1

ON ACHIEVING AN OPTIMAL RIVETED LAP JOINT DESIGN FOR FIBRE

METAL LAMINATES

A.M. Brown, C.D. Rans, and P.V. Straznicky
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, K1S
5B6, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada


ABSTRACT

Fibre metal laminates are designed to provide a damage tolerant alternative to monolithic
metallic materials in airframe structures without the need for new structural design
solutions required by pure fibre reinforced composites. This advantage allows fibre metal
laminates to be incorporated directly into existing airframe design practices with little
effort. Although such a simple transition is possible, fibre metal laminates exhibit
different properties and behaviour than monolithic metallic materials. Consequently,
differences may exist in optimal design details for a given structural design solution. This
paper overviews the results of a study examining this possibility for a common airframe
joint design solution: the riveted lap joint. Focusing on fatigue performance, a series of
studies were completed to assess how major differences between monolithic aluminum
sheet and a glass fibre-aluminum fibre metal laminate variant known as GLARE could be
treated and exploited to obtain an optimal GLARE joint. These studies include an
examination of alternative countersinking methods for thin laminated sheets, the
formation of residual stresses in GLARE due to fastener interference, and material
stiffness effects on joint bending. Results from these studies will form the basis for a
discussion on achieving an optimal riveted lap joint design for GLARE.

INTRODUCTION

Fibre metal laminates (FMLs) are a family of hybrid laminates consisting of alternating
layers of monolithic metallic sheet and fibre reinforced epoxy pre-impregnated fibre
(prepreg) layers (Figure 1). Originating from the development of built-up structures
pioneered by Fokker Aircraft in the late 1940s, FMLs were found to exhibit benefits
from both their metallic and fibre reinforced composite constituents. Specifically, FMLs
possess many of the damage tolerant properties inherent in fibre reinforced composite
materials while retaining the fabrication and repair capabilities of sheet metal. Within the
aerospace field, these properties are attractive as they provide an opportunity to enhance
the damage tolerance of airframe structures without the need for new structural design
solutions required by pure fibre-reinforced composites. Although FMLs can be
incorporated directly into metallic airframe design practices with little effort, FMLs do
exhibit different properties and behaviour compared to monolithic metallic materials.
Consequently, differences may exist in optimal design details for a given structural
design solution. This paper provides an overview of studies examining this possibility for
a common airframe joint design solution: the riveted lap joint.

2
Figure 1 Illustration of fibre metal laminate
construction.
Figure 2 Illustration of fibre bridging
mechanism.

GLARE LAMINATES

Within the family of FMLs, a material known as GLARE (GLAss REinforced
aluminum) has been developed as a replacement for monolithic 2024-T3 aluminum in
aircraft fuselage construction. This material consists of 2024-T3 aluminum for the
metallic layers and S2-glass fibre epoxy for the prepreg layers. The focus of this paper is
the GLARE3-2/1-0.3 laminate which would be a suitable replacement for 1 mm 2024-T3
fuselage skin.

FMLs and, more specifically, GLARE variants are known to have beneficial
characteristics in the area of fatigue and damage tolerance with fatigue lives in excess of
10 times that of 2024-T3 [1]. The reason for the increased fatigue performance is the
materials superior crack propagation life through a mechanism called fibre bridging.
With fibre bridging, the load normally carried by the cracked aluminum plies gets
redistributed into the adjacent intact fibre layers and the stress concentration at the crack
tip is effectively reduced (Figure 2). A further benefit of the sandwich lay-up is that
through thickness crack propagation does not occur. A crack growing through the
thickness of an aluminum ply will stop once it hits a prepreg layer. It then remains for the
other intact aluminum plies to nucleate cracks. This unique laminate construction
contributes to several other desirable properties [2-4] for an aircraft material but will not
be discussed here.

Although the fatigue propagation behaviour of GLARE is superior to 2024-T3, crack
nucleation actually occurs earlier than in monolithic sheet. This stems from the difference
in flexibility of the material plies and from residual tensile stresses in the aluminum plies
introduced during the curing cycle of the manufacturing stage. These tensile residual
stresses contribute to any applied stress and helps lead to crack nucleation. In addition to
the presence of tensile residual stresses, the lower stiffness of the prepreg plies in the
sandwich lay-up means that the aluminum plies will experience greater stresses than the
applied bulk stress.


Fibre Layers
Metallic Layers
3

FATIGUE OF RIVETED LAP JOINTS

The basic riveted lap joint configuration consists of two sheets joined by one or more
rows of rivets. The two sheets are differentiated by their location and accessibility for
inspection along the joint overlap; in an airframe application, the outer sheet would be
accessible from the outside of the aircraft while the inner sheet would be accessible from
the inside. Additional variables and terminology used in defining a riveted lap joint
design are illustrated in Figure 3.


Figure 3: 3-row riveted lap joint nomenclature.

Developing a lap joint design based on fatigue performance requires the designer to
manipulate the local stress state around fatigue prone rivet locations in order to prolong
fatigue crack nucleation and reduce the rate of propagation of existing cracks. This local
stress state can be broken down into components related to load transfer, and secondary
loads such as secondary bending and rivet interference as illustrated in Figure 4. These
components and the influence of lap joint design variables on them will be briefly
discussed in order to establish a baseline for lap joint design which will be expanded on
later in the context of GLARE specific lap joint design.
Load Transfer
Load transfer in riveted lap joints occurs by two mechanisms. The majority of load is
transferred by means of bearing between the rivets and inner and outer sheets while the
remainder is transferred through friction between the faying joint surfaces. The
magnitude of the bearing stress at a rivet hole is related to the load transferred by a single
rivet and the bearing area (rivet diameter multiplied by sheet thickness) over which that
load is transmitted into the joined sheets. Large bearing stresses promote crack nucleation
and reduce the crack free life of a joint. Although bearing stresses can be reduced easily
in practice by increasing the total bearing area, either through increasing the rivet
diameter, increasing the number of rivets, or both, these steps negatively impact crack
growth. The reduced amount of sheet material along the net section of a rivet row that

INNER
SHEET
OUTER
SHEET
TOP
ROW
BOTTOM
ROW
Inner faying
surface
Inner free
surface
Outer faying
surface
Outer free
surface
t
(sheet
thickness)
D
o
(rivet
diameter)
s
(rivet pitch)
p
(rowpitch)
4
would accompany such efforts to reduce bearing stress increase crack propagation rates
and reduce critical crack lengths.


Figure 4: Illustration of local stress field components in a riveted lap joint.

Figure 5: Illustration of load carried by inner and outer sheets in a 3-row lap joint.

Friction comprises a small portion of the overall load transfer in a riveted joint and is
often neglected. Any load that is transferred through friction reduces bearing stress and
generally results in an improvement in fatigue performance. More important than the
amount of load transferred through friction is the amount of fretting damage that occurs
as a result of friction. Fretting damage is a destructive process associated with clamped
bodies undergoing oscillatory loading [5]. In riveted lap splices, the evidence of fretting
damage is a black oxidized region surrounding the rivet hole on the sheet faying surface.
This damaging process is known to generate microcracks in the surface that, under
further loading, can propagate into the substrate as a fatigue crack.

In multiple-row lap joints, each rivet row transfers a portion of the applied load from the
outer to inner sheet while the remainder (referred to as the bypass load) remains in the
outer sheet (Figure 5). The amount of load transferred by each rivet row is related to the
relative flexibilities of the rivets and sheets being joined, neglecting the contribution from
friction. For a 3-row lap joint, the top and bottom rivet rows transfer the same amount of
load due to joint asymmetry while the load transferred by the middle rivet row can be
determined by:
Secondary Loads
Secondary Bending
Interference
Bearing Bypass
Load Transfer
Friction
5

2 1
rivet
rivet sheet
f
T T
f f

(1)

where:
1 2
, T T =load transferred by top and middle row respectively
,
rivet sheet
f f =rivet and sheet flexibilities

As negative flexibilities are not possible, this equation shows that the top and bottom
rivet rows will always transfer (through bearing) a larger percentage of the load than the
middle rivet rows. The combination of large bearing stresses and high bypass stresses
along these rivet rows results in two fatigue critical locations: in the outer sheet along the
top rivet row and in the inner sheet along the bottom rivet row (Figure 5). In practice, the
inner sheet location is typically less critical due to improved hole filling within this sheet
during riveting and due to the possible added stress concentration in the outer sheet due
to countersinking. Although adding more rows of rivets beyond three can reduce the
amount of load transferred through the top and bottom rivet rows, this reduction drops off
exponentially with the number of rivet rows and is typically viewed as a weight and
manufacturing penalty. A more in depth discussion on load transfer in riveted lap joints
can be found in the work of Mller [6].
Secondary Bending
Secondary bending refers to the out-of-plane deformation and resulting bending stresses
that are inherent in the lap joint configuration due to load path eccentricities (Figure 6).
As a result of secondary bending, large tensile stresses are created along the joint faying
surfaces that contribute to the nucleation of fatigue cracks. The severity of this bending
stress is often expressed as a ratio of the bending and applied stresses using the secondary
bending factor, K
b
, given by:

bending
b
applied
K

(2)


Figure 6: Neutral line representation of a lap joint showing joint eccentricities.

The role of secondary bending in crack nucleation makes it necessary to predict and
assess the effects of secondary bending on a lap joint design. Schijve [7] developed a
one-dimensional model to predict secondary bending stresses in a 2-row lap joint by
representing it by its neutral line. Further extensions have subsequently been made,
t1
e1
e2
e3
t2
Neutral Line
Part1 Part2 Part3 Part4
6
extending the capabilities to n-row lap joints [6, 8, 9]. In practice, the neutral line model
represents each row of rivets as an infinitely thin and rigid bond line. This limits its
ability to predict local influences of discrete fastener locations and variations along the
joint width. Despite this shortcoming, the neutral line model is often used in design due
to its speed and simplicity and is supplemented with more computationally expensive
finite element analysis.
Rivet Interference
Expansion of the rivet shank during installation produces an interference that results in a
beneficial residual stress field within the sheet material surrounding the rivet. This
process is analogous to cold expansion processes where fastener holes are expanded to a
desired level, typically using a tapered mandrel, before inserting a mechanical fastener.
Although analogous, the expansion process resulting from riveting has added
complexities compared to cold expansion process, namely:

The rivet shank does not expand uniformly through the thickness of the joint,
The manufactured and driven rivet heads exert a pressure through the thickness of
the joint during riveting, resulting in a complex 3-dimensional stress state during
expansion,
The rivet remains in the fastener hole after riveting, preventing full elastic
springback of the surrounding sheet.

Developments in riveting technology as well as analysis software are providing more
opportunity to exploit rivet installation during joint design. Mller [6] demonstrated that
the use of force-controlled riveting techniques provided a repeatable residual stress
distribution that could reduce fatigue life scatter in current lap joint designs. Furthermore,
Mller found that the use of larger rivet squeeze forces could provide further
improvements to fatigue performance. Currently, investigations using 2- and 3-
dimensional finite element models [6, 10-19] are being performed to further our ability to
predict and exploit residual stresses due to rivet installation in both FMLs and monolithic
sheet materials.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIVETED GLARE LAP JOINTS

Optimizing a lap joint design for GLARE requires careful consideration of how the
material differs from its monolithic aluminum counterpart and how these differences
affect the local stress state in fatigue critical locations. In the following sections, the
potential problems with countersinking GLARE are explored as well as a discussion on
laminate stiffness and the unique GLARE property of fibre layer elasticity.

Laminate and Lamina Thickness

One of the 2024-T3 design details being applied directly to GLARE is the method of
countersinking rivets. The most common method of creating a flush joint surface is
machine countersinking where a conical recess is machined into the sheet to
accommodate a countersunk rivet. Another, less popular, method of creating a flush
7
surface is through dimpling where a recess
is formed in the sheet by pressing the
sheets between mated countersunk tools
(Figure 7). This method was originally
thought to be superior to machine
countersinking but has since been
relegated to use on secondary structures.

When machine countersinking thin sheet
materials, it is important to avoid the
creation of a knife-edge condition. A
knife-edge is created at a rivet hole when a
countersinking tool penetrates through the
entire thickness of the sheet creating a
sharp edge at the faying surface (Figure 8 a). The presence of a knife-edge greatly
increases the stress concentration at that point, reducing the crack nucleation life [20]. In
thin monolithic sheet material, this condition is normally avoided by using rivets with a
reduced height countersunk head. There are, however, obvious limits to how shallow a
countersunk rivet head can be made while still maintaining its strength.

Figure 8 Schematic of a through-thickness knife-edge (a) and a lamina knife-edge (b).

When using GLARE, the superior overall fatigue performance provides the opportunity
for weight savings through the application of thinner laminates in primary structures. The
application of thinner laminates increases the risk for through-thickness knife-edge
conditions in machine countersunk holes. Also, a condition unique to fibre metal
laminates is the creation of lamina knife edges (Figure 8 b). The 0.3 mm aluminum layers
in GLARE are too thin to avoid the formation of a knife-edge in at least one of the outer
aluminum plies. While this may be less of a concern in thick GLARE variants where
most of the aluminum plies are unaffected, variants such as GLARE3-2/1 have only two
aluminum plies with at least one subject to a knife edge condition.

Studies into the possibility of using dimpling methods on GLARE3-2/1 to avoid lamina
knife edges was performed by the current authors with mixed results [21, 22]. The studies
found that conventional dimpled single lap splice GLARE coupons obtained fatigue lives
no better than their monolithic aluminum counterparts and modified versions of the
dimple tools were only able to obtain a moderate increase in fatigue life in GLARE over
the conventional tools. Results from the complete test series including machine
countersunk coupons are presented in Figure 9. This test series was an instance where the
Figure 7 Illustration of conventional dimpling
set-up.
(a) (b)
8
effects of a direct substitution of
GLARE for monolithic 2024-T3 could
be observed for a specific splice
geometry and loading condition. The
results were surprising in that GLARE
performed poorer than the aluminum
coupons in all cases.

Laminate thickness also plays a role in
the degree of secondary bending in a
single lap splice. It may be thought that
as the sheet thickness decreases in size,
the secondary bending stresses will also
decrease due to the smaller moment arm
between the neutral lines of the mating
sheets. In reality, the difference in
material stiffness of a GLARE single lap
splice constructed of 0.86 mm thick sheets will show greater secondary bending than a
monolithic splice constructed with 1 mm sheets. The effects of the differences in material
stiffness are discussed further in the next section.

Laminate Stiffness

The difference in stiffness between monolithic aluminum and GLARE poses a challenge
for designers. The difference can have detrimental effects on component design as
observed in the case of the riveted single lap splice results shown earlier. A lower
material stiffness allows for a splice to show increased secondary bending, greater slip
and, possibly, greater fretting damage around rivet holes in comparison to a stiffer
material.

The serious effects of increased secondary
bending deflection due to low laminate
stiffness were shown in the machine
countersunk riveted coupon results from the
dimple study mentioned above. Where sheet
failure occurred in the traditional machine
countersunk 2024-T3 coupons, the machine
countersunk GLARE3 coupons failed due to
fatigue of the NAS1097AD-4-4 rivet heads
with eventual pull through (Figure 10). As the
sheet deflected out-of-plane due to secondary
bending, the top portion of the rivet head was
forced to carry a greater portion of the load.
Continual cyclic loading resulted in failure of the top portion of the rivet head before
crack nucleation could occur in the sheet. Even though the fatigue behaviour of the sheet
Figure 9 Results of dimple coupon fatigue tests.


Figure 10 Rivet head fatigue failure.
9
material was superior, the reduced material stiffness created a joint where the rivets
became fatigue critical and the overall fatigue life was lower.

In a loaded splice, a lower laminate
stiffness can also result in an increase in
relative motion between the sheets. This
can contribute to an increase in fretting
damage around the rivet heads and a
reduced crack nucleation life. Figure 11
shows a typical relationship between slip
amplitude, wear, and fretting fatigue [5].
As the amount of slip around a rivet
increases from a low slip amplitude to a
higher one, Figure 11 shows that the life
of the material drops due to an increase
in fretting damage and the formation of
micro-cracks. The life curve only begins
to rise again once sliding motion takes
over and wear rates become high. High wear, associated with sliding, will wear away
micro-cracks before they have a chance to propagate into the material substrate.

Fibre Layer Elasticity Effect

Relative to its aluminum layers, the fibre layers in GLARE can be considered perfectly
elastic. This insensitivity of the fibre layer to plastic deformation influences the manner
in which the entire laminate yields. When a portion of an aluminum layer begins to yield,
its stiffness begins to drop, causing load to be redistributed into the elastic fibre layer and
bridged around the yielded portion. This mechanism is analogous to how load is
redistributed around a crack within an aluminum layer as discussed earlier. Plastic strains
are thus distributed over a larger region of the GLARE laminate compared to a
monolithic aluminum sheet.

This influence of the fibre layer on yielding affects the formation of residual stresses in
riveted GLARE lap joints. Finite element simulations of the cold expansion process [23]
and the rivet installation process [14, 16] in GLARE laminates confirmed that the
redistribution of load by the fibre layer results in larger zones of plastic deformation
around the fastener holes (Figure 12). Consequently, larger zones of beneficial
compressive residual stress are formed which contribute further to the damage tolerant
advantage of GLARE.

Figure 11 Typical relationship between wear rate,
slip amplitude, and fretting fatigue life. [5]
10
In addition to influencing the how the
laminate yields, the elasticity of the fibre
layer also influences elastic recovery.
During rivet installation, the fibre layer
is expanded along with the aluminum
layers, resulting in a build-up of strain
energy. In the aluminum layers, a
portion of this strain energy is dissipated
through yielding. Despite the lower
stiffness of the fibre layers relative to the
aluminum layers, the lack of plasticity
allows the fibre layers to store more
elastic strain energy. After rivet
installation, elastic recovery of the sheet
compresses the potion of the sheet
which yielded during riveting. This
compression introduces the desired
residual compressive hoop stresses
around the rivet hole. The added stored
strain energy in the fibre layer increases the springback response of GLARE, resulting in
added compression of the yielded aluminum layers. This effect increases the magnitude
of the residual compressive hoop stresses in GLARE as illustrated in Figure 12.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Decades of research and development of GLARE has shown the material to have superior
properties over monolithic aluminum especially in the area of fatigue propagation and
damage tolerance. Much of the development and promotion of the material was that it
was a direct replacement for monolithic sheets and traditional design practices could be
applied to the new material. In many situations it may be that direct substitution of
GLARE will result in a more fatigue resistant design; however, optimizing the design
specifically for GLARE is often overlooked. This new material differs greatly from
monolithic material and there are negative aspects that must be considered and positive
aspects that should be exploited.

The key negative effect that must be treated when designing with GLARE is the reduced
stiffness of the material. More than all other factors, this should be the driving element
when designing for an optimum splice. The difference in stiffness has become such a
difficulty that designers are now looking at sizing the GLARE sheets based on aluminum
ply thickness alone and considering the prepreg layers as supporting material for damage
tolerance only. This will help to deal with many of the problems associated with a
reduced laminate stiffness. The presence of residual tensile stresses will, however,
remain and thicker sheets will result giving a larger secondary bending moment arm than
the monolithic sheet it replaces.

rivet installation force, F
Sq
(kN)
r
a
d
i
u
s
o
f
p
l
a
s
t
i
c
z
o
n
e
(
m
m
)
p
e
e
k
r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
h
o
o
p
s
t
r
e
s
s
(
M
P
a
)
6 8 10 12 14
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-700
-600
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
GLARE3-2/1-0.3
2024-T3
Results plotted for inner sheet faying surface only
Figure 12: Radii of plastic zone and peek residual
compressive hoop stress resulting from rivet
installation as determined by finite element
analysis.
11
The poor machine countersunk GLARE coupon fatigue results from the dimpling study
mentioned above (Figure 9) showed that splice designs and loading levels that are easily
accommodated by the stiffer monolithic aluminum sheet may prove disastrous when
applied directly to GLARE. Although the GLARE sheet itself did not fail, the response of
the material for that splice design was to transfer load to the rivets in a damaging way and
this type of failure is not necessarily easy to predict. Rivets with larger heads may be a
solution as long as the material does not lead to a laminate knife edge condition.

The dimpled coupon tests also showed that directly applying a design principle from
monolithic material directly to an FML will not necessarily result in improved fatigue
performance. With the dimpled GLARE coupons, failure did occur in the sheet but with
fatigue lives lower than the monolithic aluminum counterparts. The difference in material
stiffness, again, was to blame. In this situation, the reduced stiffness of the sheet acted in
conjunction with the reduced stiffness of the dimple cone allowing for rivet rotation and
greater secondary bending deflection around the critical rivet rows. The bending became
more pronounced in the dimpled coupons that had a solid lubricant applied to the faying
surface. For the 2024-T3, the lubricant was able to stop the nucleation of fretting induced
micro-cracks into the substrate and resulted in a substantially increased fatigue life. In the
GLARE splice, however, the lubricant exacerbated bending in the sheet by allowing the
outer dimple cone to slide up the inner cone and slightly separate the sheets. The result of
the reduced material stiffness in combination with faying surface lubrication was a
severely reduced fatigue life.

Despite the negative fatigue results discussed above, in many cases the substitution of
GLARE for monolithic aluminum will provide greater fatigue life and damage tolerance.
This paper has shown that there are other characteristics that can be exploited when
designing with GLARE to work towards an optimal splice design. The use of high rivet
forming loads and load-controlled riveting can induce a beneficial compressive residual
stress distribution in the GLARE sheet that is enhanced by the fibre elasticity effect. The
superior damage tolerance behaviour also allows for expansion of previous design
principles such as minimum allowables on rivet size and rivet pitch. Closer rivet spacing
could improve load transfer while the crack propagation behaviour of GLARE would
provide enough damage tolerance to detect cracks before reaching a critical length.

Although the focus of this paper was the thin laminate GLARE3-2/1-0.3, many of the
aspects discussed above, such as the fibre layer elasticity effect, can apply to thicker
GLARE laminates and to other FMLs. What must be recognized by the designer is that
there are negative aspects of FMLs that should be avoided as well as the positive aspects
that could be exploited. In both cases, the behaviour of the material is different from
monolithic 2024-T3 and further research is required to find an optimal joint design
principles for GLARE.
12
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