PH Argo and Fisher

Not for publication or reproduction without the authors consent. Pg.
1

Figure 1.1. Relative solubility of nutrients at different pH levels
in one peat-based media (graph based on research by Dr. John
Peterson, the Ohio State University).
Understanding pH management and plant nutrition
Part 1: Introduction

Bill Argo, Ph.D.
Blackmore Company, Tel: 800-874-8660, Intl 734-483-8661, E-mail: bargo@blackmoreco.com
Originally printed in 2003 in the Journal of the International Phalaenopsis Alliance, Vol. 12 (4).

Plants are basically water surrounded by a pretty
package. If we place 100 lbs. of healthy living plant
material into a special oven to remove all the water, we
will have only about 10 lbs. of dry plant material left.
In general, plants are about 90% water and 10% dry
matter.
The 10 lbs. of dry plant material that we have left is
made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and
a number of inorganic salts. If we take the 10 lbs. of
dry plant material and remove all the carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, there will be about 1 lb. of ash left. Thus,
plant nutrition is the direct management of about 1% of
the plant by weight.
The ash that is left is composed of the essential plant
nutrient. However, these nutrients are not all taken up at
the same rate. The essential plant nutrients can be
separated into two groups, macronutrients and
micronutrients. Macronutrients are found at relatively
high concentrations in the plant tissue and include
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium
(Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S). Micronutrients
are found at much lower concentrations in the tissue
than macronutrients and include iron (Fe), manganese
(Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), and
molybdenum (Mo).
These twelve essential plant nutrients are commonly
provided by various fertilizer sources, which includes
not only the water-soluble fertilizer, but also can
include the irrigation water and container substrate.
There are several other nutrients that are considered as
essential for normal growth including sodium (Na),
chloride (Cl), Nickle (Ni), and possibly chromium (Cr).
However, these later four essential plant nutrients are
not required by plants in large amounts. Because they
are often found as contaminants in a number of different
fertilizer sources, it has not been demonstrated that that
they have to be specifically apply to plants.

Substrate pH and plant nutrition
The term pH is a direct measurement of the balance
between acidic hydrogen ions (H
+
) and basic hydroxide
ions (OH
-
), and can be measured with a pH meter. The
pH of a solution can range between 0 (very acidic) and
14 (very basic). At a pH of 7.0, the concentrations of
H
+
and OH
-
are equal, and the solution is said to be
neutral.
When growing plants in containers, the pH range
commonly found in the solution extracted from the
substrate is much narrower, from about 4.5 to 8.5. The
recommended substrate pH range from growing plants
in containers is even more specific, around 5.8 to 6.2,
depending on the crop.
The reason that the pH of the solution in the substrate
is so important is that it affects nutrient solubility. Using
Figure 1 as an example, the solubility of micronutrients
(iron, manganese, zinc, boron) and phosphorus decrease
with increasing substrate pH.
Substrate pH can also be an indication of problems.
For example, low pH can be an indication that sufficient
lime was not added to the substrate, or that a fertilizer is
being used that is too acidic for the water quality. High
pH can be an indication that too much lime was added to
the substrate or that there is too much alkalinity left in the
irrigation water.
Substrate pH can also affect the uptake of nutrients
by the plant. Iron (Fe) uptake generally decreases with
increasing pH because it precipitates out of the soil
Not for publication or reproduction without the authors consent. Pg. 2
solution at higher pH levels. Phosphorus (P) also will
precipitate out of solution at higher pH levels.
Phosphorus uptake will be further reduced above a pH
of 7.2 because any phosphorus left in solution is
converted into a less available form. Nitrogen (N)
uptake can be indirectly affected by medium pH
because low pH decreases nitrification (conversion of
ammoniacal nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen) or the
conversion of urea to ammoniacal nitrogen.

Plants and nutrient uptake
Plant species differ in their ability to take up
nutrients at a given pH level. While there are not good
examples with orchids, there are good examples with
other plants produced in containers.
For example geraniums and African marigolds are
very efficient accumulators of iron (Fe) and manganese
(Mn), and are often grown at a relatively high substrate
pH (6.0 to 6.8) compared to most container grown
crops. The high pH reduces iron and manganese
solubility, which limits the uptake, and prevents toxicity
problems.
At the other end of the spectrum are plants like
rhododendrons, blue berries, and petunias, which are
very inefficient at taking iron from the soil solution, and
are often grown at a relatively low substrate pH (5.2 to
6.2). The low pH increases iron solubility, which
increases the uptake, and prevents deficiency problems.
There is a third group of plants, like poinsettias,
chrysanthemums, and impatiens that can be grown over
a relatively wide range of pHs (5.5 to 6.5) without
showing any deficiency or toxicity problems.
While I dont know it for sure, I would guess that
orchids are like all other plants. Some species will
perform better when grown at a low pH, some will
perform better when grown at a high pH, and for some,
it will not matter. However, for each of these groups,
the acceptable range where they will grow and perform
the best will be relatively narrow and will be similar
that of other plant species. If you had to choose a pH
range to grow all orchids, then the recommended range
would 5.8 to 6.2, again, just like all other crops.

pH management and plant nutrition.
` Many growers make the assumption that
growing in containers is like growing hydroponically.
Unless water is constantly dripping out of the bottom of
the container, then it is not like hydroponics. Others
consider growing in containers like growing outside in
soil. It is not like that either.
Research has shown that the pH and nutritional
management of container grown crops, including
orchids, is affected by the interaction of a number of
different factors, including the water quality, water-
soluble fertilizer, and the substrate. In the next issue, I
will discuss water quality.

For more information on pH management
Understanding pH management of container grown crops, by
William R. Argo and Paul R. Fisher.
Available from:
Ball Publishing, Tel: 630-208-9080, web site:
www.ballpublishing.com.
Meister Publishing, Tel: 440-942-2000, web site:
www.meisternet.com

Part 2: Water quality

Bill Argo, Ph.D.

Water quality is a key factor affecting pH and
nutritional management in any container-grown crops,
including orchids. One challenge is that the water
quality in your operation can differ dramatically from
that of your neighbor, and certainly from greenhouses in
other locations both inside and outside the U.S. For
example, the range of water qualities used by
commercial greenhouses in the U.S. can be found in
Table 1. For those of you using rain water or reverse
osmosis purified water exclusively, the pH will range
from 4.0 to 5.5 (if measured correctly), the alkalinity
will be less than 10 ppm, and the concentration of other
ions will be very low to nonexistent.
Understanding a few technical details about
water quality will help you improve nutrient
management appropriate for your own greenhouse.
Always remember that the success or failure of any
fertilizer will always depend on the water quality
because it is the combination of the two that affect your
plants. In Part 2 of this series, we will discuss how
water quality affects pH and nutritional management of
the substrate.

pH and Alkalinity are two different aspects of
water quality
There is a great deal of confusion when it
comes to understanding the definition of water pH and
water alkalinity, and why they are important to the
health of your plants.
The term pH is a direct measurement of the
balance between acidic hydrogen ions (H
+
) and basic
hydroxide ions (OH
-
), and can be measured with a pH
meter. The pH of a solution can range between 0 (very
acidic) and 14 (very basic). At a pH of 7.0, the
concentrations of H
+
and OH
-
are equal, and the
solution is said to be neutral. When the pH is above
7.0, the concentration of OH
-
is higher than H
+
, and the
solution is said to be basic or alkaline (not to be
confused with alkalinity). When the solution is below
7.0, the concentration of H
+
is higher than OH
-
, and the
solution is said to be acidic.
Alkalinity is a measure of how much acid it
takes to lower the pH below a certain level, also called
acid-buffering capacity. Alkalinity is usually measured
with a test kit where dilute acid is added until a color
change occurs at a specific pH. Alkalinity is not a
specific ion, but rather includes the concentration of
several ions that affect acid-buffering capacity. Under
most conditions, the ions that have the greatest effect on
alkalinity are bicarbonates like calcium, magnesium, or
sodium bicarbonate and, to a lesser extent, carbonates
like calcium or sodium. Several other ions including
hydroxides, phosphates, ammonium, silicates, sulfides,
borates, and arsenate also can contribute to alkalinity,
but their concentration is usually so low that they can be
ignored.
In a water sample, the concentration of all of
the ions that makes up the alkalinity term are combined
Table 1. Average and median values for irrigation water pH, EC, and nutrient concentration used by
commercial greenhouses in the United States. Research by Bill Argo, John Biernbaum, and Darryl Warncke.
(For more information, See HortTechnology 7(1):49-51).
Units Average Median Range
pH 7.0 7.1 2.7 to 11.3
EC (mS/cm) 0.6 0.4 0.01 to 9.8
Alkalinity (ppm) 160 130 0 to 1120
Calcium (Ca) (ppm) 52 40 0 to 560
Magnesium (Mg) (ppm) 19 11 0 to 190
Sulfur (S) (ppm) 27 8 0 to 750
Sodium (Na) (ppm) 33 13 0 to 2500
Chloride (Cl) (ppm) 33 14 0 to 1480
Boron (B) (ppm) 0.2 0.02 0 to 11.7
Floride (F) (ppm) 0.1 <0.01 0 to 8.3
Ca:Mg Ratio 5.0 3.2 <0.1 to 150
SAR
1
2.6 0.7 0 to 280
1
Sodium-adsorption ratio is a formula that compares the concentration of sodium to the combined concentration of calcium and magnesium.
and reported as equivalents of calcium carbonate
(CaCO
3
, which is the main component of lime).
Alkalinity can therefore be thought of as the liming
content of the water. The units used to report
alkalinity can be parts per million (ppm), mg/liter, or
millequivalents (meq.).

Water alkalinity has a big effect on substrate-
pH.
When it comes to managing the pH of a
substrate, the alkalinity concentration has a much
greater effect than does water pH. Alkalinity (calcium
bicarbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, and sodium
bicarbonate) and limestone (calcium and magnesium
carbonate) react very similarly when added to a
substrate. And just like too much limestone, the use of
irrigation water containing high levels of alkalinity can
cause the pH of the substrate to increase above
acceptable levels for healthy plant growth.
For example, a limestone incorporation rate of
5 pounds per cubic yard will supply approximately 100
meq of limestone per 6 inch (15-cm) pot. Applying 16
fluid ounces (0.5 liters) of water containing 250 ppm
alkalinity to that 6 inch pot will supply about 2.5 meq of
lime. That does not sound like much until you consider
that after 10 irrigations you have effectively increased
the limestone incorporation rate by 25%. Even if you
are using a completely inert substrate, the liming effect
that high alkalinity water has will cause your substrate
pH to increase to unacceptable levels.
To compare the effect of water pH or alkalinity
on the ability to raise pH (or neutralize acid) in a
medium, 50 ppm alkalinity (which is a low alkalinity)
would be similar to having a water with pH 11 (i.e. an
extremely high pH). A water with a pH of 8.0 would
have the same effect on substrate pH as an alkalinity
concentration of only 0.05 ppm (i.e., almost nothing).

Dont ignore water pH.
Water pH is still important for crop
management. Even though it has little impact on the
substrate, water-pH does affect the solubility of
fertilizers, and the efficacy of insecticides and
fungicides before you apply it to the crop. Generally,
the higher the water pH, the lower the solubility of these
materials.

Minimizing the effects of high alkalinity
The common problems associated with high
alkalinity result from its tendency to increase substrate-
pH. High substrate-pH can causes micronutrient
deficiency in container grown crops because
micronutrient solubility decrease as the substrate pH
increases.
In commercial greenhouses, the most common
method for minimizing the liming effect of high
alkalinity is to add a strong mineral acid (usually
sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid) directly to the
irrigation water. As the pH of the water decreases,
some of the alkalinity is neutralized. The ideal
alkalinity concentration will depend on the type of
fertilizer being used (to be covered in Part 3). All of the
alkalinity has been neutralized when the pH of the water
reaches 4.5. For more information on injecting strong
mineral acids into irrigation water, you can download
the acid addition calculator from Purdue University
and North Carolina State University at
www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/floriculture/software/alk.h
tml.
For small greenhouse operations and hobbyists,
strong mineral acids are very difficult and dangerous to
use. Difficult because these acids are highly
concentrated and therefore are difficult to add to a small
volume of water, and dangerous because small
greenhouses and hobbyists typically lack the specialize
equipment needed to safely add acid to water. Some
acids should never be considered, like anhydrous
hydrochloric acid or anhydrous acetic acid because they
not only are caustic, but are also fuming acids, which
make them extremely dangerous to handle. Nitric acid
is especially dangerous and should never be considered.
There are alternatives to adding mineral acids
for alkalinity control. The first is using a weaker,
organic acid, like citric acid. Citric acid is available in a
Units of measure for alkainity
The concentration of alkalinity (or any other plant
nutrient) can be expressed a number of different ways.
1) Parts per million (ppm or mg/liter). The term ppm is a
weight per weight ratio. One part per million is
equivalent to 1 unit of something dissolved in a
million units of something else. In the case of
anything dissolved in water, 1 ppm is equal to 1 mg
per 1,000,000 mg (or 1 Kg = 1 liter) of water. So, 1
ppm is equal to 1 mg/liter. A 1% solution (1 unit in
100 units) is equivalent to 10,000 ppm.
2) Milliequivalent (mEq./liter). The term mEq./liter is a
chemistry term that is not only dependent on a
materials concentration, but also on its molecular
weight and charge. In the case of alkalinity, 50 ppm
(or mg/liter) CaCO
3
equals 1 meq/liter CaCO
3
.
Sometimes the concentration of bicarbonates is also
reported on a water test from a commercial laboratory.
In most cases, bicarbonate makes up most of the
alkalinity. The relationship is 61 ppm bicarbonate
equals 1 meq alkalinity.
3) Grains per gallon (gpg): An outdated term for
expressing concentration. 1 gpg = 17.1 ppm
pure granular form. A rate would be about 0.2 grams
per gallon to remove 50 ppm alkalinity. Pre-mixed
citric acid solutions (Seplex, GreenCare Fertilizer (815-
936-0096)) are also available for alkalinity control.
Other organic acids like vinegar and lemon juice will
also work, but because the concentration of acid in
these materials is variable, for example, the acetic acid
content in vinegar can range from 4% to 8% by weight,
that the results that you get will not be consistent.
Another option for alkalinity control is to use
acidic fertilizers (to be covered in greater depth in Part
3). Fertilizers high in ammoniacal nitrogen produce an
acidic reaction when added to the substrate, which can
be used to neutralize the affect of water alkalinity. For
example, 20-20-20 (69% NH
4
-N) has enough acidity to
be used with water containing around 200 ppm
alkalinity water without further acidification.
There are several drawbacks to using fertilizer
for alkalinity control. Fertilizers high in ammoniacal
nitrogen may cause excessive growth and are not
effective when the temperature of the substrate is less
than 60
o
F. In addition, you lose flexibility because you
can only choose commercial fertilizers based on
ammonium content. For example, high ammonium
fertilizers available to you may lack calcium or other
key nutrients.
Another option for alkalinity control is to
change water sources. There are a number of sources,
such as rain water or reverse osmosis purified water,
that contain little if any alkalinity. Drawbacks to using
alternative water sources include cost and storage
problems. Changing water sources will also change the
composition of the fertilizer solution applied to the
crop.

Low alkalinity Effects
Not everybody in the world has irrigation water
with high alkalinity. In the United States alone, there
are a large number of growers in states like AL, AR,
CA, CO, GA, HI, NC, NJ, NY, VA, and New England
states that have alkalinity levels below 40 ppm without
any acidification. Even in areas were high alkalinity is
considered the norm, some growers have switched to
low alkalinity sources such as reverse osmosis purified
water or rain water.
The primary problem associated with low
alkalinity water is a tendency for substrate-pH to drop
over time, which can cause micronutrient toxicity
problems. Usually, low pH problems are a result of
fertilizer selection. Fertilizers high in ammoniacal
nitrogen are acidic, and without any alkalinity in the
water to balance the reaction (resist lowering of pH),
acidic fertilizers will tend to drive the substrate-pH
down over time.
What about Hardness?
Hardness is a measure of a waters ability to
form scale in pipes, produce suds from soap, or to leave
spots on leaves. Like alkalinity, the units used to report
hardness are calcium carbonate equivalents (CaCO
3
).
However, while alkalinity is a measure of all chemical
bases in the water (bicarbonates and carbonates),
hardness is really a measure of the combined
concentration of calcium and magnesium in the water
because it is insoluble salts of ions, like calcium
carbonate, that form scale. Another difference is that
while alkalinity is an important measure in pH and
nutritional management, hardness is not, because its
combined concentration tells you little about a waters
ability to supply nutrients to a plant.
A water softener is typically used to remove
hardness. What is occurring with hardness removal is
that the calcium and magnesium ions are being replaced
with an ion that doesnt cause scale, like sodium or
potassium. However, with hardness removal, the
carbonates and bicarbonates still remain in the water but
they have been changed from calcium and magnesium
bicarbonate to sodium or potassium bicarbonate. Thus,
hardness removal has no effect on pH management. In
comparison, with alkalinity control, an acid is used to
neutralize the carbonates or bicarbonates, which will
affect pH management, but the calcium and magnesium
concentration remains unchanged.

What else is important in my water?
Electrical conductivity (EC, also know as
conductivity or soluble salts) is a term used to measure
the total concentration of salts in the water. The higher
the EC, the more salts that are dissolved in the water.
With irrigation water, EC is used to determine the
potential risk for salt buildup when water is applied to a
substrate. With fertilizer solutions, EC can be directly
correlated with the concentration of individual nutrients
(typically nitrogen) from a variety of fertilizer salts, or
with the total concentration of nutrients supplied by a
water-soluble fertilizer.
Electrical conductivity or EC units have
changed over the years. Twenty years ago, the units for
measuring EC were millimhos (mmhos) or micromhos
(mhos). Currently, the units used to measure EC are
millisiemens/cm (mS/cm), microsiemens/cm (S/cm),
or decisiemens/m (dS/m). The conversion for all these
units are 1000 mhos = 1000 S/cm=1 mmhos = 1
mS/cm = 1 dS/m.
A term closely related to EC is total dissolved
solids or TDS. A TDS meter measures the EC and then
converts the measurement into ppm by multiply by a
constant, usually 1 mS/cm = 1000 ppm salts. The
problem with TDS measurement is that the constant is
based on one salt (potassium chloride) and therefore
TDS measurements do a poor job estimating the actual
concentration of fertilizer salts under most situations. It
is important to remember that TDS measurements are
used to determine the acceptability of drinking water,
not fertilizer solutions. For these reasons, commercial
greenhouses use EC measurements almost exclusively
for fertility management
Another important consideration is the
concentration of individual plant nutrients. In general,
irrigation water is not a significant source of the
primary macronutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), or
potassium (K), which are the numbers that you see on a
bag or bottle of fertilizer. However, irrigation water can
contain high levels of the nutrients calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S). And just like
alkalinity, the concentration of nutrients contained in
the irrigation water can vary dramatically between
different locations (Table 1).
Since irrigation water can be an important
source of calcium, magnesium, or sulfur, water can
contribute a significant amount of the total
concentration of these nutrients being applied to a crop.
In other words, the water-soluble fertilizer that you
apply (like 30-10-10) is not the only nutrient source.
However, if you are using a very pure water source, like
RO or rain water, the only source of these nutrients may
be the fertilizer.

Waste ions
Some ions contained in irrigation water are
either not needed by the plant, or the plant requirement
is so low that only small amounts are required.
Examples of waste ions are sodium (Na) or chloride
(Cl). Generally their presence in irrigation water at
high concentrations increases the risk of salt build up in
the substrate. Even calcium, magnesium, or sulfur can
be considered a waste ion if their concentration is too
high or it is difficult to balance their concentration in
the nutrient solution with water-soluble fertilizer.
With most ions (including Na, Cl, Ca, Mg, or
S), excessive concentrations can be removed with
reverse osmosis purification. High salt concentrations
can also be managed by leaching at a heavier rate than
the commonly recommended 20% to remove any excess
salt build up. However, if you do use higher leaching
rates, then you may also have to increase the fertilizer
concentration because leaching washes out all salts
from the container including essential plant nutrients.
Boron (B) is a special example of a waste ion.
Even though it is an essential plant nutrient, the
presence of boron in irrigation water at high
concentrations can cause significant challenges.
Unfortunately, the difference between deficient,
adequate, and toxic levels of boron are very small. In
general, it is recommended that the maximum
concentration of boron in water used for plants be no
more than 1.0 ppm.
Unlike most other waste ions, boron can not be
effectively removed with reverse osmosis purification.
Instead, the only option for managing excessive boron
levels is to maintain a substrate pH above 6.0 and use
calcium-based fertilizer. The idea is that the high pH
and calcium will caused excess boron to precipitate out
of the soil solution, making it unavailable to the plant.
Another option for controlling high boron in the water
is to change water sources.
High concentrations of iron (Fe) in the
irrigation dont usually effect plant nutrition or pH
management. However, iron can cause staining
problems on plant leaves and other surfaces, and the
presence of iron in the water can lead to the presence of
iron-bacteria growing in the pipes, which can clog mist
nozzles, or anything else with small openings. Water
treatments that oxidize the water, such as treatments
with ozone or potassium permanganate, can effectively
remove iron from the water.
Fluoride (F) and chlorine (Cl
2
) are commonly
added to municipal water at concentrations up to 4 ppm
and can cause problems growing crops. Generally, high
levels (above 1 ppm) of fluoride and chlorine can cause
damage to the foliage (especially at the tip) and the
flowers. These materials are easily removed from the
water source by using an activated charcoal filter.

Water testing is only a starting point
Obtaining a water test is an important first step
in determining if your fertility program will work, or if
you need to reevaluate. Most water sources (with the
exception of rain water) are susceptible to change. In
commercial greenhouses, it is recommended to do a
water analysis at least once a year, either to make sure
that the water source is not changing, or if it is
changing, to make adjustments in the nutrition program.
Equally important is understanding how your
fertilizer affects pH and nutrition by itself, and through
its interaction with your water. Next issue: fertilizer.


Where to get a water test?
Obtaining a water test is an important first step in determining if your fertility program will work, or if you need to
reevaluate. The type of testing should be to determine if the water is acceptable for plants, i.e. for greenhouses and nurseries,
not suitability for drinking water (there is a difference). The test should include, water pH, EC, and the concentration (in ppm
or mEq/liter) of alkalinity (and or bicarbonates), nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron,
manganese, zinc, copper, boron, sodium, chloride, and fluoride.
There are number of testing laboratories in the U.S. that work closely with commercial greenhouse and nurseries, and
so are familiar with many of the issue discussed in this article. A number of these laboratories also have international ties.
They are:
Name Location Web site or E-mail Phone Number
A & L Southern Laboratory Pompano Beach, FL Lgriff6250@aol.com 954-972-3255
J.R. Peters Laboratory Allentown, PA www.jrpeterslab.com 800-743-4769
Micro-Macro International Athens, GA www.mmilabs.com 706-548-4557
Quality Analytical Laboratories Panama City, FL www.qal.us 850-872-9535
Soil and Plant Laboratories, Inc. Orange, CA www.soilandplantlaboratory.com 714-282-8777

The cost of a water test will range from $25 to over $100 per sample. Remember that UPS and FedEx will ship
anywhere in the US, so it pays to shop around
Many state universities still operate testing laboratories, so you can also have your water tested through the state
extension service. Fees vary from state to state, and the time required to get the test back is usually longer than with
commercial laboratories.
Drinking water companies will also perform water testing, but they are testing for the suitability for drinking, and
whether or not you need some type of water treatment. If you want to grow plants, you need better, and more precise testing
than is supplied by these companies.
Part 3: Fertilizers

Bill Argo, Ph.D.

When you select a water-soluble fertilizer for
your plants, the primary goal should be to supply your
plants with a sufficient amount of essential plant
nutrients for good growth and flowering. The problem
is that there are probably as many misconceptions about
fertilizers as there are fertilizers labeled as orchid
special.
The best fertilizer to use on your plants is the
one that not only supplies nutrients, but also
complements the alkalinity and nutrient content of your
irrigation water. In this article, we will help you
understand how selecting a fertilizer will affect the pH
and nutrient levels in the substrate. You will learn why
water-soluble fertilizers are classified as acidic, neutral,
or basic based on their fertilizer reaction in the
substrate. Finally, with the information given in this
article, you should be able to decide for yourself which
fertilizers will work best for your growing conditions.

Solution pH and the effect that fertilizer has on
substrate-pH two different aspects of water-soluble
fertilizers
There is a great deal of confusion when it
comes to understanding the difference between the pH
of the fertilizer solution and the effect that fertilizer has
on substrate pH, and why they are important to the
health of your plants.
Just like with water pH, the pH of the fertilizer
solution is a direct measurement of the balance between
acidic hydrogen ions (H
+
) and basic hydroxide ions
(OH
-
), and can be measured with a pH meter. The pH
of a solution can range between 0 (very acidic) and 14
(very basic). At a pH of 7.0, the concentrations of H
+

and OH
-
are equal, and the solution is said to be neutral.
When the pH is above 7.0, the concentration of OH
-
is
higher than H
+
, and the solution is said to be basic or
alkaline (not to be confused with alkalinity). When the
solution is below 7.0, the concentration of H
+
is higher
than OH
-
, and the solution is said to be acidic.
The effect that a water-soluble fertilizer has on
substrate pH is dependent on the reactions that take
place once the fertilizer has been applied to the crop and
are based on the type of nitrogen contained in the
fertilizer. There are three types of nitrogen used in
water-soluble fertilizers: ammoniacal nitrogen (NH
4
-N),
nitrate nitrogen (NO
3
-N) and urea (Figure 1). Uptake of
ammoniacal nitrogen causes the substrate-pH to
decrease because H
+
(acidic protons) are secreted from
roots in order to balance the charges of ions inside the
plant with the solution surrounding the outside of the
roots. Urea is easily converted into ammoniacal
nitrogen in the substrate and therefore can be thought of
as another source of ammoniacal nitrogen. In contrast,
uptake of nitrate nitrogen increases substrate-pH
because OH
-
or HCO
3
-
(bases) are secreted by plant
roots in order to balance nitrate uptake.
Another important fertilizer reaction is a
process called nitrification. Several types of bacteria in
container substrates (including inert substrates like coir,
bark, peat, rockwool, and scoria) convert ammoniacal
nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen. Nitrification releases H
+

(acidic protons), causing the substrate-pH to decrease.
Consider the difference in the amount of acidity
supplied by a solution with a pH of 5.0 verses the
amount of acidity supplied by 100 ppm of ammoniacal
nitrogen. A solution with a pH of 5.0 would supply
about 0.01 mEq/liter of acidic hydrogen ions to the
substrate. If all the 100 ppm ammoniacal nitrogen were
converted into nitrate nitrogen through nitrification, the
maximum amount of acidity produced would be 14.2
mEq/liter of acidic hydrogen, or about 1,400 times more
acidity than would be supplied by a solution with a pH
of 5.0. Put another way, applying 100 ppm of

Figure 1. The effect of different forms of nitrogen on medium-
pH. Nitrate nitrogen (NO
3
-N) only effects medium-pH through
plant uptake [1]. Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH
4
-N) effects
medium-pH through both plant uptake [2] and nitrification [3]).
Urea must first be converted into ammoniacal nitrogen before it
can be taken up by the plant [2] or go through nitrification [3].
ammoniacal nitrogen has the potential to supply the
same amount of acidity as a solution with a pH of 1.8.
The acidity produced by a solution with a pH of 5.0
would be equivalent to the nitrification of 0.14 ppm
ammoniacal nitrogen (almost undetectable).
While the effect that different nitrogen forms
have on the substrate pH is more complicated than this
simple example, it does give you an idea why the
nitrogen form of the fertilizer has a much greater effect
on the substrate-pH than does the solution pH.
The main problem with predicting how the
nitrogen form affects substrate pH is that the key
reactions are not consistent. For example, the
application nitrate nitrogen (NO
3
-N) can cause the
substrate-pH to increase, but only if it is taken up by the
plant. If plants are small, or are stressed and not
growing, nitrate has little influence on substrate-pH.
The application of ammoniacal nitrogen (NH
4
-N) can
cause the substrate-pH to decrease even if the plant is
small or is not growing, because in addition to plant
uptake, nitrification will occur independently of the
plant. However, nitrification is inhibited by low
substrate-pH (starting at around 5.5), low substrate
temperature (less than 60
o
F or 15
o
C), and lack of
oxygen through water-logging.
Finally, you never apply either all nitrate
nitrogen or all ammoniacal nitrogen to your plants.
Most fertilizer is a mixture of salts containing different
forms of nitrogen and so the overall reaction produced
by the fertilizer will depend on the ratio of the different
nitrogen forms. There are also other factors that either
magnify or buffer the reaction of the fertilizer including
the substrate (cation exchange capacity, residual lime,
decomposition to be covered in a later article) and the
irrigation water.

Water alkalinity also influences the fertilizer
reaction.
When discussing how water-soluble fertilizer
affects substrate-pH, it is important to understand that
water-soluble fertilizer cannot be applied without
irrigation water. The best guide when selecting an
appropriate water-soluble fertilizer is to balance the
proportion of nitrogen in the ammoniacal form (acid)
against the irrigation water alkalinity (base) (see Table
1). Although other factors affect substrate-pH, research
has shown that it is the balance between the
ammoniacal nitrogen in the fertilizer and water
alkalinity that has the greatest effect on substrate-pH on
long-term crops.
Table 1. The nitrogen content of selected commercially-available granular and liquid water-soluble fertilizers. The alkalinity concentration
that provides a stable substrate pH should be viewed as an approximate guideline only. Use these values as a starting point. Any
changes to the fertilizer program should be based on the actual measured pH of the crop.
N-P
2
O
5
-K
2
O
Formula % NH
4
-N % Urea-N % NO3-N
Fertilizer
reaction
1

Proportion of the total
nitrogen in the ammoniacal
form (NH
4
-N + urea-N)
Alkalinity Conc. (in ppm CaCO3)
that provides a stable substrate pH
Granular fertilizers
21-7-7
GC,SC
9.1% 11.9% - A 1520 100%
9-45-15
GC,SC
9.0% - - A 940 100%
30-10-10
GC,GM, SC
2.1% 24.7% 3.2% A 1039 89%
20-20-20
GC,GM, SC
3.9% 10.5% 5.6% A 680 72%
250 or more
6-30-30
GM
2.7% - 3.3% NA 45%
10-30-20
G, SC
4.4% - 5.6% A 425 43%
20-10-20
GC,GM, SC
8.0% - 12.0% A 430 40%
21-5-20
SC
6.5% 1.9% 12.6% A389 40%
150 to 200
19-4-23-2 Ca
GC
5.7% - 13.6% A 140 30%
17-5-17-3 Ca-1 Mg
GC
4.2% - 12.8% A 0 25%
15-5-15-5 Ca-2 Mg
SC
1.2% 2.1% 11.8% B 141 21%
75 to 150
15-3-20-3 Ca-1 Mg
GC
2.4% - 12.6% B 75 16%
14-4-14-5 Ca-2 Mg
GC
2.0% - 12.0% B 200 14%
13-2-13-6 Ca-3 Mg
GC, SC
0.8% - 12.2% B 380 6%
13-3-15-8 Ca-2 Mg
GC
0.7% - 12.5% B 420 5%
50 or less
Liquid fertilizers
10-5-5-2 Ca-0.5 Mg
DG
3.7% - 6.3% NA 37%
7-9-5-2 Ca-0.5 Mg
DG
2.6% - 4.4% NA 37%
150 to 200
7-7-7-2 Ca-0.5 Mg
DG
2.1% - 4.9% NA 30%
3-12-6-2 Ca-0.5 Mg
DG
0.7% - 2.3% NA 23%
75 to 150

1
Pounds of acidity (A) or basicity (B) per ton of fertilizer.

DG = Dyna Gro, GC = GreenCare, GM = Grow-more, SC = Scotts (Peters)

To Calculate the proportion of the total nitrogen in the ammoniacal form
% NH
4
-N + % Urea-N
% Total Nitrogen
= Proportion of the total nitrogen in the ammoniacal form

Example: 20-20-20

3.9% NH
4
-N + 10.5% Urea-N
20% total nitrogen
= 72% of the total nitrogen is in the ammoniacal form
To understand how the alkalinity concentration
in the water and the percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen
in the fertilizer interact to affect substrate-pH, picture a
balance with water alkalinity on one side pushing the
pH up (i.e. liming effect), and on the other side, with the
ammoniacal nitrogen pushing the pH down (i.e. acidic
nitrogen).
If either of these factors is out of balance, then
the substrate-pH will be affected. For example, using a
fertilizer very high in ammoniacal nitrogen (like 30-10-
10) with low alkalinity water (like RO or rain water) is
very effective at driving the substrate-pH down because
there is nothing to neutralize all the acidic hydrogens
(H
+
) being produced through nitrification or plant
uptake. Another example would be using a fertilizer
low in ammoniacal nitrogen (like 13-3-15) with a high
alkalinity water source (like well water commonly
found in the Midwest of the United States). In this case,
there would be little if any acidic hydrogens (H
+
)
produced to neutralize the liming effect of the water
alkalinity, plus the large amount of nitrate nitrogen
uptake would also add to the liming effect.
It is important to note that the two things that
affect substrate-pH the most (water alkalinity and
ammoniacal nitrogen) can not be directly measured with
a pH meter. Water alkalinity must be measured with an
alkalinity test (see Part 2 of this series for a list of
commercial laboratories that do alkalinity testing). The
percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen in the fertilizer
needs to be calculated based on the information
supplied on the fertilizer bag (See Table 1).

What about potential acidity or basicity?
Many water-soluble fertilizer labels state the
potential acidity or basicity of the fertilizer in units of
equivalent pounds of calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
, or
agricultural lime) per ton of fertilizer. Potential acidity
or basicity indicates the type of reaction produced,
while calcium carbonate equivalency indicates the
strength of that reaction.
For example, 20-10-20 has a potential acidity of
430 lbs. per ton of fertilizer. If one ton of 20-10-20
were applied to a field soil, we would estimate that 430
pounds of CaCO
3
(lime) would be required to neutralize
the long-term acidity produced from the fertilizer.
There are several problems when trying to
relate potential acidity or basicity and calcium
carbonate equivalency to growing plants in pots
containing an inert substrate. The original values come
from a method first presented in 1933 using field soil
(pH-independent CEC), rather than inert substrates like
peat or bark. The calculated values are based on
assumptions related to how much of each nutrient
remains in the soil profile, is used by the plant, or is
leached from the field soil. The equivalent value of
pounds CaCO
3
per ton of fertilizer has little meaning in
soilless culture where fertilizer applications are
typically based on the concentration of nitrogen in parts
per million contained in a nutrient solution, not the total
weight of the fertilizer applied to a pot. Finally, the
alkalinity of the irrigation water is not taken into
account when calculating acidity or basicity. At best,
the potential acidity or basicity and calcium carbonate
equivalency should be interpreted as a general tendency
of the fertilizer to raise or lower medium-pH over time.

Macronutrients.
The second way a water-soluble fertilizer affects
nutrition management is through the direct effect it has
on nutrient concentrations is in the root medium. A
complete fertilizer program provides several
macronutrients (needed in large quantities) including
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium
(Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S).
Blended water-soluble fertilizers that contain
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are formulated by
Table 2. Fertilizer salts used to produce selected
commercially-available granular and liquid water-soluble
fertilizers.

N-P
2
O
5
-K
2
O
Formula

Derived from
21-7-7
GC,SC
KCl, NH
4
H
2
PO
4
, (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
, urea,
9-45-15
GC,SC
KCl, NH
4
H
2
PO
4

30-10-10
GC,GM, SC
KNO
3
, NH
4
H
2
PO
4
, Urea
20-20-20
GC,GM, SC
KNO
3
, NH
4
H
2
PO
4
, Urea
6-30-30
GM
KNO
3
, NH
4
H
2
PO
4
, KH
2
PO
4
, KCl
10-30-20
G, SC
NH
4
NO
3
, KNO
3
, NH
4
H
2
PO
4
,
20-10-20
GC,GM, SC
NH
4
NO
3
, KNO
3
, NH
4
H
2
PO
4
,
21-5-20
SC
NH
4
NO
3
, KNO
3
, Urea phosphate
19-4-23-2 Ca
GC
NH
4
NO
3
, Ca(NO
3
)
2
, KNO
3
NH
4
H
2
PO
4

17-5-17-3 Ca-1 Mg
GC

NH
4
NO
3
, Ca(NO
3
)
2
, KNO
3
, Mg(NO
3
)
2
,
NH
4
H
2
PO
4

15-5-15-5 Ca-2 Mg
SC

NH
4
NO
3
, Ca(NO
3
)
2
, KNO
3
, Mg(NO
3
)
2
, Urea
phosphate
15-3-20-3 Ca-1 Mg
GC

NH
4
NO
3
, Ca(NO
3
)
2
, KNO
3
, Mg(NO
3
)
2
,
NH
4
H
2
PO
4

14-4-14-5 Ca-2 Mg
GC

NH
4
NO
3
, Ca(NO
3
)
2
, KNO
3
, Mg(NO
3
)
2
,
NH
4
H
2
PO
4

13-2-13-6 Ca-3 Mg
GC, SC
Ca(NO
3
)
2
, KNO
3
, Mg(NO
3
)
2
, NH
4
H
2
PO
4

13-3-15-8 Ca-2 Mg
GC
Ca(NO
3
)
2
, KNO
3
, Mg(NO
3
)
2
, NH
4
H
2
PO
4

Liquid fertilizers
10-5-5-2 Ca-0.5 Mg
DG

7-9-5-2 Ca-0.5 Mg
DG

7-7-7-2 Ca-0.5 Mg
DG

3-12-6-2 Ca-0.5 Mg
DG

NH
4
NO
3
, Ca(NO
3
)
2
, KNO
3
, MgSO
4
,
NH
4
H
2
PO
4
, KH
2
PO
4
, H
3
PO
4
, KCl

1
Actual P and K are the actual expected values obtained in a solution at 100 ppm
nitrogen and are how the values would be represented if a laboratory analysis
were performed on the solution. To calculate actual P as P2O5, multiply value by
2.3, to calculate actual K as K2O, multiply value by 1.2.

DG = Dyna Gro, GC = GreenCare, GM = Grow-more, SC = Scotts (Peters)

Ammonium nitrate (NH
4
HO
3
), ammonium sulfate ((NH4)
2
SO
4
), calcium nitrate
(Ca(NO
3
)
2
), magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO
3
)
2
), monoammonium phosphate
(NH
4
H
2
PO
4
), monopotassium phosphate (KH
2
PO
4
), phosphoric acid (H
3
PO
4
),
potassium chloride (KCl), potassium nitrate (KNO
3
),
combining two or more fertilizer salts (Table 2).
Fertilizer salts in this case mean any chemicals that
contain plant nutrients in a water-soluble form.
Ammonium phosphate is an example of a fertilizer salt,
and in water this salt dissolves into separate ammonium
and phosphate ions. The ammonium provides the plant
with N and phosphate provides P.
There are many water-soluble sources of nitrogen,
some of which only supply nitrogen like urea and
ammonium nitrate. However, for most other nutrients,
the choices are limited. For example, calcium nitrate is
the only form of water-soluble calcium. There is also
typically only one source of potassium, potassium
nitrate. Monoammonium phosphate is the usual source
of phosphorus. Magnesium is supplied either as
magnesium nitrate or magnesium sulfate. Sulfur is
supplied by ammonium sulfate or magnesium sulfate.
Because of limitations in the number of fertilizer
salts used to blend fertilizers, the ratio of macronutrients
(N-P-K-Ca-Mg) directly affects the percent ammoniacal
nitrogen. For example, fertilizers that are high in
calcium tend to also be high in nitrate, because calcium
nitrate is the only water-soluble source of calcium.
Fertilizers that are high in phosphorus are often also
high in ammonium because phosphorus is usually
supplied as monoammonium phosphate.
Certain fertilizers generally cannot be mixed at high
concentrations. Salts containing sulfate, for example
magnesium sulfate, are not compatible in the same
concentrated stock solution with calcium nitrate
because a reaction occurs where insoluble calcium
sulfate (gypsum) will form as a precipitate . If a
blended fertilizer contains both calcium and
magnesium, then the sources have to be calcium nitrate
and magnesium nitrate or two stock tanks must be used.
Similarly calcium nitrate and monoammonium
phosphate cannot be mixed in the same concentrated
stock solution at high concentrations because insoluble
calcium phosphate will form as a precipitate (solid).
However, the amount of calcium and phosphorus that
can be mixed in the same stock tank can be increased by
lowering the pH of the stock tank. Commercially
available fertilizers that contain calcium and
phosphorus tend to have low levels of phosphorus (i.e.
13-2-13-6 Ca-3 Mg) and will also contain a weak acid
to lower the pH of the concentrated stock solution.
The nutrient content of the irrigation water is
also important. In some cases, it can supply a large
percentage of nutrients (especially calcium and
magnesium) to the plants. In other cases, the reason for
choosing a specific fertilizer is to resist the effects of
unwanted ions like sodium, chloride, or boron. Only
when the nutrient content of an irrigation water is
extremely low (like with rain water or reverse osmosis
purified water) can it be ignored.

Micronutrients
Micronutrients (iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),
zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), and molybdenum
(Mo)) are also required by plants for acceptable growth.
In the past, Field soils were the primary source of
micronutrients, and so the additional application was
not often necessary. However, since the switch to inert
substrates for growing plants in containers, the
application of micronutrients has become a necessity.
The sources of micronutrients used in water
soluble fertilizers typically come in two forms,
inorganic salts (all micronutrients) or chelates (only
iron, manganese, zinc, and copper). Inorganic salts are
material that dissolve in water to form ions that are
available to the plant. For example, iron sulfate will
dissolve into separate iron (Fe) and sulfate (SO
4
) ions.
Chelates are organic molecules that envelop the ion and
protect if from interacting with other ions in the soil
solution that may make it unavailable to the plant.
There are many chelating molecules available,
but only three that are in common use in horticulture,
EDTA, DTPA, and EDDHA. These abbreviations refer
to the chemical structure of the organic molecule. The
difference in the chelates is how tightly the ion is
bound. In general, manganese, zinc, and copper
chelates are only found in the EDTA form. In
comparison, there are three forms of iron chelate, but
the most common also is the EDTA form.
How to read a label from a fertilizer bag or bottle.
All fertilizer labels should contain three numbers
representing the percentage (by weight) of nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium contained in the fertilizer.
For nitrogen, the value listed represents the actual
percentage of nitrogen contained in the fertilizer.
However, for historical reasons, fertilizers sold in the
United States (and much of the rest of the world) list the
percentage of phosphorus as P
2
O
5
and potassium is listed
as K
2
O. To calculate the actual percentage of phosphorus,
multiply the listed value by 0.43, and for potassium,
multiply the percentage by 0.83. For example, 20-20-20
really contains 20% nitrogen, 8.6% phosphorus (actual
P), and 16.6% potassium (actual K).
Nutrients other than nitrogen, phosphorus, or
potassium are voluntarily listed on the label under the
guaranteed analysis section and the values listed
represent the actual percentage in the fertilizer. To be
listed on the label, they either have to reach a minimum
level (Ca at 1%, Mg at 0.5%, S at 0.5%, Fe at 0.1%, Mn,
Zn, Cu at 0.05%, B at 0.02%), or they can be in the
fertilizer but left off the label, or the label can contain
For continuous liquid feed programs which exempts the
fertilizer from the minimum critical level on
micronutrients.

Resin-coated fertilizer
Resin-coated fertilizers are water-soluble
fertilizers covered by a resin or plastic membrane that
limits the solubility of the fertilizer salts. In general,
resin coated fertilizer contain high levels (50%) of
ammoniacal nitrogen (NH
4
-N) and no calcium (Ca), and
typically little if any magnesium (Mg).
The initial release of nutrients from resin-coated
fertilizers occurs because of imperfections in the
coating of a percentage of the prills. Mixing equipment
that damages the coat on the prills will also cause a high
initial release. To test for initial release, put some resin-
coated fertilizer in a glass of water and allow to sit
overnight. If there the EC of the solution increases,
then there is an initial release. This initial release
should be thought of as a starter fertilizer.
The long term release of nutrients from resin-
coated fertilizer is affected by only one thing,
temperature. In general, the higher the temperature, the
higher the release rate, and the lower the temperature,
the lower the release rate.
Resin coated fertilizers are typically sold based
on release durations. For example, Osmocote 14-14-14
has a release rate of 3-4 months. At an average
temperature of 68
o
F (20
o
C), 14-14-14 will release 80%
of the fertilizer salts contained in the prills over 3-4
months. However, if the average temperature of the
substrate is much above 68
o
F, then 14-14-14 may only
last 2-3 months. High greenhouse temperatures have
been known to cause excessive release of nutrients from
resin-coated fertilizer resulting in salt buildup in the
substrate.
Conclusion
Understanding how to fertilizer your plants
starts with understanding what is in the bag or bottle of
fertilizer and what is in your water. However, this still
doesnt guarantee success. Proper fertilization of your
plants is more than just selecting the right fertilizer.
It also applying the fertilizer correctly. In the next
article, we will discuss different factors that affect the
concentration of fertilizer that you apply to your plants,
and some of the concepts about fertilizers that may or
may not be correct.

Part 4: Substrates

Bill Argo, Ph.D.

A wide range of substrates are available on the
market to grow orchids, or many other plants. Some
people are using substrates manufactured by large
companies for the production of container grown crops
other than orchids. Other people are using substrates
manufactured primarily for growing orchids. Still
others are blending their own substrates from individual
components.
The choice of substrates will affect the
effectiveness of your fertilizer program. Substrates can
differ substantially in both their physical properties and
chemical properties. In part 4 or this series, we will
discuss key aspects of physical and chemical properties,
and also leaching, and how these factors affect plant
nutrition.

Physical properties
Physical properties deal with the ratio of
air:water:solid in a substrate. Container substrates
should be thought of as a sponge. A sponge is made up
of the material used to make the sponge (solid space)
and holes (pore spaces). If a material has a high bulk
density (high weight per unit volume), then a sponge of
this material would have a lot of solid space with little
pore space. Examples of high bulk density materials
are sand, clays, or field soils. In comparison, a sponge
made from materials that have a low bulk density (low
weight per unit volume) would have little solid space
but lots of pore spaces. Examples of low bulk density
materials are peat, coir, bark, vermiculite, things
commonly found in container substrates.
Pore space can be filled with either air or water.
The ratio of air to water in a given substrate will depend
on size and distribution of the pores. During an
irrigation, small pores (called micropores) tend to fill
completely with water, while large pores (called
macropores) tend to drain, which allows air to get back
into the substrate. It has been said that after an
irrigation, the ideal container substrate would have 25%
of its volume taken up with pores filled with air, 60% of
its volume taken up with pores filled with water, and the
remaining 15% taken up with solids.
To put numbers on these values, an average 6
inch (15-cm) azalea pot has a volume of about 1.6 liters.
The volume of air, water, and solid occupied by the
ideal substrate in this pot would be 0.4 liters of air
space, 0.96 liters of water, and 0.24 liters of solid. In
general, substrates used for propagation tend to be very
fine (lots of micropores) and so hold more water (on a
relative basis) at the expense of air space when
compared to the ideal substrate. Coarse substrates
have lots of macropores and so have greater air space at
the expense of water.
Container height also affects the ratio of
air:water held in a substrate after an irrigation. In
general, the shorter the height of the container, the
greater the percentage of pore space that is filled with
water and the lower the air space. For example, after a
thorough watering, the average air and water porosity of
five different commercially available root media in a 6
inch (15 cm) tall pot was 19% (air) and 64% (water), in a
4 inch (10 cm) tall pot was 13% (air) and 70% (water), in
a 3 inch (8 cm) tall cell bedding flat was 7% (air) and
76% (water), and a 1 inch (2.5 cm) tall plug flat was 2%
(air) and 82% (water), respectively. The percentage of
solid material in the root media remained constant in the
different container sizes. It was the ratio of air space to
water space that changed with the different container
heights. This is one reason why it is easier to overwater
a small pot than it is a large pot because the air space in
the small pot is lower than that found in the larger pot
after an irrigation.
Finally, the ability of a substrate to absorb
water will affect physical properties. Ideal physical
properties are measured in a laboratory by allowing the
substrate to remain submersed in water for 24 hours
before allowing it to drain (the difference between the
saturated weight and drained weight (in grams) is a
measure of air porosity). In comparison, a typically
irrigation may last for only 30 seconds or less. That
means that under a typical irrigation, most substrates
will not rewet to maximum saturation, resulting in more
air space and less water-holding capacity than is
measured in a laboratory test.
Another problem with organic substrates like
peat and (especially) bark, is that they become water-
repellent if allowed to dry too much. Commercial
substrates will often contain a wetting agent or
surfactant that aids in rewetting (increases water
absorption). For long-term greenhouse crops, like
hanging baskets, it is often recommended to reapply a
surfactant to the substrate every month or two because
the surfactant will degrade over time, resulting in a
decrease in water absorption (more air space). If you
want to apply a wetting agent to your orchids, choose
one that is designed specifically for organic substrates
and cut the rates found on the label in half to reduce the
potential for phytotoxicity.

Chemical properties
Chemical properties generally refer to a substrates
ability to buffer the water held in the substrate against
changes in either pH or nutrition. The term most often
used to describe chemical properties is cation exchange
capacity or CEC. CEC refers to the ability of substrate
particles (such as peat) to absorb and release positively
charged cations like potassium, ammonium, calcium, or
magnesium, thus buffering the substrate against sudden
changes in pH or nutrient levels.
An example of how CEC affects pH and nutrient
management occurs when a fertilizer solution is applied
to a substrate. A fertilizer high in ammoniacal-nitrogen
produces acid (H
+
). The acid is absorbed by the
substrate and a different cation, usually calcium, is
released. Conversely, a fertilizer high in nitrate-
nitrogen (usually calcium nitrate based) produces base
(either OH
-
or HCO3
-
). The base causes an acid (H
+
)
bound by the substrate to be released, which will then
react with the base to produce water (H
2
O) or CO
2
. In
both cases, the net result is that the pH and calcium
concentrations remain stable. Substrates that have high
CEC (more buffered) can resist a change in pH for long
periods of time, whereas pH can change very rapidly in
substrates that have low CEC (less buffered).
CEC can play an important role in pH buffering
when a field soil is added to a container substrate.
CEC-based pH and nutrient buffering does occur with
field soils because the substrate has a high bulk density
(weight). In contrast to field soils, research has shown
that the CEC of peat, coir, or bark-based substrates has
little effect on resisting change in pH or in supplying
nutrients.
This does not mean that the substrate plays no
role in pH or nutritional management. Peat tends to be
very acidic. Limestone is commonly added to peat-
based substrates to neutralize the acidity and bring the
pH up to an acceptable level for plant growth. The
amount of acidity found in most acidic peats will not be
neutralized very quickly by bases found in irrigation
water. Using the example given in Part 2 of this series,
a limestone incorporation rate of 5 pounds per cubic
yard will supply approximately 100 meq of limestone
per 6 inch (15-cm) pot. Applying 16 fluid ounces (0.5
liters) of water containing 250 ppm alkalinity to that 6
inch pot will supply about 2.5 meq of lime. That means
that 40 irrigations are required to equal the amount of
base found in 5 pounds of limestone. If you are only
watering once a week, then it will take 40 weeks to
bring the substrate pH up to an acceptable level. If you
are using a pure water source without any alkalinity,
then you may never get the pH up to an acceptable
level. The presence of limestone in the substrate has
also been shown to increase the buffering capacity
when using acidic fertilizer solutions.
Finally, substrate degradation will affect
nutrition and pH management. Degradation is the
breakdown of the substrate, similar to composting. Of
all the materials commonly found in container
substrates, bark is the least stable, and therefore the
most susceptible to degradation. The problem with
degradation is that it not only absorbs all the nitrogen
present (causing nitrogen starvation), but the process
also tends to be very acidic. Hardwood barks tend to be
the most stable. Softwood barks usually require some
composting to make them stable. If a bark (any bark)
contains any wood, then it is unacceptable for use in
container substrates because the wood will cause will
cause rapid degradation and nitrogen absorption.

Leaching
Leaching is the application of water or fertilizer
solution beyond what can be held by the substrate.
Applying extra water is recommended to thoroughly
wet the substrate, and to remove excess salts from the
substrate. The leaching fraction is the volume of water
that drains from the substrate relative to the volume of
water applied. For example, if you apply 15 fluid
ounces (0.44 liters) of water, and 3 fluid ounces (0.08
liters) comes out of the bottom of the pot then 3 divided
by 15, then times 100 equals a 20% leaching fraction.
In other words, 20% of the water applied to the plant
came out of the bottom of the pot.
It is generally taught that you should have
between a 10% and 20% leaching fraction with every
watering. However, research has shown that leaching is
not necessary for long periods of time if you have a
good water source (RO or rain water is ideal) and the
fertilizer you use does not contain any harmful salts like
sodium or chloride. There are reasons to leach pots,
usually because the fertilizer concentration that is
applied to the crop is too high for the growth rate, or the
water quality is poor, and unused salts (like calcium,
magnesium, or sodium) build up in the substrate. In
general, whether or not you leach should be based on
soil test information showing salt levels actually
building up in the substrate, rather than because
somebody tells you too.
Leaching rates also affect the optimal fertilizer
concentration for your crop. Research has shown that
the same nutrient levels could be maintained in a peat-
based substrate if a solution containing 400 ppm
nitrogen were applied with 50% leaching or a solution
containing 100 ppm nitrogen were applied with 0%
leaching. This research also showed that applying a
solution containing 400 ppm nitrogen with 0% leaching
rapidly lead to salts building up in the substrate to
unacceptable levels, while applying a solution
containing 100 ppm nitrogen with 50% leaching lead to
nutrient deficiencies because there wasnt enough of the
fertilizer remaining in the pot because of the excess
leaching.

Applying fertilizer to a substrate
When you apply fertilizer to a substrate, which
is more important, the concentration of the fertilizer
solution, or the volume that you apply? In fact, both are
important because as a plant grows, it adds mass, and a
portion of this mass is made up of fertilizer nutrients. It
has been shown in a number of experiments that it is the
amount of fertilizer applied to a crop that affects crop
quality, not simply the fertilizer concentration.
To calculate the amount of fertilizer applied,
you need to know both the fertilizer concentration and
the volume applied. For example, applying 1 liter
(about 1 quart) of a fertilizer solution containing 100
ppm (100 mg nitrogen/liter) will supply 100 mg of
nitrogen. If only 0.5 liters (about 1 pint) were applied
of the same fertilizer solution, then only 50 mg of
nitrogen would be applied.
This can be especially important when you are
only applying fertilizer on a weekly basis. If the
amount of fertilizer solution being absorbed into the
substrate decreases for any reason (decreased water-
holding capacity), they you could end up starving your
plants.

How do commercial growers manage pH and
nutrient levels
Commercial growers have learned that a single
fertilizer concentration may or may not work depending
on a number of factors including leaching, growth rates,
light levels, irrigation frequency, etc. Instead, many
growers will manage the pH or nutrient level within the
substrate itself. This requires that the grower tests the
pH, electrical conductivity, and perhaps even the
specific nutrient levels contained in the substrate on a
regular basis (see Sidebar).
These measured values can be used to make
adjustments to the fertilizer solution. For example, if
the substrate pH is too high, then a grower might switch
to a fertilizer containing more ammoniacal nitrogen, or
they may lower the alkalinity of the water. If the EC of
the substrate is too high, the grower may increase the
leaching rate, or decrease the concentration of fertilizer
applied to the crop. The point is that by measuring the
pH and EC of the substrate, they can make sure that a
particular fertilizer solution is doing what they think it
is doing, and make changes if things are going wrong,
usually long before there are noticeable problems with
the plant.
Even though there is not a lot of specific
knowledge about acceptable ranges for substrate pH and
EC with orchids, it is probable that they are similar to
almost all other crops and so will grow best in a
substrate pH around 6.0. Because they appear to be
somewhat salt sensitive, they will also grow best with a
substrate EC slightly lower than the optimal level
recommended for most crops. If testing with a pour-
thru method, then the desired substrate EC would be
between 1 and 2 mS/cm.

Monitoring Media pH and Nutrient Levels
For successful pH and nutritional management of container grown crops, the goal is to keep the pH and nutritional levels within an acceptable range and to spot problem
trends early on. This is a far better strategy than blindly applying fertilizer and hoping everything is OK, or having to take dramatic steps to rescue stressed plants.
Using reliable meters, you can measure pH (which affects the availability of nutrients) and electrical conductivity or EC (the overall concentration of fertilizer salts) in
substrates. Other advantages or in-house testing are that the tests are inexpensive and the results to be obtained quickly, typically in less than 1or 2 hours. How often do
you test? Typically commercial growers will test substrate pH and EC every 2 to 3 weeks. That does not mean they test every pot or every crop every two or three weeks.
Instead, they may do some random sampling to make sure everything is pH and EC are within acceptable levels, or they may test a few know problem crops and then
assume that if their pH and EC are within acceptable levels, then other, less sensitive crops are not having problems.
There are a number of different testing methods commonly used for measuring the pH and EC in container substrates.
1:2 method Saturated media extract method.
For additional information on the saturated media extract
method, see Michigan State University extension bulletin
E-1736 Greenhouse growth media: Testing and nutrition
guidelines by D. Warncke and D. Krauskopf.
Pour-thru method
For more information on the Pour-thru method, see the web
site www.pourthruinfo.com.

Squeeze Method.

Step 1. Collect a small amount of substrate from the
bottom 2/3
rd
of the pot. For very small plants, like
those being grown in plug trays or bedding flats,
use the whole cell as a sample. Take samples from
5 to 10 or more plants distributed in the group of
plants to be sampled. When a sufficient amount of
substrate is collected, thoroughly mix the sample to
ensure uniformity.

Step 2. Measure out a known volume of substrate in a
beaker or cup [usually 2-4 oz. (50 to 100 ml)]. The
beaker should be firmly filled with the substrate so
that it is slightly more compressed than when it was
in the pot. Place 2 equal volume of distilled water
into cup. Allow the solution to equilibrate (30-60
minutes) before measuring pH and EC.

Step 3. Measure pH and EC directly in the slurry.
bottom 2/3
rd
those being grown in plug trays or bedding flats, use
the whole cell as a sample. Take samples from 5 to
10 or more plants distributed in the group of plants
to be sampled. When a sufficient amount of
ensure uniformity.

Step 2. About 4 to 8 oz (150 to 300 ml) of fresh
substrate is placed in a cup. Distilled water is
slowly added while the sample is constantly
stirred with a spatula or knife until it has reached
a consistent moisture level. This is determined to
be when the sample behaves like a paste, the
surface glistens with water, but there is no free
water on the surface of the sample. The solution
is allowed to equilibrate for 60 minutes

Step 3. Measure pH directly in the slurry.

Step 4. Extract the solution from the media by
squeezing slurry through paper towel or a coffee
filter. Measure EC in extracted solution.
Step 1. Irrigate the crop one hour before testing,
making sure the substrate is thoroughly wet.
Allow the pots to drain for 30-60 minutes.

Step 2. Once drainage has stopped, place the pot to
be sampled into a plastic saucer and pour onto the
surface enough distilled water to get about 2 oz.
(50 ml) to come out of the bottom of the pot.

Step 3. Measure pH and EC directly in the leachate
Step 1. Irrigate the crop one hour before testing,
making sure the substrate is thoroughly wet.
Allow the pots to drain for 30-60 minutes.

bottom 2/3
rd
those being grown in plug trays or bedding flats,
use the whole cell as a sample. Take samples from
5 to 10 or more plants distributed in the group of
plants to be sampled. When a sufficient amount of
ensure uniformity.

Step 3. Squeeze the solution from the media. For a
cleaner sample, media can be squeezed through
a paper towel or coffee filter. The volume of
solution needed will depend on the type of pH or
EC meter used for testing.

Step 4. Measure the pH and EC in the extracted
solution

In general, there is no one best method for measuring substrate-pH or EC in the greenhouse. However, with orchids, especially with specimen plants, the pour-thru
method may work best because it will not damage roots. Other reasons for deciding on which method to use in your greenhouse include any experience that you have with
a particular method as well as how much help and advice you can get from other people that are close by such as other growers, extension agents, universities, or soil testing
laboratories.
Whichever soil testing method you choose, consistency is the key to making that method work. Consistency starts with having a single, trained person taking the test.
Other tips include:
1) Choose one soil testing method and stick with it. Different methods can give different results.
2) When removing substrate from the pot, take the sample from the bottom 2/3
rd
of the pot. The bottom 2/3
rd
is typically were the roots are in the pot and sampling in this
way avoids fertilizer salts that can accumulate at the substrate surface with all irrigation methods (not just subirrigation).
3) Try to take media samples roughly the same time before or after an irrigation. This is especially important with the squeeze method.
4) Choose a reliable pH and EC meter and calibrate it regularly. Calibrating solution has an expiration day and should be discarded when that date is reached.
Table 1. Interpretation of media pH levels for container grown crops. Values are the same for all testing methods.
Adapted from: W. Argo and P. Fisher. 2002. Understanding pH management of container grown crops, Meister
Publishing, Willoughby, OH.
Acceptable range Examples
Iron-inefficient
or
Petunia Group
5.4 to 6.2
Azalea, bacopa, Calibrachoa, dianthus, nemesia, pansy, petunia, rhododendron,
snapdragons, verbena, vinca, and any other crop that is prone to micronutrient
deficiency (particularly iron) when grown at high media pH.
General
Group
5.8 to 6.4
Chrysanthemum, impatiens, ivy geranium, osteospermum, poinsettia, and any other
crop that is not generally affected by either micronutrient deficiencies or toxicities.
Iron-efficient
or
geranium group
6.0 to 6.6
Lisianthus, marigolds, New Guinea impatiens, seed geraniums, zonal geraniums, and
any other crop that is prone to micronutrient toxicity (particularly iron and manganese)
when grown at low media pH

Table 2. Interpretation of media electroconductivity (EC) or soluble salt levels. For salt sensitive crops, like
orchids, the low fertility level range would be a good starting point. Values are reported in mS/cm.
2:1
method
Saturated media
extract method
Pour-thru
method
Squeeze
method
No fertility 0 0.25 0 to 0.75 0 to 1.0 0 to 1.0
Low fertility 0.30 to 0.75 1.0 to 2.0 1.0 to 2.5 1.0 to 2.5
Acceptable range 0.30 to 1.50 1.0 to 3.5 1.0 to 6.0 1.0 to 5.0
High fertility 0.75 to 1.50 2.5 to 3.5 4.0 to 6.0 2.5 to 5.0
Potential root damage >2.50 > 5.0 > 8.0 > 8.0
The units of measure for EC can be mMho/cm, dS/m, mS/cm, M/cm, or mMho x 10
-5
/cm. The relationship is 1 mMho/cm=1 dS/m=1 mS/cm=1000
S/cm=100 mMho x 10
-5
/cm.

Special Note: It is important to remember that EC is a measure of the total salt concentration in the extracted
solution. It does not give an indication of the concentration of any of the plant nutrients. The only way to
determine exactly what ions make up the EC is to use a more extensive commercial laboratory analysis.

Part 5: Choosing the best fertilizer

Bill Argo, Ph.D.

Over the last year, since the AOS article came out on
MSU Magic fertilizer, I have been inundated with
calls of people trying to get the fertilizer. Usually, I like
to talk with them to get a little information so that I can
recommend which of the fertilizers (there now are 4
formulas) will work best for their situation. In this last
article of the series, I would like to answer several of
the common questions that people are asking.

Q) My water alkalinity is 7.8, which fertilizer will
work best?
A) Most often, when you hear that the alkalinity is
7.8, the person has actually measured the pH of the
solution. Water pH and water alkalinity are not the
same thing.
Water pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion
concentration in the irrigation water, and will affect the
solubility of chemicals and fertilizers in solution.
However, in the range of water pH commonly measured
in nature (between 5 and 8), there is only a minute
amount of acid or base, not nearly enough to influence
substrate pH.
In comparison, water alkalinity is a measure of
the acid buffering capacity of the water. Because
alkalinity is composed of bases (like bicarbonates,
carbonates), the effect it has on substrate pH is similar
to that of limestone. In addition, the concentration of
base supplied by alkalinity commonly found in
irrigation water is much higher than that supplied by pH
alone. For these reasons, alkalinity (not pH) is the
primary factor affecting substrate pH.
However, alkalinity can not be measured with a
pH meter, and the pH of the solution will give you no
idea how much alkalinity is in the water. In addition,
the measurement of total alkalinity is not commonly
done by municipal water companies or by water
treatment companies. Instead, a water sample should be
sent out to a commercial or university laboratory that
specializes in testing for greenhouses or nurseries. The
cost for these types of tests will range from $25 to over
$100 per sample, so it pays to shop around.
The reason that knowing what the alkalinity
concentration in the water is important is because it is
the balance between the alkalinity of the water and the
percent ammoniacal nitrogen in the fertilizer that will
determine the ideal fertilizer for your location. See part
3 of this series for more information on fertilizers and
how to balance the fertilizer with the alkalinity of the
water.

Q) What else should I test for besides alkalinity?
A) Besides alkalinity, you want to know the
electrical conductivity (EC) or total dissolved solids
(TDS) which gives you an idea of the total salt
concentration in the water. It is also good to know the
exact concentration of two plant nutrients, calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), as well as the concentration of ions
that may give you problems, boron (B), chloride (Cl),
sodium (Na), sulfur (S or SO
4
-S), and iron (Fe). Any
laboratory that will test for alkalinity should also these
for these ions.
The reason that knowing the concentration of
calcium, magnesium, or sulfur is important is that you
want to supplement or balance the concentrations of
these nutrients in the water with those found in the
fertilizer. In addition, you water to check the
concentration of waste ions to see if the water is
suitable for growing plants, or if it needs additional
treatment (for example, RO purification).

Q) How do commercial growers apply fertilizer?
A) Commercial greenhouse growers will typically
apply fertilizer one of two ways. The first is to apply
the fertilizer based on the concentration of a specific
nutrient, usually nitrogen. The formulas for calculating
how much fertilizer to add to a given volume of water
to get a specific nutrient concentration is found in Table
1.
The other way fertilizer is applied to a crop is
based on the electrical conductivity (EC) of the
fertilizer solution.

Q) What is the relationship between electrical
conductivity (EC) and the fertilizer concentration?
A) Electrical conductivity is really a measure of
how much or how little electrical current can move
through water. Electrical current can not move through
pure water. When a salt is dissolved in water, it can
break apart into positively charged cations and
negatively charged anions. For example sodium
chloride (NaCl) dissolving in water will break apart into
sodium cations (Na
+
) and chloride anions (Cl
-
).
Because these cations and anions have an electrical
charge, they can allow an electrical current to move
through the water. So, the greater the amount of salt
dissolved in the water, the higher the electrical
conductivity.
However, not all salts dissociate (break apart)
the same when dissolved in water. Some salts, like
sodium chloride will dissociate completely to form ions,
while others, like magnesium sulfate (Epson salts or
MgSO
4
) will dissolve, but will not totally dissociate.
When equal amounts of sodium chloride and
magnesium sulfate are dissolved in water, the sodium
chloride will have the higher EC. Some salts, like urea,
will dissolve completely but dont form ions, and so
their presence in water doesnt affect EC.
Fertilizers are nothing more than combination
of salts, but because each formula is different, there is a
unique relationship between the concentration you are
applying with a specific fertilizer and the EC. For
example, 20-10-20 is composed of ammonium nitrate,
monoammonium phosphate, and potassium nitrate
Table 1. The amount of fertilizer required to obtain specific concentrations of nitrogen in the fertilizer solution. To convert
to grams, multiply the value by 28.
Amount of fertilizer (in ounces) per 100 gallons
to get the desired nitrogen concentration
Amount of fertilizer (in ounces) per 5 gallons to
get the desired nitrogen concentration
100 ppm N 200 ppm N 300 ppm N 100 ppm N 200 ppm N 300 ppm N
30-10-10

4.4 8.9 13.3 0.2 0.4 0.7
21-7-7 6.4 12.7 19.1 0.3 0.6 1.0
21-5-20 6.4 12.7 19.1 0.3 0.6 1.0
20-20-20 6.7 13.3 20.0 0.3 0.7 1.0
20-10-20 6.7 13.3 20.0 0.3 0.7 1.0
19-4-23-2 Ca 7.0 14.0 21.1 0.3 0.7 1.1
17-5-17-3 Ca-1 Mg 7.8 15.7 23.5 0.4 0.8 1.2
15-5-15-5 Ca-2 Mg 8.9 17.8 26.7 0.4 0.9 1.3
15-3-20-3 Ca-1 Mg 8.9 17.8 26.7 0.4 0.9 1.3
14-4-14-5 Ca-2 Mg 9.5 19.1 28.6 0.5 0.9 1.4
13-2-13-6 Ca-3 Mg

10.3 20.5 30.8 0.5 1.0 1.5
13-3-15-8 Ca-2 Mg 10.3 20.5 30.8 0.5 1.0 1.5
10-30-20 13.3 26.7 40.0 0.7 1.3 2.0
9-45-15 14.8 29.6 44.5 0.7 1.5 2.2
6-30-30 22.2 44.5 66.7 1.1 2.2 3.3

To calculate the amount of fertilizer needed to get a specific nitrogen concentration
Step #1 Multiply the desired nitrogen concentration (in ppm N) by the gallons of fertilizer you want.
Step #2 Multiply the percent nitrogen in the formula by 75
Step #3 Divide the value from Step #1 by the value from Step #2.

Example: How much 20-10-20 do you need to add to 5 gallons to get a fertilizer solution with 100 ppm N
Step #1 100 x 5 = 500
Step #2 20 x 75= 1,500
Step #3 500 1,500 = 0.33
You need to add 0.33 ounces (about 9 grams) of 20-10-20 added to 5
gallons of water to get a fertilizer solution with 100 ppm N.

For people who are only measuring out small quantities of fertilizer, 1 US teaspoon holds about 0.2 ounces (about 6 grams) of fertilizer.
Below is the concentration of nitrogen (in ppm total nitrogen) obtained when mixing , , 1, or 3 teaspoons into a gallon of water with
different fertilizers.
Amount of fertilizer added per gallon of solution
teaspoon teaspoon 1 teaspoon 3 teaspoon
30-10-10

120 240 475 1425
21-7-7 85 165 225 1000
21-5-20 85 165 225 1000
20-20-20 80 160 320 950
20-10-20 80 160 320 950
19-4-23-2 Ca 75 150 300 900
17-5-17-3 Ca-1 Mg 70 135 270 810
15-5-15-5 Ca-2 Mg 60 120 240 710
15-3-20-3 Ca-1 Mg 60 120 240 710
14-4-14-5 Ca-2 Mg 55 110 220 660
13-2-13-6 Ca-3 Mg

50 105 210 620
13-3-15-8 Ca-2 Mg 50 105 210 620
10-30-20 40 80 160 475
9-45-15 35 70 145 425
6-30-30 25 50 95 285

(along with a small amount of micronutrients, and dye).
Dissolving 1 gram of 20-10-20 in 1 liter of pure water
will give you a solution with a concentration of 200
ppm nitrogen and an EC of about 1.3 mS/cm. 20-20-20
is composed of monoammonium phosphate, potassium
nitrate, and urea. Dissolving 1 gram of 20-20-20 in 1
liter of pure water will also give you a solution with a
concentration of 200 ppm nitrogen but the EC will only
be 0.8 mS/cm. 30-10-10 is also composed of
monoammonium phosphate, potassium nitrate, and
urea. Dissolving 1 gram of 30-10-10 in 1 liter of water
will give you a solution with a concentration of 300
ppm nitrogen, but the EC will only be about 0.4 mS/cm.
Dont forget that the irrigation water also has an
EC, which needs to be taken into account when
determining the relationship between the EC and
concentration of a fertilizer solution. For example,
dissolving 1 gram per liter of 20-10-20 in pure water
(no EC) will give a solution with an EC of 1.3 mS/cm.
However, dissolving 1 gram of 20-10-20 in water with
an EC of 0.5 mS/cm will give a solution with an EC of
1.8 mS/cm. See Table 2 for more information on the
relationship between EC and fertilizer concentrations.

Table 2. The relationship between electrical conductivity (EC) and the fertilizer concentration (in ppm total nitrogen) when dissolved in
pure water. Values for EC are given in mS/cm
2
.
Fertilizer concentration in ppm total nitrogen
Formula
1
50 100 150 200 300 400
30-10-10 0.07 0.14 0.21 0.28 0.42 0.56
21-7-7 0.28 0.56 0.84 1.12 1.68 2.23
21-5-20 0.29 0.58 0.93 1.16 1.86 2.33
20-20-20 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.20 1.60
20-10-20 0.33 0.66 0.99 1.32 1.98 2.63
19-4-23-2 Ca 0.34 0.68 1.02 1.36 2.04 2.72
17-5-17-3 Ca-1 Mg 0.32 0.64 0.96 1.28 1.92 2.56
15-5-15-5 Ca-3 Mg 0.39 0.78 1.17 1.56 2.34 3.12
15-3-20-3 Ca-1 Mg 0.35 0.70 1.05 1.40 2.10 2.80
14-4-14-5 Ca-2 Mg 0.35 0.70 1.05 1.40 2.10 2.80
13-3-15-8 Ca-2 Mg 0.40 0.80 1.20 1.60 2.40 3.20
13-2-13-6 Ca-3 Mg 0.34 0.68 1.02 1.36 2.04 2.72
10-30-20 0.48 0.95 1.42 1.90 2.85 3.80
9-45-15 0.60 1.20 1.80 2.41 3.60 4.82
NOTE: There can be some slight differences between the values of the same formulation from different companies. You should always obtain a fertilizer chart from your
manufacturer.

1
N-P
2
O
5
-K
2
O formula
2
The terms conductivity, soluble salts, or electrical conductivity (EC) are all used to describe the amount of salt contained in a solution. There are also a variety of units used to
measure EC including micromhos (mho), millimhos (mmhos), microsiemens (S), millisiemens (mS), or decisiemens. 1000 mho/cm = 1000S/cm = 1mmho/cm = 1mS/cm
= 1dS/m.

Frequently, you are not using a pure water source without any conductivity. Therefore, you need to take the water into account when
determining the relationship between EC and fertilizer concentration. Examples are given below.

Calculate ppm Nitrogen from a 20-10-20 fertilizer solution with a total EC of 1.8 mS/cm and an using irrigation water with an EC of 0.5
mS/cm.

EC of fertilizer solution - EC of water = EC of only the fertilizer
1.8 mS/cm - 0.5 mS/cm = 1.3 mS/cm

From the chart above, 20-10-20 with an EC of 1.3 mS/cm would give a concentration of about 200 ppm N.

To predict the EC of 20-10-20 at 200 ppm N using an irrigation water with an EC of 0.5 mS/cm.

EC of 20-10-20 at 200 ppm N + EC of water = EC of fertilizer solution
1.3 mS/cm + 0.5 mS/cm = 1.8 mS/cm

For growers that use proportioners or injectors, sometimes the EC of the fertilizer solution coming out of the hose is not what you
expect. The problem can be caused by an incorrect dilution rate from the injector (either broken or not properly adjusted) or the fertilizer
stock concentration is wrong.
To check the fertilizer concentration, take a small amount from the stock solution, dilute this in water to the target ratio, and check the
EC. For example, in you think that your injectors is set at 1:100, then put 10 milliliters into 1 liter of water (this will also give a 1:100
dilution). If the EC of the solution is where is should be, then it is an injector problem. If the EC of the hand-diluted solution is off-target,
then the stock concentration is not correct.
Q) What is the difference between electrical
conductivity (EC) and total dissolved solids
(TDS)?
A) The measurement of EC and TDS are closely
related. An EC meter will measure the electrical
conductance of the fertilizer solution. A TDS meter
will measure the EC of the fertilizer solution and then
convert the measurement into parts per million (ppm)
by multiplying the EC by a constant. In article 2 of this
series, I said that the constant is usually 1 mS/cm =
1000 ppm salt. On further examination, I found five
different constants being used by various meters
ranging from 420 to 1000. See Table 3 for more
information on the relationship between EC and TDS.

Q) How do I know how much of each nutrient I
am applying?
A) Both EC and TDS measurements are generic
measurements, they dont tell you any specifics about
the fertilizer solution that you are applying. If you want
to know the exact concentration of each of the nutrients
that you are applying with the fertilizer, then you need
to calculate that from the formula on the bag of
fertilizer. See Table 4 for more information on the
concentration of individual macronutrient supplied by
different fertilizers.
In addition, the irrigation water can supply
significant amounts of some nutrients. Unless you are
using a pure water source (which contains little if any
nutrients), then you should add the concentration of
Table 3. Relationship between electrical conductivity (EC) of selected fertilizer dissolved in pure water at a constant concentration of 100
ppm total nitrogen and total dissolved solids (TDS) measurements. The exact value that you get will depend on the TDS conversion
constant used by the meter.
TDS conversion constants (ppm = 1 mS/cm)
Formula
EC value at 100
ppm N (mS/cm) 420 ppm 500 ppm 640 ppm 700 ppm 1000 ppm
30-10-10 0.14 59 ppm 70 ppm 90 ppm 98 ppm 140 ppm

At a concentration 100 ppm total nitrogen from 20-10-20, the TDS measurement can range from 277 ppm to 660 ppm, depending on the
constant used by the TDS meter. To calculate a TDS for nitrogen concentrations other than those presented above, multiply the
corresponding EC from Table 1 by the constant for your meter. Examples are given below.

Calculate the expected TDS measurement of 20-10-20 at 100 ppm total nitrogen (in pure water) using a meter with a costant of 1000 ppm
= 1 mS/cm.
EC of fertilizer solution
at 100 ppm total nitrogen
x Constant = TDS of the fertilizer
0.66 mS/cm x 1000 = 660 ppm TDS

Predict the nitrogen concentration of 20-10-20 dissolved in pure water with a TDS measurement of 660 ppm
TDS measurement Constant = EC of fertilizer solution
660 ppm 1000 = 0.66 mS/cm

An EC of 0.66 mS/cm corresponds to a total nitrogen concentration of 100 ppm N.

Irrigation water will also affect the TDS value. For example, a water with an EC of 0.5 mS/cm will show a TDS measurement of 500 ppm
(if the constant used by the meter is 1000 ppm). At 100 ppm N from 20-10-20 (and using the same meter), the TDS measurement of the
fertilizer solution would be:
TDS measurement
of the fertilizer
+
TDS measurement
of the water
= TDS of the fertilizer solution
660 ppm + 500 ppm = 1160 ppm

Calculate the TDS supplied by only the fertilizer when the fertilizer solution (water + fertilizer) has a TDS of 1160 ppm, the water has a
TDS of 500 ppm, and the constant used by the meter is 1000.
TDS measurement
of the fertilizer solution
+
TDS measurement
of the water
= TDS of the fertilizer
1160 ppm + 500 ppm = 660 ppm

To determine the constant being used by your TDS meter, simply look at the measurable range of the meter for EC and TDS (most TDS
meters are combination TDS and EC meters). For example, if the range of the meter for EC is 0 to 10 mS/cm and TDS is 0 to 10,000 ppm,
then you know the constant being used is 1000 (1 mS/cm = 1000 ppm). Another way is to purchase a standard EC solution and measure
the TDS of the solution. For example, a common standard EC solution used for calibrating meters has an EC of 1.41 mS/cm. A TDS
meter using a constant of 1000 would measure 1410 ppm with a standard solution of 1.41 mS/cm.
nutrients supplied by the water with those supplied by
the fertilizer to get the total nutrient concentration
applied to the plant.

Q) Do orchids require high phosphorus
fertilizers?
A) Phosphorus is needed by the plant to store and
transport chemical and light energy. Although there is
no specific research, it appears that applying between
10 and 20 ppm phosphorus with every irrigation will
supply enough phosphorus to a plant (any plant, not just
orchids) for normal growth and flowering. Once this
sufficient level is reached, then there is not any
particular benefit to applying any more phosphorus.
Thus in this case, there is no benefit to using a high
phosphorus fertilizer.
When plants have a phosphorus deficiency, the
older leaves tend to turn purple, and the plants show a
marked loss of vigor. Unfortunately, with some plants,
phosphorus deficiency is hard to see, and all you will
notice is a lack of vigor with poor root growth and
limited if any flowering. Because orchids are slow
growing to begin with, you might not notice the
problem at all. Under these circumstances, it is
appropriate to apply a fertilizer that is high in
phosphorus simply to get the plant growing again.
However, because the plant has been stressed, you will
likely see a reduction in blooming and growth when
compared to plants that never had the deficiency to
begin with.
A third possibility has to do with the over-
application of nitrogen rather than the under-application
of phosphorus. It is well know that over-applying
nitrogen will cause plants to remain vegetative. For
example, tomatoes, peppers, squash, new guinea
impatiens, or azaleas will not produce fruit (or flowers)
if too much nitrogen is applied. Rather, they will
produce excess foliage growth. Reducing the nitrogen
level in the soil reduces the vegetative growth, and the
plants produce flowers or fruit.
Orchid fertilizers like 30-10-10 lend themselves
to the over-application of nitrogen because they have a
Table 4. The concentration of specific macronutrients (in ppm) supplied by different fertilizers when applied at a total nitrogen
concentration of 100 ppm N
NH
4
-N Urea-N NO
3
-N P K Ca Mg S
30-10-10

7 82 11 14 28 0 0 0
21-7-7 43 57 0 14 28 0 0 48
21-5-20 31 9 60 10 79 0 0 0
20-20-20 20 53 28 43 83 0 0 0
20-10-20 40 0 60 22 83 0 0 0
19-4-23-2 Ca 30 0 72 9 100 11 0 0
17-5-17-3 Ca-1 Mg 25 0 75 13 83 18 6 0
15-5-15-5 Ca-2 Mg 8 14 79 14 83 33 13 0
15-3-20-3 Ca-1 Mg 16 0 84 9 111 20 7 0
14-4-14-5 Ca-2 Mg 14 0 86 12 83 36 14 0
13-2-13-6 Ca-3 Mg

6 0 94 7 83 46 23 0
13-3-15-8 Ca-2 Mg 5 0 96 10 96 62 15 0
10-30-20 44 0 56 129 166 0 0 0
9-45-15 100 0 0 215 138 0 0 0
6-30-30 45 0 55 215 415 0 0 0
Liquid fertilizers
10-5-5-2 Ca-0.5 Mg 37 0 63 22 42 20 5 0
7-9-5-2 Ca-0.5 Mg 37 0 63 55 59 29 7 1
7-7-7-2 Ca-0.5 Mg 30 0 70 43 83 29 7 1
3-12-6-2 Ca-0.5 Mg 23 0 77 172 166 67 17 3

To calculate the concentration of each nutrient in a fertilizer solution, divide the percentage of desired nutrient in the fertilizer formula by
the percentage of total nitrogen in the formula, then multiply by the concentration of total nitrogen in the fertilizer solution. Examples are
given below:

How much calcium will I get from 13-3-15 when applied at a concentration of 100 ppm total nitrogen?
% desired nutrient in
formula

%
total nitrogen
x
Total nitrogen concentration (in ppm) in
the fertilizer solution
= Concentration of desired nutrient
8 13 x 100 = 61.5

When you apply 100 ppm total nitrogen from 13-3-15, the fertilizer is supplying about 62 ppm calcium.

To calculate the values for phosphorus and potassium, and addition step is required. For phosphorus, the calculated value will be for P
2
O
5
.
To calculate the actual concentration of phosphorus you are applying, multiply the P
2
O
5
value by 0.43. For potassium, the calculated value
will be for K
2
O. To calculate the actual concentration of potassium you are applying, multiply the K
2
O value by 0.83.
lot of nitrogen per unit weight and they have a low EC
or TDS measurement per ppm nitrogen. In comparison,
a bloom formula like 6-30-30 has a low concentration
of nitrogen per unit weight and a high EC or TDS
measurement per ppm nitrogen. If you are using the
same amount (or the same EC or TDS measurement) for
both fertilizers, then you are over-applying nitrogen
with the 30-10-10. When you switch to the 6-30-30,
you are effectively reducing the nitrogen level, which in
turn induces the plant to bloom.
The paradigm of using high phosphorus
fertilizer to get plant to bloom has largely died out in
the commercial greenhouse industry. Commercial
greenhouses apply fertilizer based on the concentration
of nitrogen or they will correct the EC they are applying
based on the relationship between the EC and ppm total
nitrogen for that specific fertilizer. By maintaining an
equal nitrogen concentration and supplying a sufficient
amount of phosphorus with both formulas, you
probably wouldnt see much difference in growth or
flowering between high nitrogen or high phosphorus
formulas.

Q) What is the ideal orchid fertilizer?
A) First, the ideal fertilizer for any crop, not just
orchids, is one that balances you water quality.
Probably the most important aspect of this comes with
the management of the substrate pH. Orchids appear to
perform the best when the substrate pH is around 6.0
(similar to most other plants). However, since most
substrates used for orchid production have little if any
buffering, managing the balance between the alkalinity
of your water and the acidity of your fertilizer is very
important.
That means that the amount of acidic nitrogen
should be balanced by the alkalinity of your irrigation
water. If you are using a very pure water source, like
rain water or reverse osmosis purified water, then your
fertilizer should have no more than 10% of the total
nitrogen in the ammoniacal or urea form, or you may be
driving you substrate pH down to levels that may cause
micronutrient toxicity problems. However, the reverse
is also true. If you have a large amount of alkalinity in
your water, then you should not be using fertilizers that
are low in ammoniacal nitrogen or else the pH of your
substrate will increase to unacceptable levels causing
nutrient deficiencies.
In addition, an ideal fertilizer should supply a
sufficient amount of each nutrient for growth. That
means that the nutrients contained in the fertilizer
should complement those supplied by the irrigation
water. If the water does not contain a specific nutrient,
like calcium or magnesium, then it needs to be supplied
by the fertilizer. It also needs to be supplied at a
concentration high enough that it influences plant
growth. For example, some 20-10-20 fertilizer contain
magnesium, but the amount supplied is so low that it
really doesnt influence the nutrition of the plant.

Q) What is MSU Magic fertilizer?
A) There is nothing magic about the fertilizer
being used by Jan Szyren at Michigan State University.
Dr. John Biernbaum (from MSU), Larry Metcoff (from
GreenCare fertilizers), and I designed two fertilizer
formulas to be used with the two types of irrigation
water found at MSU research and teaching greenhouses.
The formula for pure water (13-3-15) was designed to
be used with reverse osmosis purified water.
Specifically, the 13-3-15 contains very low ammoniacal
nitrogen (acidic nitrogen) to match the very low
alkalinity of the RO water. In addition, the 13-3-15
supplies calcium and magnesium because these
nutrients are not supplied by the RO water. The
formula for well water (19-4-23) was designed with
higher levels of ammoniacal nitrogen to compensate for
the higher alkalinity levels of the well water. In
addition, the formula contains a small amount of
calcium and no magnesium because these two nutrients
are found at high concentrations in the MSU well water.
Both formulas were designed to be used at 125 ppm
total nitrogen with every irrigation. At this nitrogen
rate, both formulas also supplied about 12 ppm
phosphorus.
It is important to note that these formulas were
not designed with orchids in mind. In fact, they were
not designed with any specific crop in mind. The
reason that they have worked well for orchids is the
same reason that they have worked well for a huge
variety of plant species grown in the research and
teaching greenhouses, the formulas complement their
specific water qualities both in pH reaction and
nutrition.

Figure 1. How much phosphorus is necessary for flowering?
Henry Mast Greenhouses from Grand Rapids, MI uses a
fertilizer containing 12 ppm phosphorus applied with every
watering and reports getting between 60% and 70% of their
plants with double flower stalks.

PH Argo and Fisher

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