AbstractBattery forms a critical part of the hybrid electric

vehicle (HEV) drivetrain. An important constraint to the effec-

tive performance and reliability of the battery is its unpredictable
internal resistance variation along the driving cycle. Tempera-
ture has a considerable effect on this internal resistance and thus
the battery management system monitors cell and battery pack
temperature in accordance with the state-of-charge to prevent
thermal runaway. Li-ion batteries which offer possible solutions
to the HEVs energy and power density demands thus need to
have a good thermal management system in order to enhance
their performance. This paper aims to develop a battery pack
model that would analyze the variation of internal resistance as a
function of temperature. The study of the losses would help in
designing a cost effective efficient battery management system.

I ndex TermsHybrid electric vehicle, state-of-charge, battery
management system, thermal management.
I. INTRODUCTION
YBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (HEV) is an optimal combina-
tion of two power sources, a conventional internal com-
bustion engine (ICE) and a rechargeable energy storage sys-
tem(battery). Increasing emission standards across the globe
have popularized this alternative form of transportation. Un-
like conventional vehicles, vehicular power demand is shared
between the two power sources to reduce the fossil fuel con-
sumption in HEVs [1]. Moreover, regenerative braking used to
charge the onboard battery system also reduces the loss of
brake power in the form of heat. These developments lead to a
cheap and low emitting means of transportation. The main
challenges in this path of development are battery and battery
management system (BMS).
The efficiency of battery and battery management system
accounts for the success of the vehicle. The increase in charge
retention, utilization and life of the battery would boost the
reliability of the HEV [2]. The commercialization of different
new chemistries (Ni-MH, Lithium), introduction of battery
monitoring systems and constructional changes have not only
increased the efficiency, performance and reliability but also
broadened the scope of research in the field of battery technol-
ogy. Due to the high energy density, Li-ion batteries have
gained much attention over Ni-MH as a feasible solution to

Acknowledgement: This work was supported in part by theNSERC, Can-
ada.
Chitradeep Sen
1
& Narayan C. Kar
2
arewith the Department of Electrical
& Computer Engineering, University of Windsor, 401, Sunset Avenue, Ontar-
io, N9B 3P4,Canada (e-mail:
1
senc@uwindsor.ca,
2
nkar@uwindsor.ca).
the HEV power demand.
However, unlike Ni-MH, Li-ion is susceptible to abuse.
The anisotropic thermal property of Li-ion cells is of great
concern. The compromise between the axial and radial heat
transfer is dependent on the cell, which is designed for the
specific purpose [3]. Moreover, overcharge or over-discharge
increases the internal temperature of the cell. The larger the
number of cells in series, greater is the probability of over-
charge and over-discharge. The main electronic controls for
the Li-ion battery modules used in HEV are temperature, vol-
tage, and current sensors, which ensure very precise and effi-
cient cell balancing and monitoring. The pack is also com-
prised of thermal, state-of-charge (SOC) and module balanc-
ing circuits. These electronic controls feed information to the
battery management system which protects the cells and in
turn protects the pack according to the set algorithm [4]-[5].
These controls increase the cost and complexity of BMS.
This paper discusses the importance of battery management
systemand proposes an intuitive electric circuit model of the
HEV battery pack. The objective of this paper is to define the
characteristics of the battery management system with the help
of the proposed electric model. This would lead to the devel-
opment of a more precise and economic battery management
system.
II. BACKGROUND
A. Battery in HEV
The vehicular power demand varies according to the driv-
ers need. In HEV, this demand is optimally distributed among
the ICE, the generator and the battery as shown in Fig. 1. The
intention of the demand distribution is to operate the vehicle in
electric (battery) mode as much as possible and/or to operate
the ICE in its most efficient operating range in order to reduce
fuel consumption and emissions.
Li-ion has the highest energy density among the entire re-
chargeable cell chemistries, making it a forerunner in the au-
tomotive industry. An important constraint to its popularity is
the susceptibility to thermal runaway, a phenomenon where
the cell reactions lose control, leading to a rapid increase in
temperature and heat causing the cell to self-destruct. It is in-
fused by high temperature, generated mainly due to electrical,
mechanical and thermal abuse. Thus the charging and dis-
charging of Li-ion battery needs to be precise in order to main-
tain an optimum internal temperature to attain maximumper-
formance. The cell and the pack should also be well protected
and monitored in order to prevent damage.
Battery Pack Modeling for the Analysis of
Battery Management System of a
Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Chitradeep Sen
1
, Student Member, IEEE and Narayan C. Kar
2
, Senior Member, IEEE
H
978-1-4244-2601-0/09/$25.00 2009 IEEE 207










Figure 1. Energy flow diagramin aHEV.









Figure 2. Charging of a Li-ion battery.
The voltage across the battery is normally the accumulation
of the electrolytic potential and electrode potential. There is a
reduction in the generated theoretical voltage due to losses
across the various internal resistances. The charging profile is
represented in Fig. 2. A constant current constant voltage me-
thod is used, where initially the battery is charged by a 1C
current till the voltage reaches a state where the current drops
to 0.03C. At this instant, a constant voltage is applied until the
battery has reached the desirable state-of-charge.
B. HEV Battery Pack
The HEV battery pack consist of cells that are arranged in
small groups termed as modules. These modules are then
grouped together to formthe battery pack. Fig. 3 represents a
schematic diagramof a generalized battery pack composed of
mmodules, having n cells in each module. Battery manage-
ment system controls these cells to attain maximum efficiency.
The capacity ( ) of the battery pack remain constant as
the cells are connected in series. The voltage adds up accord-
ing to the number of cells. The number of cells is normally
determined by :
(1)
where is the average battery current and is
the battery capacity.
The open-circuit voltage across the terminals of the battery
pack shown in Fig. 3 would be the summation of all the cell
voltages and can be expressed as
(2)
where is the open-circuit voltage across each cell and is
the number of cells in each module in the battery pack. For
example, Toyota Prius Generation III uses prismatic Ni-MH
modules from Panasonic, each of which consists of six 1.2 V
cells connected in series. Each of these modules has a nominal
voltage of 7.2 V and capacity of 6.5 AHr. The Prius III battery
pack consists of 28 such modules connected in series resulting
in a nominal voltage of 201.6 V.
In reality, there are significant internal losses during the
real-time operation of HEV battery pack. Along with the
charge-discharge cycle, the pack construction (i.e. the ar-
rangement of cells along with the insulation and ventilation)
and manufacturing dissimilarities have considerable impact on
the cell internal parameters such as self-discharge resistance,
polarization resistance and charging-discharging resistance.
The overall internal resistance of the battery pack is more
than the accumulation of individual cell resistances. The study
of this variation is necessary for accurate terminal voltage jus-
tification and state-of-charge prediction. The terminal voltage
of the battery pack is dependent on the interaction between the
cell and battery pack construction. This interdependent phe-
nomenon is explained with the help of the proposed model.
C. Battery Management System
Battery management system is the control and optimiza-
tion of the function of cells and battery pack, protecting it
fromelectrical and thermal abuse when subjected to an unpre-
dictable varying demand and driving conditions. Its control
strategy is based on the information fed to it by the sensors as
shown in Fig. 4 in order to meet the power demand from the
energy management controller [6]-[9].



V
b

Figure 3. Thegeneralized schematic diagramof HEV battery pack.
Motor
Engine Generator Battery
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

Generator I_1C

V
cv

I_0.03C
Battery V
b

208

R
PTS
PCS
B
a
t
t
e
r
y

M
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
r
CCS CTS CVS
R
V
b
a
t
Cell 2
R
PTS
PVS
V
c
e
l
l
CCS CTS CVS
Cell n
CCS CTS CVS
Cell 1
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-





Figure 4. Block Diagramof the Controller module.

The important features of the BMS are as follow:
a) SOC maintenance in accordance with the energy
management system algorithm.
b) Voltage, current and temperature monitoring of indi-
vidual cells.
c) Over-charge and over-discharge protection.
d) State-of-Health (SOH) monitoring.
e) Voltage, current and temperature monitoring of the
battery pack.
f) Internal fault analysis.
Fig. 4.is the block diagramof the basic operation of a BMS
consisting of an array of n cells. The output of cell voltage,
temperature and current sensor namely the CVS, CTS and
CCS are fed to battery management controller for its optimum
performance and protection. The resistance R across each cell
is used for resistive cell balancing [3], [10].
III. BATTERY PACK MODELING
There is a high probability of manufacturing variation be-
tween cells within the battery pack. This variation leads to a
difference in charge and discharge characteristics of each cell.
Temperature difference, which is a major consequence of this
charge-discharge cycle variation, cumulates with time and is
influenced by ageing, number of continuous charge-discharge
cycles, load demand, type of discharge and the external tem-
perature. This also has a great impact on the state-of-health of
the battery. The thermal modeling of the battery pack is thus
necessary to illustrate its real time operation. The monitoring
of individual cell is essential in order to prevent its abuse [11]-
[14]. Cell equalization is done to prevent this chronically in-
creasing cell overcharge, undercharge and over discharge
probability [3], [10]. The electric circuit presented in this pa-
per is used to represent this thermal dependency of the battery
pack. The temperature gradient is studied with the help of the
change in overall internal resistance. The life of battery can
also be increased with this analysis, adding value to the overall
life cycle and reliability of the vehicle.
IV. PROPOSED MODEL
A. Model Objective
Li-ion battery, used in HEVs/EVs has an optimum range of
-20 to 45C. Thermal variation renders anomaly in state-of-
charge estimation as the internal resistance is temperature de-
pendent. There is a discrepancy between the voltage obtained
across the battery pack and the accumulation of individual cell
voltages. The proposed model is designed to analyze the over-
all internal resistance variation and determine a precise ter-
minal voltage considering the effect of temperature and age-
ing, since both have an accumulative effect on the battery per-
formance.
The ageing incorporated in the model is based on the daily
usage of battery, representing the permanent degradation of its
capacity with every charge-discharge cycle. The assumptions
for the proposed model are
a) The self-discharge resistance is neglected at loaded
conditions.
b) The internal resistance is variable across the charge-
discharge cycle.
c) Ageing due to storage is neglected.
d) No Peukert effect.
e) The charging and the discharging characteristics vary
with time and temperature.
Figure 5. Theelectric circuit model of a cell.
Figure 6. Theelectric circuit model of battery pack.
CVS- Cell Voltage Sensor
CTS- Cell TemperatureSensor
CCS- Cell Current Sensor
PVS- Pack VoltageSensor
PTS- Pack Temperature Sensor
PCS- Pack Current Sensor
209

B. Model Formulation
The proposed model takes into account individual cell op-
eration along with their integration, representing the battery
pack. The individual cell representation is shown in Fig. 5. V
ib
is the internal generated voltage of the cell. R
sd
is used to
represent the self-discharge resistance while I
b
is the current
flowing in the cell. R
c
, R
co
and R
d
, R
do
represent the charging,
over-charging, discharging and over-discharging resistance
respectively. The capacitor C
cap
and resistance R
pack
shown in
Fig. 6. represent the capacity and the pack internal resistance
respectively. R
t1
and R
t2
denote resistances with positive and
negative temperature coefficient. R
f
and C
f
is resistance and
capacitance that acts as a filter to the incoming disturbances
[15].
The model has been designed for Li-ion battery used in
HEVs and EVs. It can also be made applicable for Ni-MH
batteries with minor modifications. The basic cell model de-
rived is shown in Fig. 7. It is a capacitive representation of the
battery and is connected across a DC machine whose applied
torque determines the direction of the current. R
c
, R
co
and R
d
,
R
do
representing the charging, overcharging and discharging,
over-discharging resistances respectively has been considered
for the analysis of charge-discharge characteristics. R
series
is the
overall battery pack resistance.
The model has been simulated in Matlab/Simulink envi-
ronment. It has been designed for the formulation of control
algorithm than can be implemented in the battery management
systemcontroller on the basis of the derived results. The initial
voltage across the capacitor is set to be the theoretical voltage
of the battery at full charge, no-load condition. The capacitor
charges or discharges according to the direction of battery
current i.e. charging or discharging mode.
This proposed model can be used to accurately validate bat-
teries of different chemistries like lithium-ion and lead-acid of
different ratings by modifying the time constant and the value
of the capacitor. It can similarly be used to illustrate the opera-
tion of ultra-capacitors.
The voltage of the battery has been maintained in between
203V and 198V. The limit has been restricted in order to pre-
vent thermal runaway. The required torque of the vehicle dur-
ing the motor mode is fixed at 100 N. m, rendering a constant
load discharge profile. Resistance with negative temperature
coefficient simulates the internal cell resistance variation in
accordance with the temperature change while battery pack
temperature is anticipated by a positive temperature coefficient
Figure 7. The capacitive representation of theproposed model.
resistance. The increasing rate of cell reaction is limited to an
internal temperature of 45C.
V. SIMULATION RESULTS
The effect of charge-discharge cycle, temperature variation
and ageing has been neglected for the simulation shown in
Fig. 8. It represents the charge-discharge characteristics of the
battery for a constant internal resistance. The simulation had
been done at a constant temperature of 25C, considering an
initial state-of-charge of 100%. The uniform drop signify simi-
lar charging-discharging pattern, thus representing an ideal
operation.
A. Analysis of the internal resistance variation considering
the effect of temperature
The simulation is limited to a region of optimum operation
of 201.6 V and 198 V for a DC machine. Fig. 9 shows the
charge-discharge pattern of battery considering the effect of
temperature during the initial transients. The initial loss across
the resistance is in accordance with the temperature and
charge-discharge cycle.
The variation of the overall internal resistance with time is
shown in Fig. 10. This overall resistance is a result of the
combined effect of the individual cell resistance (R
c
, R
co
& R
d
,
R
do
) and the battery pack resistance (R
pack
). It has been ob-
served that the resistance decreases due to the proliferation of
the cell reaction with the increasing temperature. The variation
of temperature along the charge-discharge cycle is shown in
Fig. 11. It is the overall battery pack temperature as

Figure 8. Thecharge-dischargecycle for constant resistance.

Figure 9. Thecharge-dischargecycle with variableresistance.
185
190
195
200
205
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600
V
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

[
V
]
Time[sec]
197
198
199
200
201
202
0 300 600 900 1200
V
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
l
[
V
]
Time[sec]
210


Figure 10. The change in resistance as a function of time.

Figure 11. Temperaturegradient profile during the optimumoperation.

Figure 12. Temperature dependency of the overall resistance.
incorporated by the combination of negative temperature and
positive temperature coefficient thermostats represented by
CTS and PTS in Fig. 4. The control algorithm takes into ac-
count the cumulative effect of the increase in temperature and
rate of cell reactions. The result shows an increase in the rate
of temperature along with the time of operation.
The dependency of the overall resistance on the operating
range of temperature is shown in Fig. 12. It signifies that the
effect of increase in cell reaction supersedes the effect of bat-
tery pack resistance, resulting in an overall decrease of the
resistance. Due to this decreasing resistance, the voltage drop,
as shown in Fig. 13, is reducing with time and temperature
signifying an increase in battery performance. The initial sud-
den increase in voltage drop is a result of the cell reaction init-
iation. It should be noted that the simulations had been in-
itiated at roomtemperature i.e.25 C.

Figure 13. The voltage loss across thetemperaturegradient.

Figure 14. Temperature gradient profilefor the complete simulation.

Figure 15. Cell resistancevariation with temperature.
B. Analysis of the terminal voltage as a function of tempera-
ture, ageing and charge-discharge cycle
The temperature gradient increases with the charge-
discharge cycle as shown in Fig. 14. As the safe operating
range of Li-ion batteries are limited to 45C, the rate of cell
reactions decreases with further increase in temperature. With
no effective cooling, the temperature increases linearly with
time after attaining 45C as shown in Fig. 14. The battery
pack, which has been modeled with a positive temperature
coefficient of resistance, now limits its performance and safe-
ty. Figure 15 illustrates the variation of the cell internal resis-
tance while Fig. 16 shows the variation in the battery pack
resistance for the same period of time. It can be inferred from
these two graphs that the positive affect of cell reactions on
the overall performance is limited to 45C.
0.007968
0.007969
0.00797
0.007971
0.007972
0 300 600 900 1200
O
v
e
r
a
l
l

R
e
s
i
t
a
n
c

[
]
Time [sec]
24.8
25
25.2
25.4
25.6
25.8
26
26.2
26.4
26.6
26.8
27
0 300 600 900 1200
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e


[

C
]
Time[sec]
0.007968
0.007969
0.00797
0.007971
0.007972
25 25.5 26 26.5 27
O
v
e
r
a
l
l

R
e
s
i
t
a
n
c
e

[
]
Temperature[C]
0.792
0.794
0.796
0.798
0.8
0.802
0.804
24.8 25 25.2 25.4 25.6 25.8 26 26.2
V
l
o
s
s

[
V
]
Temperature [C]
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[

C
]
Time[sec]
0.00392
0.00394
0.00396
0.00398
0.004
0.00402
0.00404
0.00406
25 46 67 88 109 130
C
e
l
l

R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

[
]
Temperature[C]
211

Figure 16. Pack resistancevariation across the temp
Figure 17. Theinternal voltagevariation along the char
The ageing effect, signifying the irreversib
active material composition of the battery
decrease in the internal voltage is shown in F
been a reduction in the internal voltage which
to 201.6 V. Ageing is more prominent wit
number of charge-discharge cycles. This phe
aggravated by the rapid rise in temperature
can predict the life-time of the battery for a
temperature range.
VI. CONCLUSION
Temperature has immense effect on the i
of the battery which in turn accounts for its p
proposed model incorporates this temperature
illustrates the battery performance based on
sults. The affect of ageing has also been take
tion and illustrated. The terminal voltage h
with the variation in resistance of the cell
with time, number of charge-discharge cycle
gradient. The discrepancy between the obtai
tance across the battery pack and accumulat
cell resistance is justified by the proposed mo
operating range of the Li-ion cells which is l
also explained with the help of the proposed
reaction acts as the determining factor for th
resistance. After 45C, the internal cell res
drastically, resulting in rapid increase of tem
sence of proper protection, this thermal ab
thermal runaway, leading to self destruction
precision is essential for protection of the batt
0.004
0.00401
0.00402
0.00403
0.00404
0.00405
0.00406
25 46 67 88
P
a
c
k

R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
)
Temperature[C]
198.5
199
199.5
200
200.5
201
201.5
202
0 600 1200 1800 2400
V
i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

[
V
]
Time[sec]

perature gradient.

rge-discharge cycles.
ble change in the
and leading to a
Fig. 17. There has
h was initially set
th the increase in
enomenon is also
. The model thus
a given operating
internal resistance
performance. The
e dependency and
n the derived re-
en into considera-
has been justified
and battery pack
s and temperature
ined overall resis-
tion of individual
odel. The efficient
imited to 45 C is
d model. The cell
he overall internal
sistance increases
mperature. In ab-
buse can result in
n. Thus the BMS
tery.
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BIOGRAPHIE
Chitradeep Sen (S
Technology in Electri
2007 from Bengal C
nology, India. He is
M.A.Sc. degree in E
versity of Windsor, O
research is to devel
management system
He is currently developing new models and
reliability and stability of the batteries.
Narayan C. Kar (
B.Sc. degree in Elec
desh University of
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Ph.D. degrees in ele
Institute of Techno
and 2000, respective
He is an associa
Computer Engineer
of Windsor, Canad
Research Chair position in hybrid drivetrain
focuses on theanalysis, design and control of
induction and switched reluctance machines
wind power applications, testing and perfor
development of optimization techniques for
tem. Heis a Senior Member of theIEEE.
109 130
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ES
S09) received his Bachelor of
ical & Electronics Engineering in
College of Engineering & Tech-
s currently working towards his
Electrical Engineering fromUni-
Ontario, Canada. The focus of his
lop and test battery model and
in hybrid vehicular technology.
d strategies that can increase the
S95-M00-SM07) received the
ctrical Engineering fromBangla-
f Engineering and Technology,
h, in 1992 and the M.Sc. and
ectrical engineering fromKitami
ology, Hokkaido, J apan, in 1997
ely.
ateprofessor in the Electrical and
ing Department at the University
da where he holds the Canada
n systems. His research presently
f permanent magnet synchronous,
s for hybrid electric vehicle and
rmance analysis of batteries and
hybrid energy management sys-
212