Three types of radioation - Alpha, Beta, Gamma

There are three primary types of radiation:

Alpha - these are fast moving helium atoms. They have high energy, typically in the MeV range, but due
to their large mass, they are stopped by just a few inches of air, or a piece of paper.
Beta - these are fast moving electrons. They typically have energies in the range of a few hundred keV to
several MeV. Since electrons are might lighter than helium atoms, they are able to penetrate further,
through several feet of air, or several millimeters of plastic or less of very light metals.
Gamma - these are photons, just like light, except of much higher energy, typically from several keV to
several MeV. X-Rays and gamma rays are really the same thing, the difference is how they were
produced. Depending on their energy, they can be stopped by a thin piece of aluminum foil, or they can
penetrate several inches of lead.
In this experiment, we study the penetrating power of each type of radiation. For this test, we used an old
radium coated watch hand, obtained from, where else, eBay.
The radium is an alpha source, and we also get several beta and gamma emissions as well from daughter
products. This hand is about 50 years old, so we should get a nice mixture of radiations. This makes it an
ideal source to use for these experiments.
We first placed the radium watch hand about 1 cm from the face of a GM-45 detector. We obtained an
average of 44307 CPM. A GM-10 detector would also work, and costs about half as much.
Next, we placed a single piece of paper in between the watch hand and detector. The rate dropped to
35111 CPM. The paper blocked all of the alpha rays.
We then put a second piece of paper in between, the counts dropped to 31583 CPM. With a third piece of
paper, 27977 CPM. We are now blocking beta rays with our pieces of paper, each piece blocks some more
of the radiation.
With 3 mm of steel (1/8 inch), the reading went down to 394 CPM. Background is about 50 CPM, so at
this point we're picking up some of the gammas from the source.





..
Gamma radiation, also known as gamma rays or hyphenated as gamma-rays and denoted as ,
is electromagnetic radiation of high frequency and therefore high energy. Gamma rays are ionizing radiation and
are thus biologically hazardous. They are classically produced by the decay from high energy states
of atomic nuclei (gamma decay), but are also created by other processes. Paul Villard, a French chemist and
physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900, while studying radiation emitted from radium during its gamma
decay. Villard's radiation was named "gamma rays" by Ernest Rutherford in 1903.
Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma decay from naturally occurring radioisotopes, and
secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with cosmic ray particles. Rare terrestrial natural sources
produce gamma rays that are not of a nuclear origin, such as lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray flashes.
Gamma rays are produced by a number of astronomical processes in which very high-energy electrons are
produced, that in turn cause secondary gamma rays by the mechanisms of bremsstrahlung, inverse Compton
scattering and synchrotron radiation. A large fraction of such astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earth's
atmosphere and must be detected by spacecraft.
Gamma rays typically have frequencies above 10 exahertz (or >10
19
Hz), and therefore have energies above
100 keV and wavelengths less than 10 picometers (less than the diameter of an atom). However, this is not a hard
and fast definition, but rather only a rule-of-thumb description for natural processes. Gamma rays from radioactive
decay are defined as gamma rays no matter what their energy, so that there is no lower limit to gamma energy
derived from radioactive decay. Gamma decay commonly produces energies of a few hundred keV, and almost
always less than 10 MeV. In astronomy, gamma rays are defined by their energy, and no production process need
be specified. The energies of gamma rays from astronomical sources range over 10 TeV, at a level far too large to
result from radioactive decay. A notable example is extremely powerful bursts of high-energy radiation normally
referred to as long durationgamma-ray bursts, which produce gamma rays by a mechanism not compatible with
radioactive decay. These bursts of gamma rays, thought to be due to the collapse of stars called hypernovas, are
the most powerful events so far discovered in the cosmos.


History of discovery
The first gamma ray source to be discovered historically was the radioactive decay process called gamma
decay. In this type of decay, an excited nucleus emits a gamma ray almost immediately upon formation (it is now
understood that a nuclear isomeric transition, however, can produce inhibited gamma decay with a measurable and
much longer half-life). Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900, while
studying radiation emitted from radium. Villard knew that his described radiation was more powerful than previously
described rays from radium, but did not consider naming them as a different fundamental type.
[1][2]
Villard's
radiation was recognized as being of a type fundamentally different from previously-named rays, by Ernest
Rutherford, who in 1903 named Villard's rays "gamma rays" by analogy with the beta and alpha rays that
Rutherford had differentiated in 1899.
[3]
Gamma rays were named in order of their penetrating power: alpha
rays least, followed by beta rays, followed by gamma rays as the most penetrating. Rutherford also noted that
gamma rays were not deflected (or at least, not easily deflected) by a magnetic field, another property making them
unlike alpha and beta rays.
Gamma rays were first thought to be particles like alpha and beta rays (hence the term "ray"). However, in 1910
British physicist William Henry Bragg demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not massive
particles. Thus, the failure to be deflected by a magnetic field was a characteristic expected of electromagnetic
radation. In 1914, Rutherford and his coworker Edward Andrade measured the wavelengths of gamma rays from
radium, and found that they were similar to X-rays but with shorter wavelengths and (thus) higher frequency. This
was eventually recognized as giving them also more energy per photon, as soon as the latter term became
generally accepted. A gamma decay was then understood to usually emit a single gamma photon.
[edit]Sources of gamma rays


This animation tracks several gamma rays through space and time, from their emission in the jet of a distant blazar to their arrival
in Fermi's Large Area Telescope (LAT).
Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma decay from naturally occurring radioisotopes such
as potassium-40, and also as a secondary radiation from various atmospheric interactions with cosmic
ray particles. Some rare terrestrial natural sources that produce gamma rays that are not of a nuclear origin,
are lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, which produce high energy emissions from natural high-
energy voltages. Gamma rays are produced by a number of astronomical processes in which very high-energy
electrons are produced. Such electrons produce secondary gamma rays by the mechanisms of bremsstrahlung,
inverse Compton scattering and synchrotron radiation. A large fraction of such astronomical gamma rays are
screened by Earth's atmosphere and must be detected by spacecraft. Notable artificial sources of gamma rays
include fission such as occurs in nuclear reactors, and high energy physics experiments, such asneutral pion
decay and nuclear fusion.
[edit]General characteristics
Nuclear physics

Radioactive decay
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fusion
Classical decays[show]
Advanced decays[show]
Emission processes[show]
Capturing[show]
High energy processes[show]
Nucleosynthesis[show]
Scientists[show]
V

T

E
Gamma rays typically have frequencies above 10 exahertz (or >10
19
Hz), and therefore have energies above
100 keV and wavelengths less than 10 picometers (less than the diameter of an atom).
[4]
However, this is not a
hard and fast definition but rather only a rule-of-thumb description for natural processes. Gamma rays
from radioactive decay commonly have energies of a few hundred keV, and almost always less than 10 MeV. On
the other side of the decay energy range, there is effectively no lower limit to gamma energy derived from
radioactive decay. By contrast, the energies of gamma rays from astronomical sources can be much higher,
ranging over 10 TeV, at a level far too large to result from radioactive decay.
[5]

The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has changed in recent decades. Originally, the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by X-ray tubes almost invariably had a longer wavelength than the radiation (gamma rays)
emitted by radioactive nuclei.
[6]
Older literature distinguished between X- and gamma radiation on the basis of
wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10
11
m, defined as gamma
rays.
[7]
However, with artificial sources now able to duplicate any electromagnetic radiation that originates in the
nucleus, as well as far higher energies, the wavelengths characteristic of radioactive gamma ray sources vs. other
types, now completely overlap. Thus, gamma rays are now usually distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted
by definition byelectrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus.
[6][8][9][10]
Exceptions to
this convention occur in astronomy, where gamma decay is seen in the afterglow of certain supernovas, but other
high energy processes known to involve other than radioactive decay are still classed as sources of gamma
radiation. A notable example is extremely powerful bursts of high-energy radiation normally referred to as long
duration gamma-ray bursts, which produce gamma rays by a mechanism not compatible with radioactive decay.
These bursts of gamma rays, thought to be due to the collapse of stars called hypernovas, are the most powerful
events so far discovered in the cosmos.
[edit]Naming conventions and overlap in terminology


The Moon as seen by the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, in gamma rays of greater than 20 MeV. These are produced
by cosmic ray bombardment of its surface. The Sun, which has no similar surface of high atomic number to act as target for cosmic
rays, cannot usually be seen at all at these energies, which are too high to emerge from primary nuclear reactions, such as solar
nuclear fusion (though occasionally the Sun produces gamma rays by cyclotron-type mechanisms, during solar flares). Gamma
rays have higher energy than X-rays.
[11]

In the past, the distinction between X-rays and gamma rays was based on energy, with gamma rays being
considered a higher-energy version of electromagnetic radiation. However, modern high-energy X-rays produced
by linear accelerators for megavoltage treatment in cancer often have higher energy (4 to 25 MeV) than do most
classical gamma rays produced by nuclear gamma decay. One of the most common gamma ray emitting isotopes
used in diagnostic nuclear medicine, technetium-99m, produces gamma radiation of the same energy (140 keV) as
that produced by diagnostic X-ray machines, but of significantly lower energy than therapeutic photons from linear
particle accelerators. In the medical community today, the convention that radiation produced by nuclear decay is
the only type referred to as "gamma" radiation is still respected.
Because of this broad overlap in energy ranges, in physics the two types of electromagnetic radiation are now often
defined by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons (either in orbitals outside of the nucleus, or while being
accelerated to produce Bremsstrahlung-type radiation),
[12]
while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus or by
means of other particle decays or annihilation events. There is no lower limit to the energy of photons produced by
nuclear reactions, and thus ultraviolet or lower energy photons produced by these processes would also be defined
as "gamma rays".
[13]
The only naming-convention that is still universally respected is the rule that electromagnetic
radiation that is known to be of atomic nuclear origin is always referred to as "gamma rays," and never as X-rays.
However, in physics and astronomy, the reverse convention that all gamma rays are considered to be of nuclear
origin is frequently violated.
In astronomy, higher energy gamma and X-rays are defined by energy, since the processes which produce them
may be uncertain and photon energy, not origin, determines the required astronomical detectors needed.
[14]
High
energy photons occur in nature which are known to be produced by processes other than nuclear decay but are
still referred to as gamma radiation. An example is "gamma rays" from lightning discharges at 10 to 20 MeV, and
known to be produced by the Bremsstrahlung mechanism.
Another example is gamma ray bursts, now known to be produced from processes too powerful to involve simple
collections of atoms undergoing radioactive decay. This has led to the realization that many gamma rays produced
in astronomical processes result not from radioactive decay or particle annihilation, but rather in much the same
manner as the production of X-rays. Although gamma rays in astronomy are discussed below as non-radioactive
events, in fact a few gamma rays are known in astronomy to originate explicitly from gamma decay of nucleus (by
their spectra and half-life). A classic example is that of supernova SN 1987A, which emits an "afterglow" of gamma-
ray photons from the decay of newly made radioactive cobalt-56. Most gamma rays in astronomy, however, arise
by other mechanisms. Note that, astronomical literature tends to write "gamma-ray" with a hyphen, by analogy to
X-rays, rather than in a way analogous to alpha rays and beta rays. This notation tends to subtly stress the non-
nuclear source of most astronomical gamma rays.
[edit]Units of measure and exposure
The measure of gamma rays' ionizing ability is called the exposure:
The coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) is the SI unit of ionizing radiation exposure, and is the amount of radiation required to
create 1 coulomb of charge of each polarity in 1 kilogram of matter.
The rntgen (R) is an obsolete traditional unit of exposure, which represented the amount of radiation required to create
1 esu of charge of each polarity in 1 cubic centimeter of dry air. 1 rntgen = 2.5810
4
C/kg
However, the effect of gamma and other ionizing radiation on living tissue is more closely related to the amount
of energy deposited rather than the charge. This is called theabsorbed dose:
The gray (Gy), which has units of (J/kg), is the SI unit of absorbed dose, and is the amount of radiation required to deposit
1 joule of energy in 1 kilogram of any kind of matter.
The rad is the deprecated CGS unit, equal to 0.01 J deposited per kg. 100 rad = 1 Gy.
The equivalent dose is the measure of the biological effect of radiation on human tissue. For gamma rays it is equal
to the absorbed dose.
The sievert (Sv) is the SI unit of equivalent dose, which for gamma rays is numerically equal to the gray (Gy).
The rem is the deprecated CGS unit of equivalent dose. For gamma rays it is equal to the rad or 0.01 J of energy
deposited per kg. 1 Sv = 100 rem.
[edit]Properties
[edit]Shielding
Shielding from gamma rays requires large amounts of mass, in contrast to alpha particles which can be blocked by
paper or skin, and beta particles which can be shielded by foil. Gamma rays are better absorbed by materials with
high atomic numbers and high density, although neither effect is important compared to the total mass per area in
the path of the gamma ray. For this reason, a lead shield is only modestly better (2030% better) as a gamma
shield, than an equal mass of another shielding material such as aluminium, concrete, water or soil; lead's major
advantage is not in lower weight, but rather its compactness due to its higher density. Protective clothing, goggles
and respirators can protect from internal contact with or ingestion of alpha or beta emitting particles, but provide no
protection from gamma radiation from external sources.
The higher the energy of the gamma rays, the thicker the shielding made from the same shielding material is
required. Materials for shielding gamma rays are typically measured by the thickness required to reduce the
intensity of the gamma rays by one half (the half value layer or HVL). For example gamma rays that require 1
cm (0.4) of lead to reduce their intensity by 50% will also have their intensity reduced in half by 4.1
cm of granite rock, 6 cm (2) of concrete, or 9 cm (3) of packed soil. However, the mass of this much concrete
or soil is only 2030% greater than that of lead with the same absorption capability. Depleted uranium is used for
shielding in portable gamma ray sources, but again the savings in weight over lead is modest, and the main effect
is to reduce shielding bulk. In a nuclear power plant, shielding can be provided by steel and concrete in the
pressure and particle containment vessel, while water provides a radiation shielding of fuel rods during storage or
transport into the reactor core. The loss of water or removal of a "hot" fuel assembly into the air would result in
much higher radiation levels than when kept under water.
[edit]Matter interaction


The total absorption coefficient of aluminium (atomic number 13) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the
contributions by the three effects. As is usual, the photoelectric effect is largest at low energies, Compton scattering dominates at
intermediate energies, and pair production dominates at high energies.


The total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions by
the three effects. Here, the photoelectric effect dominates at low energy. Above 5 MeV, pair production starts to dominate.
When a gamma ray passes through matter, the probability for absorption is proportional to the thickness of the
layer, the density of the material, and the absorption cross section of the material. The total absorption shows
an exponential decrease of intensity with distance from the incident surface:

where x is the distance from the incident surface, = n is the absorption coefficient, measured in cm
1
, n the
number of atoms per cm
3
of the material (atomic density), the absorption cross section in cm
2
and x the
distance from the incident surface of the gamma rays in cm.
As it passes through matter, gamma radiation ionizes via three processes: the photoelectric effect, Compton
scattering, and pair production.
Photoelectric effect: This describes the case in which a gamma photon interacts with and transfers its energy to an
atomic electron, causing the ejection of that electron from the atom. The kinetic energy of the
resulting photoelectron is equal to the energy of the incident gamma photon minus the energy that originally bound
the electron to the atom (binding energy). The photoelectric effect is the dominant energy transfer mechanism for X-
ray and gamma ray photons with energies below 50 keV (thousand electron volts), but it is much less important at
higher energies.
Compton scattering: This is an interaction in which an incident gamma photon loses enough energy to an atomic
electron to cause its ejection, with the remainder of the original photon's energy emitted as a new, lower energy
gamma photon whose emission direction is different from that of the incident gamma photon, hence the term
"scattering". The probability of Compton scattering decreases with increasing photon energy. Compton scattering is
thought to be the principal absorption mechanism for gamma rays in the intermediate energy range 100 keV to 10
MeV. Compton scattering is relatively independent of the atomic number of the absorbing material, which is why very
dense materials like lead are only modestly better shields, on a per weight basis, than are less dense materials.
Pair production: This becomes possible with gamma energies exceeding 1.02 MeV, and becomes important as an
absorption mechanism at energies over 5 MeV (see illustration at right, for lead). By interaction with the electric
field of a nucleus, the energy of the incident photon is converted into the mass of an electron-positron pair. Any
gamma energy in excess of the equivalent rest mass of the two particles (totaling at least 1.02 MeV) appears as the
kinetic energy of the pair and in the recoil of the emitting nucleus. At the end of the positron's range, it combines with
a free electron, and the two annihilate, and the entire mass of these two is then converted into two gamma photons of
at least 0.51 MeV energy each (or higher according to the kinetic energy of the annihilated particles).
The secondary electrons (and/or positrons) produced in any of these three processes frequently have enough
energy to produce much ionization themselves.
[edit]Light interaction
High-energy (from 80 to 500 GeV) gamma rays arriving from far-distant quasars are used to estimate
the extragalactic background light in the universe: The highest-energy rays interact more readily with the
background light photons and thus the density of the background light may be estimated by analyzing the
incoming gamma ray spectrums.
[15]

[edit]Gamma ray production
Gamma rays can be produced by a wide range of phenomena, both nuclear and non-nuclear.
[edit]Radioactive decay (gamma decay)
Gamma rays from radioactive gamma decay are produced alongside other forms of radiation such
as alpha or beta, and are produced after the other types of decay occur. The mechanism is that when a nucleus
emits an or particle, the daughter nucleus is usually left in an excited state. It can then move to a lower
energy state by emitting a gamma ray, in much the same way that an atomic electron can jump to a lower
energy state by emitting a photon. Emission of a gamma ray from an excited nuclear state typically requires
only 10
12
seconds, and is thus nearly instantaneous. Gamma decay from excited states may also
follow nuclear reactions such as neutron capture, nuclear fission, or nuclear fusion.
In certain cases, the excited nuclear state following the emission of a beta particle may be more stable than
average, and is termed a metastable excited state, if its decay is 100 to 1000 times longer than the average
10
12
seconds. Such nuclei have half-lives that are easily measurable, and are termed nuclear isomers. Some
nuclear isomers are able to stay in their excited state for minutes, hours, days, or occasionally far longer, before
emitting a gamma ray. Isomeric transition is the name given to a gamma decay from such a state. The process
of isomeric transition is therefore similar to any gamma emission, but differs in that it involves the intermediate
metastable excited states of the nuclei.
An emitted gamma ray from any type of excited state may transfer its energy directly to one of the most tightly
bound electrons causing it to be ejected from the atom, a process termed the photoelectric effect (it should not
be confused with the internal conversion process, in which no real gamma ray photon is produced as an
intermediate particle).


Decay scheme of 60Co
Gamma rays, X-rays, visible light, and radio waves are all forms of electromagnetic radiation. The only
difference is thefrequency and hence the energy of those photons. Gamma rays are generally the most
energetic of these, although broad overlap with X-ray energies occurs. An example of gamma ray production
follows:
First 60Co decays to excited 60Ni by beta decay by emission of an electron of 0.31 MeV. Then the
excited 60Ni drops down to the ground state (see nuclear shell model) by emitting two gamma rays in
succession (1.17 MeV then 1.33 MeV). This path is followed 99.88% of the time:
60
27Co

60
28Ni*
+ e +

e
+ + 1.17 MeV
60
28Ni*

60
28Ni
+ + 1.33 MeV
Another example is the alpha decay of 241Am to form 237Np; this alpha decay is accompanied
by gamma emission. In some cases, the gamma emission spectrum for a nucleus (daughter nucleus) is
quite simple, (e.g. 60Co/60Ni) while in other cases, such as with (241Am/237Np and 192Ir/192Pt), the gamma
emission spectrum is complex, revealing that a series of nuclear energy levels can exist. The fact that an
alpha spectrum can have a series of different peaks with different energies reinforces the idea that several
nuclear energy levels are possible.
Because a beta decay is accompanied by the emission of a neutrino which also carries energy away, the
beta spectrum does not have sharp lines, but instead has a broad peak. Hence from beta decay alone it is
not possible to probe the different energy levels found in the nucleus.
In optical spectroscopy, it is well known that an entity which emits light can also absorb light at the
same wavelength (photon energy). For instance, a sodium flame can emit yellow light as well as absorb the
yellow light from another sodium vapor lamp. In the case of gamma rays, this can be seen in Mssbauer
spectroscopy. Here, a correction for the Doppler shift due to recoil of the nucleus usually is not required,
since the emitting and absorbing atoms are locked into a crystal, which absorbs their momentum
(see Mssbauer effect). In this way, the exact conditions for gamma ray absorption through resonance can
be attained.
This is similar to the Franck Condon effects seen in optical spectroscopy.
[edit]Gamma rays from sources other than radioactive decay
Main article: gamma-ray astronomy
A few gamma rays in astronomy are known to arise from gamma decay (see discussion of SN1987A) but
most do not.
Gamma radiation, like X-radiation, can be produced by a variety of phenomena. When high-energy gamma
rays, electrons, or protons bombard materials, the excited atoms within emit characteristic "secondary"
gamma rays, which are products of the temporary creation of excited nuclear states in the bombarded
atoms (such transitions form a topic innuclear spectroscopy). Such gamma rays are produced by the
nucleus, but not as a result of nuclear excitement from radioactive decay.
Energy in the gamma radiation range, often explicitly called gamma-radiation when it comes from
astrophysical sources, is also produced by sub-atomic particle and particle-photon interactions. These
include electron-positron annihilation, neutral pion decay, bremsstrahlung, inverse Compton
scattering and synchrotron radiation.


The red dots show some of the ~500 terrestrial gamma-ray flashes daily detected by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space
Telescope through 2010. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center.
Terrestrial thunderstorms. In a terrestrial gamma-ray flash a brief pulse of gamma radiation can occur in the
Earth's atmosphere, inside thunderstorms. These gamma rays are thought to be produced by high intensity static
electric fields accelerating electrons, which then produce gamma rays by bremsstrahlung as they collide with and
are slowed by atoms in the atmosphere. Gamma rays up to 100 MeV can be emitted by terrestrial thunderstorms,
as first discovered by space-borne observatories. Current theories hold that the strong electric fields within
thunderclouds unleash avalanches of electrons that reach relativistic speeds before colliding with air molecules to
release powerful gamma rays. This raises the possibility of health risks to passengers and crew on aircraft flying
in or near thunderclouds.
[16]

High energy gamma rays in astronomy include the gamma ray background produced when cosmic
rays (either high speed electrons or protons) interact with ordinary matter, producing pair-production gamma
rays at 511 keV. Alternatively bremsstrahlung at energies of tens of MeV or more are produced when
cosmic ray electrons interact with nuclei of sufficiently high atomic number (see gamma ray image of the
Moon at the beginning of this article, for illustration).


Image of entire sky in 100 MeV or greater gamma rays as seen by the EGRET instrument aboard the CGRO spacecraft.
Bright spots within the galactic plane are pulsars while those above and below the plane are thought to be quasars.
Pulsars and magnetars. The gamma ray sky (see illustration at right) is dominated by the more common and
longer-term production of gamma rays in beams that emanate from pulsars within the Milky Way. Sources from
the rest of the sky are mostlyquasars. Pulsars are thought to be neutron stars with magnetic fields that produce
focused beams of radiation, and are far less energetic, more common, and much nearer (typically seen only in
our own galaxy) than are quasars or the rarer sources of gamma ray bursts. In a pulsar, which produces gamma
rays for much longer than a burst, the relatively long-lived magnetic field of the pulsar produces focused beams of
relativistic speed charged particles, which produce gamma rays (bremsstrahlung) when these charged particles
strike gas or dust in the nearby medium, and are decelerated. This is a similar mechanism to the production of
high energy photons in megavoltage radiation therapy machines (seebremsstrahlung). The "inverse Compton
effect", in which charged particles (usually electrons) scatter from low-energy photons to convert them to higher
energy photons is another possible mechanism of gamma ray production from relativistic charged particle beams.
Neutron stars with a very high magnetic field (magnetars) are thought to produce astronomical soft gamma
repeaters, which are another relatively long-lived star-powered source of gamma radiation.
Quasars and active galaxies. More powerful gamma rays from more distant quasars and active nearby galaxies
probably have a roughly similar linear particle accelerator-like method of gamma ray production. High energy
electrons produced by the quasar, followed again by inverse Compton scattering, synchrotron radiation, or
bremsstrahlung, likely produce the gamma rays. As the black hole at the center of such galaxies intermittantly
destroys stars and focuses charged particles derived from them into beams, these beams interact with gas, dust,
and lower energy photons to produce X-ray and gamma ray radiation. These sources are known to fluctuate with
durations of a few weeks, indicating their relatively small size (less than a few light-weeks across). The particle
beams emerge from the rotatational poles of the supermassive black hole at a galactic center, which is thought to
form the power source of the quasar. Such sources of gamma and X-rays are the most commonly visible high
intensity sources outside our own galaxy, since they shine not as bursts (see illustration), but instead relatively
continuously when viewed with gamma ray telescopes. The power of a typical quasar is about 10
40
watts, of
which only a small fraction is emitted as gamma radiation, and much of the rest is emitted as electromagnetic
waves at all frequencies, including radio waves.


A hypernova. Artist's illustration showing the life of amassive star as nuclear fusion converts lighter elements into heavier
ones. When fusion no longer generates enough pressure to counteract gravity, the star rapidly collapses to form a black
hole. Theoretically, energy may be released during the collapse along the axis of rotation to form a long duration gamma-
ray burst.
Gamma-ray bursts. The most intense sources of gamma rays known, are also the most intense sources of any
type of electromagnetic radiation presently known. They are rare compared with the sources discussed above.
These intense sources are the "long duration burst" sources of gamma rays in astronomy ("long" in this context,
meaning a few tens of seconds). By contrast, "short" gamma ray bursts, which are not associated with
supernovae, are thought to produce gamma rays during the collision of pairs of neutron stars, or a neutron star
and black hole after they spiral toward each other by emission of gravitational waves; such bursts last two
seconds or less, and are of far lower energy than the "long" bursts (they are often seen only in our own galaxy for
this reason).
[17]

The so-called long-duration gamma ray bursts produce events in which energies of ~ 10
44
joules (as much
energy as ourSun will produce in its entire life-time) but over a period of only 20 to 40 seconds,
accompanied by high-efficiency conversion to gamma rays (on the order of 50% total energy conversion).
The leading hypotheses for the mechanism of production of these highest-known intensity beams of
radiation, are inverse Compton scattering and synchrotron radiationproduction of gamma rays from high-
energy charged particles. These processes occur as relativistic charged particles leaving the region near
the event horizon of the newly formed black hole during the supernova explosion, and focused for a few
tens of seconds into a relativistic beam by the magnetic field of the exploding hypernova. The fusion
explosion of the hypernova drives the energetics of the process. If the narrowly directed beam happens to
be pointed toward the Earth, it shines with high gamma ray power even at distances of up to 10 billion light
yearsclose to the edge of the visible universe.
[edit]Health effects
All ionizing radiation causes similar damage at a cellular level, but because rays of alpha particles and beta
particles are relatively non-penetrating, external exposure to them causes only
[citation needed]
localized
damage, e.g. radiation burns to the skin. Gamma rays and neutrons are more penetrating, causing diffuse
damage throughout the body (e.g.radiation sickness, cell's DNA damage, cell death due to damaged DNA,
increasing incidence of cancer) rather than burns. External radiation exposure should also be distinguished
from internal exposure, due to ingested or inhaled radioactive substances, which, depending on the
substance's chemical nature, can produce both diffuse and localized internal damage. The most biological
damaging forms of gamma radiation occur in the gamma ray window, between 3 and 10 MeV. See cobalt-
60.
[edit]Uses


Gamma-ray image of a truck with two stowaways taken with a VACIS (vehicle and container imaging system)
Gamma rays travel to Earth across vast distances of the universe, only to be absorbed by Earth's
atmosphere. Different wavelengths of light penetrate Earth's atmosphere to different depths. Instruments
aboard high-altitude balloons and such satellites as the Compton Observatory provide our only view of the
gamma spectrum sky.
Gamma-induced molecular changes can also be used to alter the properties of semi-precious stones, and is
often used to change whitetopaz into blue topaz.
Non-contact industrial sensors used in the Refining, Mining, Chemical, Food, Soaps and Detergents, and
Pulp and Paper industries, in applications measuring levels, density, and thicknesses commonly use
sources of gamma. Typically these use Co-60 or Cs-137 isotopes as the radiation source.
In the US, gamma ray detectors are beginning to be used as part of the Container Security Initiative (CSI).
These US$5 million machines are advertised to scan 30 containers per hour. The objective of this technique
is to screen merchant ship containers before they enter US ports.
Gamma radiation is often used to kill living organisms, in a process called irradiation. Applications of this
include sterilizing medical equipment (as an alternative to autoclaves or chemical means), removing decay-
causing bacteria from many foods or preventing fruit and vegetables from sprouting to maintain freshness
and flavor.
Despite their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are also used to treat some types of cancer, since the
rays kill cancer cells also. In the procedure called gamma-knifesurgery, multiple concentrated beams of
gamma rays are directed on the growth in order to kill the cancerous cells. The beams are aimed from
different angles to concentrate the radiation on the growth while minimizing damage to surrounding tissues.
Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in nuclear medicine in imaging techniques. A number of
different gamma-emitting radioisotopes are used. For example, in a PET scan a radiolabled sugar
called fludeoxyglucose emits positrons that are converted to pairs of gamma rays that localize cancer
(which often takes up more sugar than other surrounding tissues). The most common gamma emitter used
in medical applications is the nuclear isomer technetium-99m which emits gamma rays in the same energy
range as diagnostic X-rays. When this radionuclide tracer is administered to a patient, a gamma
camera can be used to form an image of the radioisotope's distribution by detecting the gamma radiation
emitted (see also SPECT). Depending on what molecule has been labeled with the tracer, such techniques
can be employed to diagnose a wide range of conditions (for example, the spread of cancer to the bones in
a bone scan).
[edit]Body response
When gamma radiation breaks DNA molecules, a cell may be able to repair the damaged genetic material,
within limits. However, a study of Rothkamm and Lobrich has shown that this repair process works well after
high-dose exposure but is much slower in the case of a low-dose exposure.
[18]

[edit]Risk assessment
The natural outdoor exposure in Great Britain ranges from 2 to 4 nSv/h (nanosieverts per hour).
[19]
Natural
exposure to gamma rays is about 1 to 2 mSv per year, and the average total amount of radiation received in
one year per inhabitant in the USA is 3.6 mSv.
[20]
There is a small increase in the dose, due to naturally
occurring gamma radiation, around small particles of high atomic number materials in the human body
caused by the photoelectric effect.
[21]

By comparison, the radiation dose from chest radiography (about 0.06 mSv) is a fraction of the annual
naturally occurring background radiation dose,.
[22]
A chest CT delivers 5 to 8 mSv. A whole-body PET/CT
scan can deliver 14 to 32 mSv depending on the protocol.
[23]
The dose from fluoroscopy of the stomach is
much higher, approximately 50 mSv (14 times the annual yearly background).
An acute full-body equivalent single exposure dose of 1 Sv (1000 mSv) causes slight blood changes, but
2.03.5 Sv (2.03.5 Gy) causes very severe syndrome of nausea, hair loss, and hemorrhaging, and will
cause death in a sizable number of cases-about 10% to 35% without medical treatment. A dose of 5
Sv
[24]
(5 Gy) is considered approximately theLD
50
(lethal dose for 50% of exposed population) for an acute
exposure to radiation even with standard medical treatment. A dose higher than 5 Sv (5 Gy) brings an
increasing chance of death above 50%. Above 7.510 Sv (7.510 Gy) to the entire body, even
extraordinary treatment, such as bone-marrow transplants, will not prevent the death of the individual
exposed (see Radiation poisoning).
[citation needed]
. (Doses much larger than this may, however, be delivered to
selected parts of the body in the course of radiation therapy.)
For low dose exposure, for example among nuclear workers, who receive an average yearly radiation dose
of 19 mSv,
[clarification needed]
the risk of dying from cancer (excludingleukemia) increases by 2 percent. For a
dose of 100 mSv, that risk increase is at 10 percent. By comparison, risk of dying from cancer was
increased by 32 percent for the survivors of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
[25][broken citation]

[edit]Gamma Rays in the media
The Incredible Hulk is a comic and movie made by Marvel. The Hulk was exposed to a gamma ray and
effected him medically, physically and mentally. Because of this, when he gets angry, he turns into a strong,
aggressive, green monster.



.
What Types of Radiation Are There?
The radiation one typically encounters is one of four types: alpha radiation, beta radiation,
gamma radiation, and x radiation. Neutron radiation is also encountered in nuclear power
plants and high-altitude flight and emitted from some industrial radioactive sources.
1. Alpha Radiation

Alpha radiation is a heavy, very short-range particle and is actually an ejected helium
nucleus. Some characteristics of alpha radiation are:
Most alpha radiation is not able to penetrate human skin.
Alpha-emitting materials can be harmful to humans if the materials are inhaled,
swallowed, or absorbed through open wounds.
A variety of instruments has been designed to measure alpha radiation. Special
training in the use of these instruments is essential for making accurate
measurements.
A thin-window Geiger-Mueller (GM) probe can detect the presence of alpha
radiation.
Instruments cannot detect alpha radiation through even a thin layer of water,
dust, paper, or other material, because alpha radiation is not penetrating.
Alpha radiation travels only a short distance (a few inches) in air, but is not an
external hazard.
Alpha radiation is not able to penetrate clothing.

Examples of some alpha emitters: radium, radon, uranium, thorium.


2. Beta Radiation

Beta radiation is a light, short-range particle and is actually an ejected electron. Some
characteristics of beta radiation are:
Beta radiation may travel several feet in air and is moderately penetrating.
Beta radiation can penetrate human skin to the "germinal layer," where new skin
cells are produced. If high levels of beta-emitting contaminants are allowed to
remain on the skin for a prolonged period of time, they may cause skin injury.
Beta-emitting contaminants may be harmful if deposited internally.
Most beta emitters can be detected with a survey instrument and a thin-window
GM probe (e.g., "pancake" type). Some beta emitters, however, produce very
low-energy, poorly penetrating radiation that may be difficult or impossible to
detect. Examples of these difficult-to-detect beta emitters are hydrogen-3
(tritium), carbon-14, and sulfur-35.
Clothing provides some protection against beta radiation.

Examples of some pure beta emitters: strontium-90, carbon-14, tritium, and sulfur-
35.


3. Gamma and X Radiation

Gamma radiation and x rays are highly penetrating electromagnetic radiation. Some
characteristics of these radiations are:
Gamma radiation or x rays are able to travel many feet in air and many inches in
human tissue. They readily penetrate most materials and are sometimes called
"penetrating" radiation.
X rays are like gamma rays. X rays, too, are penetrating radiation. Sealed
radioactive sources and machines that emit gamma radiation and x rays
respectively constitute mainly an external hazard to humans.
Gamma radiation and x rays are electromagnetic radiation like visible light,
radiowaves, and ultraviolet light. These electromagnetic radiations differ only in
the amount of energy they have. Gamma rays and x rays are the most energetic
of these.
Dense materials are needed for shielding from gamma radiation. Clothing
provides little shielding from penetrating radiation, but will prevent contamination
of the skin by gamma-emitting radioactive materials.
Gamma radiation is easily detected by survey meters with a sodium iodide
detector probe.
Gamma radiation and/or characteristic x rays frequently accompany the emission
of alpha and beta radiation during radioactive decay.

Examples of some gamma emitters: iodine-131, cesium-137, cobalt-60, radium-226,
and technetium-99m.
..

ALPHA PARTICLES
The alpha particle is the heaviest. It is produced when the heaviest elements decay. Alpha and beta rays are not
waves. They are high-energy particles that are expelled from unstable nuclei. In the case of alpha radiation, the
energy The particles leave the nucleus . The alpha particle is an helium atom and contains two neutrons and two
protons. It leaves the nucleus of an unstable atom at a speed of 16,000 kilometres per second, around a tenth the
speed of light. The alpha particles is relatively large and heavy. As a result, alpha rays are not very penetrating and
are easily absorbed. A sheet of paper or a 3-cm layer of air is sufficient to stop them. Its energy is transferred within
a short distance to the surrounding media. However, its short flight knocks about 450,000 electrons out of the
surrounding atoms. The alpha particle emitter will not penetrate the outer layer of our skin, but is dangerous if
inhaled or swallowed. The delicate internal workings of the living cell forming the lining of the lungs or internal
organs, most certainly will be changed (mutated) or killed outright by the energetic alpha particle. The number of
lung cancer cases among uranium miners from inhaled and ingested alpha sources is much higher than those of
the public at large. Radon, the gas produced by the decay of radium-226, also emits alpha particles, which poses a
hazard to lungs and airways when inhaled. Homes built in areas with high ground radioactivity should be tested for
radon buildup in enclosed basement spaces.
BETA PARTICLES
Beta rays are much lighter energy particles. The beta particle is an energetic electron given off by the nucleus of
unstable isotopes to restore an energy balance. They leave the nucleus at a speed of 270,000 kilometres per
second. They can be stopped, for instance, by an aluminium sheet a few millimetres thick or by 3 metres of air. The
RS-500 can detect most energetic beta particles through the case. Weaker beta particles can be detected through
the tube window. Although the beta particle is around 8000 times smaller than the alpha particle, it is capable of
penetrating much deeper into living matter. Each encounter with a living cell, and there may be many before the
beta energy is dissipated, is likely to dam age some of the chemical links between the living molecules of the cell or
cause some permanent genetic change in the cell nucleus. If the damage occurs within the generative cells of the
ovaries or testes, the damage may be passed to new generations. The normal background radiation level must
contribute to the mutation of the gene pool. Most mutations are undesirable with a very few leading to
"improvements". Any increase in the background level of radiation should be considered harmful.
GAMMA RAYS
The next "particle" is the very high energy "X-ray" called the gamma ray. It is an energetic photon or light wave in
the same electromagnetic family as light and x-rays, but is much more energetic and harmful. It is capable of
damaging living cells as it slows down by transferring its energy to surrounding cell components. The RS-500
detects energetic gamma rays through the case walls. Gamma ray sources are used to find flaws in pipes and
vessels and to check the integrity of welds in steel.
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Atomic number - The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. Since the protons are positively charged,
enough negatively charged electrons are collected around the nucleus to neutralize or charge balance the atom.
These protons and electrons give the atom its unique chemical nature.
Atomic mass - The sum of the weights of both the neutrons and the protons in the atom.
Electron - A small negatively charged particle that surrounds the nucleus with a mass about 1/1800 that of the
proton . Beta particles are energetic electrons ejected from a radioactive nucleus.
Element - the most basic physical substance composed of all the same type of atoms. Each atom will have the
same number of protons. The number of neutrons can differ.
Isotope - Atoms with the same number of protons, but differing in the number of neutrons present in the nucleus.
Most elements have more than one isotope.
Neutron - An electrically neutral particle found in the nucleus with a mass almost that of the proton. In the fission
process, neutrons are liberated.
Nucleus - The densely packed kernel of the atom containing protons and neutrons. The diameter of the nucleus is
100,000 to 200,000 smaller than the whole atom.
Photon - The smallest unit of light. The photon is often described as a electromagnetic wave or wave packet. Light
photons from red to blue in the visible spectrum have increasing energy. X-rays and gamma rays are energetic
photons with thousands to millions of times the energy of light photons.
Proton - An electrically positive particle found in the nucleus of the atom. Each proton is balanced by the charge of
an electron surrounding the nucleus. The electrically neutral atom has the same number of negative electrons as
positive protons.
UNITS OF RADIATION MEASUREMENT
Roentgen (R) The roentgen is a unit used to measure a quantity called exposure. The roentgen measures the
energy produced by gamma radiation in a cubic centimeter of air. This can only be used to describe an amount of
gamma and X-rays, and only in air. One roentgen is equal to depositing in dry air enough energy to cause 2.58E-4
coulombs per kg. It is a measure of the ionizations of the molecules in a mass of air. The main advantage of this
unit is that it is easy to measure directly, but it is limited because it is only for deposition in air, and only for gamma
and x rays.
Rad (Radiation Absorbed Dose) Different materials that receive the same exposure may not absorb the same
amount of energy. The rad is a unit used to measure a quantity called absorbed dose. This translates to the
amount of energy actually absorbed in some material, and is used for any type of radiation and any material. One
rad is defined as the absorption of 100 ergs per gram of material. One roentgen of gamma radiation exposure
results in about one rad of absorbed dose. The unit rad can be used for any type of radiation, but it does not
describe the biological effects of the different radiations.
Rem (Roentgen Equivalent Man) The rem is a unit used to derive a quantity called equivalent dose. This relates
the absorbed dose in human tissue to the effective biological damage of the radiation. Not all radiation has the
same biological effect, even for the same amount of absorbed dose. Equivalent dose is often expressed in terms of
thousandths of a rem, or mrem. To determine equivalent dose (rem), you multiply absorbed dose (rad) by a quality
factor (Q) that is unique to the type of incident radiation. For gamma rays and beta particles, 1 rad of exposure
results in 1 rem of dose.
Curie (Ci) - 1Ci = 37 billion cps The curie is a unit used to measure a radioactivity. One curie is the number of
particles per second from 1 gram of Radium = 3.7 x 10 E10 counts/second = 37 billion cps. = 37 billion Becquerel.
Often radioactivity is expressed in smaller units like: thousandths (mCi), one millionths (uCi) or even billionths (nCi)
of a curie. The relationship between becquerels and curies is: 3.7 x 1010 Bq in one curie.
1 microcurie = 1 uCi = 37,000 Bq = 37,000 cps.
1 microcurie = 2.22 x 10E6 disintegrations / minute = 2,220,000 cpm.
1 nanocurie = 1 billionth of a curie = 2,220 disintegrations / minute.
1 picocurie = 2.2 disintegrations / min.
Common Units - SI - International Standard
Note: These are the common units used throughout the world in health physics.
Gray (Gy) - Gray (Gy) = 1 Joule/kg. The gray is a unit used to measure a quantity called absorbed dose. This
relates to the amount of energy actually absorbed in some material, and is used for any type of radiation and any
material. One gray is equal to one joule of energy deposited in one kg of a material. The unit gray can be used for
any type of radiation, but it does not't describe the biological effects of the different radiations. Absorbed dose is
often expressed in terms of hundredths of a gray, or centi-grays. One gray is equivalent to 100 rads.
Sievert (Sv) 1Sv = 1Gray x QF, where QF is a "quality factor" based on the type of particle. The sievert is a unit
used to derive a quantity called equivalent dose. This relates the absorbed dose in human tissue to the effective
biological damage of the radiation. Not all radiation has the same biological effect, even for the same amount of
absorbed dose. Equivalent dose is often expressed in terms of millionths of a sievert, or micro-sievert. To
determine equivalent dose (Sv), you multiply absorbed dose (Gy) by a quality factor (Q) that is unique to the type of
incident radiation. One sievert is equivalent to 100 rem. For electrons, positrons, and xrays = 1 QF = 3 to 10 for
neutrons, protons dependent upon the energy transferred by these heavier particles. QF = 20 for alpha particles
and fission fragments.
Becquerel (Bq) - 1Bq = 1 count per second = 1 event per second. The Becquerel is a unit used to measure a
radioactivity. One Becquerel is that quantity of a radioactive material that will have 1 transformations in one second.
Often radioactivity is expressed in larger units like: thousands (kBq), one millions (MBq) or even billions (GBq) of a
becquerels. As a result of having one Becquerel being equal to one transformation per second, there are 3.7 x
1010 Bq in one curie.
Converting older units:
1 rad = 1 centigray = 10 milligrays ( 1 rad = 1cGy = 10 mGy )
1 rem = 1 centisievert = 10 millisieverts ( 1 rem = 1cSv = 10 mSv )
1 mrad = 10 uGy
Nominal background radiation absorbed dose of 100 mrad/year = 1 mGy/yr.
Nominal background radiation dose biological equivalent of 100mrem/year = 1mSv/yr.
Occupational whole body limit is 5 rem/yr = 50 mSv/yr. ( Recently proposed that levels be reduced to 2 rem/yr.)
2.5 mrem/hr or 25 uSv/hr is maximum average working level in industry.
Exposure rate from Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) ; an empirically derived conversion factor for
Ra-226 decay series: 1.82 microR/ hour = 1 picoCurie/gram.
.

Radiation is a term that describes all the ways energy is emitted by the atom as X-rays, gamma
rays, neutrons, or as charged particles. Most atoms, being stable, are nonradioactive; others are
unstable and give off either particles or gamma radiation. Substances bombarded by radioactive
particles can become radioactive and yield alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.
Alpha particles, first identified by Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908), have a positive electrical
charge and consist of two protons and two neutrons. Because of their great mass, alpha particles
can travel only a short distance, around two inches (five centimeters) in air, and can be stopped by
a sheet of paper.
Beta particles, identified by Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), are extremely high-speed electrons that
move at the speed of light. They can travel far in air and can pass through solid matter several
millimeters thick.
Gamma rays, identified by Marie (1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (1859-1906), are similar to X-rays,
but they usually have a shorter wave length. These rays, which are bursts of photons, or very short-
wave electromagnetic radiation, travel at the speed of light. They are much more penetrating than
either the alpha or beta particles and can go through seven inches (18 centimeters) of lead.





The Uses of Radioactive Isotopes emitting alpha, beta or gamma radiation
The uses of radioactive isotopes depends on their penetrating power and the value of their half-life (see later).
5a Uses of alpha particle sources
Because alpha particles are easily stopped, an alpha source is used in some smoke detectors. A sealed alpha source of
Americium-241 (half-life 458 years, producing constant signal) sends a stream of alpha particles to a sensor across an air gap.
Any smoke present will block the alpha particles and change the sensor signal, this change in signal triggers the alarm. Beta and
gamma radiation would be of no use because the smoke particles would not stop them, no change in signal, no alarm triggered!
Alpha sources are too readily absorbed to show up with a Geiger counter or other detector and so are not suitable for
'tracer' applications.
o However, an alpha particle emitting isotope of radium (radium-233, half-life 11.4 days) can be directly injected in tiny
quantities into tumourous tissue to directly irradiate and kill cancer cells, an excellent medical use of an alpha emitter.
Since they are not very penetrating, there is less chance of damaging healthy cells.
o This is an example of internal radionuclide therapy.
more on the properties of alpha particles and nuclear equations for alpha
decay
5b Uses of beta radiation sources
Most Beta particles are stopped by a few mm or cm of solid materials. The
thicker the layer the more beta radiation is absorbed. A beta source is placed on one
side of a sheet of material. A detector (e.g. a Geiger counter) is put on the other side
and can monitor how much radiation gets through. The signal size depends on thickness
of the sheet and it gets smaller as the sheet gets thicker. Therefore the signal can be used to monitor the sheet thickness. The
half-life must be quite long so that change in the signal does not result from rapid decay.
This idea is used to control production lines of paper, plastic or steel sheeting. Before the sheet material passes through
'flattening' rollers, it passes between a beta source and detector. The detector signal is checked against that for a preset
thickness. If the signal is too big the sheet is too thin and the rollers are moved apart to thicken the sheet. If the signal is too small
the sheet is too thick and the rollers are moved closer together.
more on the properties of beta particles and nuclear equations for beta decay

5c Uses of gamma radiation sources
Gamma radiation is highly penetrating and so gamma sources are used where the radiation must be detected after
passing through an appreciable thickness of material. This is used in various tracer situations and usually the half-life should be
relatively short to avoid any health hazards.
A gamma emitting tracer can be added to the flow of water in a pipe and the outside of the pipes monitored with a Geiger
counter. Any leaks would be detected by an increase in radiation reading. The flow of water in underground streams can be
followed in a similar way.
Radiotherapy: It seems ironic that the very radiation which causes cancer, can also be used to treat it. A beam of gamma
radiation is directed onto the tumor site to kill the cancer cells. Unfortunately the radiation passes through the 'good' tissue too
and kills or damages 'good' cells. Modern techniques use multiple rotating gamma sources that are focused on to the tumor.
This means the surrounding 'good cells' are less frequently hit and minimises potential harmful side-effects on the rest of the body
(e.g. sickness or other mutations). Radiotherapy also avoids the need for intrusive surgery which has its own risk factors. The
gamma emitters used have relatively long half-lives to give the instrument a good working life.
Gamma radiation can be used in a non-destructive way to test the structure of a material.
o In a sense it is an alternative to X-ray photography for more dense materials e.g.
o It is used test the structure and quality of pipe welds.
A gamma source is placed inside the pipe and photographic paper wrapped around the weld.
If there is any gap or flaw in the weld, more gamma radiation gets through and shows up as increased exposure
on the 'gamma-ray picture'.
Its better to find out the fault now, rather than later when it fractures, and has to be 'dug up' or retrieved from the
bottom of the sea!
Because gamma radiation is so deadly and penetrating it can be used to sterilise surgical equipment or packaged food:
o The radiation is deadly for bacteria even in the most microscopic pockets of apparently smooth and shiny stainless steel
of surgical instruments.
o It is very convenient for 'convenience' food!. After cooking and sealing in a plastic packet, you don't need to reopen to
complete the sterilization to give it a long shelf-life!
Technetium-99 is a gamma emitter (half-life 6 hours) and is used in medicine as a tracer.
o In medical applications, in a suitable chemical form, the radioisotope is injected into the body and its 'movement' can be
followed.
o Time is allowed for the radioactive tracer to spread and its progress tracked with a detector outside the body.
o The patient can be placed next to a 'detection screen' that shows where the radioactive tracer is.
o The effective function of organs like the liver and digestion system can be checked.
o Similarly, a patient can breathe in air with a gaseous gamma emitter in it, and the effectiveness and structure of the lungs
can be checked.
o The half-life must be relatively short so it does not linger in the body increasing the harmful effects of cell damage.
o Technetium atoms can be incorporated into many organic chemicals called radiopharmaceuticals which can be used to
monitor biochemical aspects of the bodies chemistry e.g. the functioning and performance of a particular organ.
Iodine-131, another gamma emitter (half-life = 8 days), can be used to check on the functioning of a thyroid gland. The body
needs iodine to make the hormone thyroxine and so the take up of iodine can be monitored by measuring the gamma radiation
from the thyroid gland. Gamma radiation, being the most penetrating, it passes out through the body and so readily be detected
outside the body by some suitable detector e.g. with a special camera or fluorescent screen.
o The half-life should be long enough to allow good detection BUT NOT too long to be dangerous to the body over a
period of time!
o One method of treating thyroid cancer is to inject Iodine-13 into the body in a soluble salt form e.g. potassium iodide, so
that it deliberately concentrates in the thyroid gland and the gamma radiation kills the thyroid cancer cells.
o This is another example of 'medical physics' and important diagnostic technique in clinical medicine.
Beta sources can be used, though not as penetrating as gamma and have an increased risk of cell damage..
Alpha sources are too readily absorbed to show up with a Geiger counter or other detector and so are not suitable for
these 'tracer' applications.
o However, an alpha particle emitting isotope of radium can be directly injected in tiny quantities into tumourous tissue to
directly irradiate and kill cancer cells (see uses of alpha radiation).
more on the properties of gamma radiation and nuclear origin of gamma radiation
..



Radiation facts and health effects
What is radiation?
Radiation is a form of energy. It comes from man-made sources such as x-ray machines, from the sun and outer space, and from some
radioactive materials such as uranium in soil. Radiation travels as rays, waves or energetic particles through air, water or solid materials.
Radioactive materials are composed of atoms that are unstable. As unstable atoms become stable, they release excess energy (called
"radiation") through a process called radioactive decay or radioactivity. The time required for a radioactive substance to lose 50 percent of
its activity by decay is called its half-life.
The most common types of radiation emissions are alpha, beta and gamma rays.
Alpha particles can be shielded by a sheet of paper or by human skin. But if materials that emit alpha particles are inhaled, ingested or
enter your body through a cut in your skin, they can be very harmful.
Beta particles cannot be stopped by a sheet of paper. Some beta particles can be stopped by human skin, but some need a thicker
shield (like wood) to stop them. Just like alpha particles, beta particles can also cause serious damage to your health if they are inhaled or
swallowed. For example, some materials that emit beta particles might be absorbed into your bones and cause damage if ingested.
Gamma rays are the most penetrating of these three types of radiation. Gamma rays will penetrate paper, skin, wood, and other
substances. Like alpha and beta particles, they are also harmful if inhaled, ingested or absorbed. To protect yourself from gamma rays,
you need a shield at least as thick as a concrete wall. This type of radiation causes severe damage to your internal organs. (X-rays fall into
this category, but they are less penetrating than gamma rays.)
How can I be exposed to radiation?
Small quantities of radioactive materials occur naturally in the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat, and in our own bodies.
People receive some background radiation exposure each day from the sun, from radioactive elements in soil and rocks, from household
appliances (such as television sets and microwave ovens), and from medical and dental x-rays. Even the human body itself emits
radiation. These levels of natural and background radiation are normal.
Radiation doses that people receive are measured in units called "rem" or "sievert." (One sievert equals 100 rem.) Scientists estimate that
the average person in the United States receives a dose of about one-third of a rem per year. Eighty percent of typical human exposure
comes from natural sources, such as sunlight. The remaining 20% comes from artificial radiation sources, primarily medical x-rays.
What are the health effects of exposure to radiation?
Radiation's health effects can be mild, such as reddening of the skin, or very serious, such as cancer or early death. Radioactive materials
dispersed in an urban area pose a serious health hazard. Strong sources of gamma rays can cause acute radiation poisoning or even
fatalities at high doses. Long-term exposure to low levels of gamma radiation can cause cancer. Alpha particles (such as americium) small
enough to be inhaled can damage people's lungs and lead to an increased risk of cancer.
The degree of damage to the human body depends on:
The amount of radiation absorbed by the body (the dose)
The type of radiation
The route of exposure
The length of time a person is exposed
Exposure to very large doses of radiation may cause death within a few days or months. Acute radiation syndrome (ARS), or radiation
sickness, is usually caused when much of the human body is exposed to a high dose of radiation over the course of a few minutes.
Survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs and firefighters responding to the Chernobyl nuclear power plant event in 1986
experienced ARS. The immediate symptoms of ARS are nausea, vomiting and diarrhea; later, bone marrow depletion may lead to weight
loss, loss of appetite, flu-like symptoms, infection and bleeding. The survival rate depends on the radiation dose. For those who do
survive, recovery may take a few weeks to two years.
Exposure to lower doses of radiation may lead to an increased risk of cancer, cataracts or decreased fertility. Radiation exposure, like
exposure to the sun, is cumulative. The damage from exposure to radiation may not be apparent for many years.
Children are more sensitive to radiation than adults. Exposure to human embryos or fetuses is of special concern because they are
extremely sensitive to radiation.
How can I protect myself from radiation?
The longer a person is exposed to radiation and the closer the person is to the source of radiation, the greater the risk. There are three
basic ways to reduce your exposure:
Time: Decrease the amount of time you spend near the source of radiation.
Distance: Increase your distance from the radiation source
Shielding: Increase the shielding between you and the radiation source.
Shielding is anything that creates a barrier between people and the radiation source. Depending on the type of radiation, effective
shielding can be something as thin as a plate of window glass or may need to be as thick as several feet of concrete. Being inside a
building or a vehicle can provide shielding from some kinds of radiation.
Remember that any protection, however temporary, is better than none at all. The more shielding, distance and time you can take
advantage of, the better. Although radiation cannot be detected by the senses (sight, smell, etc.), scientists can detect even the smallest
levels of radiation with a range of instruments.
Will potassium iodide protect me?
Taking potassium iodide (KI) pills for protection against a dirty bomb is not recommended. These tablets, now widely available, are
promoted by commercial companies for defense against everything from a nuclear plant accident to a dirty bomb explosion. However, KI
pills are not likely to offer protection from the radiation spread by a dirty bomb and could actually be harmful to people's health. KI pills
help protect the thyroid gland from the damaging effects of radioactive iodine, but they are of no help if the dirty bomb contains any other
form of ionizing radiation. There are many other radioactive sources that could be used instead of, or along with, radioactive iodine, and KI
tablets would be useless against them. Many people could also be harmed by the high concentration of iodine in KI because of allergies or
other conditions.
What are some sources and uses of radioactive materials?
Radioactive materials are widely used in hospitals, research labs, industry and construction sites for such things as diagnosing and
treating illnesses, sterilizing equipment, and irradiating food. Radioactive byproduct material in the United States is regulated by either
state or federal laws. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission, together with 32 states which regulate radioactive material, have over 21,000
organizations licensed to use such materials for these purposes.
Other man-made radioactive materials come from nuclear power and weapons sites. In the United States, radioactive waste is located at
more than 70 commercial nuclear power sites in 31 states. Enormous quantities also exist overseas, especially in Europe and Japan.
Medical procedures, including diagnostic X-rays, nuclear medicine and radiation therapy, make up the most significant source of man-
made radiation exposure to the general public. Other legal uses of radioactive materials include industrial radiography, manufacture of
gauging devices, gas chromatography, and well logging. It is used in consumer products such as smoke detectors (americium), "exit"
signs, static eliminators, and luminous watch dials. Some examples of radioactive materials are cesium, americium, plutonium, and
strontium.