughts and feelings. The research
highlighted the usefulness of metaphors as a platform for unearthing and bringing to the surface deeply
ingrained thoughts and feelings of dyslexic children and young people . The results of the research also
challenged the preconceived idea that difficulties of a dyslexic nature [were] automatic precursors of
low self-esteem, learnt helplessness, anxiety and depression (p78). It also unearthed other areas for
further exploration such as: whether the use of metaphors in any educational context would produce
similar results as those produced in this specialist school where the ethos was positive and focused on
the individual taking ownership for their own success, or the developmental nature of metaphors
alongside a persons mental adjustment to disability, or the use of metaphors as a therapeutic element.

The research confirmed the authors hypothesis regarding the usefulness of metaphors as a platform
from which children and young people could express their deep-rooted thoughts and feelings about
their dyslexic experiences. However, the authors did not discuss whether any other kinds of
interventions were unearthed that the students would likely embrace in dealing with their learning
difficulties; thus any assumptions or opinions on my behalf would merely be conjecture. This, in my
opinion, constitutes a shortcoming in the research. Like all research, this piece of work is not without
its limitations. It was a small scale study with fifty dyslexic boys between the ages of 11and 16 in a
highly selective educational context. Nevertheless, the research produced a wealth of data on how boys
with dyslexia perceive and deal with their situation, and highlighted potential areas for further research.
All in all, I would recommend this exploration as a credible research source.


Page | 19

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Doctorate in Education (Ed.D) - SEN and Inclusive Learning

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