1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANISATION
1.1 CETPA INFOTECH:
CETPA Infotech, an ISO 9001:2008 Certified Company is a renowned name among
Engineering Students and MCA/BCA professionals for providing quality education in the
forms of 6 Months,6 weeks Summer, Industrial & Winter Training. CETPA has formed a
group of enthusiastic and well competent professionals, having a unique training
methodology which makes CETPA Northern India No-1 Training Company with a bright
history of training more than 35,000 engineers and professionals.CETPA Infotech has
designed a curriculum for 6 Weeks and 6 Months training which incorporates a blending
learning approach by integrating classroom, hands on lab exercise and team projects to
provide students both the theoretical & practical training, needed to build strong technical
skills.Cetpa Infotech provides Training/Internship/ Winter Training Programs cum
Placement on .NET, C & C++, VHDL,Verilog HDL, Embedded System, Advance
Embedded System using pic,avr microcontroller, Mechanical Designing
(CATIA,CREO),Advance Networking(CCNA and MCIP),J2EE,Software Testing,VLSI
design for Engineering Students at CETPA Noida, Greater Noida, Lucknow,
Roorkee,Mohali, Kyiv(Ukraine) & Schwerin (Germany). Company goal is to achieve
highest possible recognition through professionalism, technological contributions,
industry oriented education & training, research & development.We are very experienced
Software development company providing high quality and cost effective Software
development serivces using latest technologies .










2

CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
An embedded system is a special-purpose system in which the computer is completely
encapsulated by the device it controls. Unlike a general-purpose computer, such as a
personal computer, an embedded system performs pre-defined tasks, usually with very
specific requirements. Since the system is dedicated to a specific task, design engineers
can optimize it, reducing the size and cost of the product. Embedded systems are often
mass-produced, so the cost savings may be multiplied by millions of items.


Handheld computers or PDAs are generally considered embedded devices because of the
nature of their hardware design, even though they are more expandable in software terms.
This line of definition continues to blur as devices expand.


Physically, embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital
watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory
controllers. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high
with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.
Embedded systems contain processing cores that are either microcontrollers or digital
signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic, however, is being dedicated to handle a
particular task. Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design
engineers can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the
reliability and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting
from economies of scale.


Robotics and automation are a part of embedded systems itself. Robot development and
automation needs study of embedded systems.
3


Examples of Embedded System are
1. automatic teller machines (ATMs)
2. avionics, such as inertial guidance systems, flight control hardware/software and
other integrated systems in aircraft and missiles
3. cellular telephones and telephone switches
4. computer equipment such as routers and printers
5. engine controllers and antilock brake controllers for automobiles
6. home automation products, like thermostats, air conditioners, sprinklers, and
security monitoring systems
7. handheld calculators
8. household appliances, including microwave ovens, washing machines, television
sets
9. medical equipment
10. handheld computers
11. videogame consoles

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-
purpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-timeperformance constraints
that must be met, for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have low or no
performance requirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.
The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware, and
are stored in read-only memory or Flash memory chips. They run with limited computer
hardware resources: little memory, small or non-existent keyboard or screen.


Many embedded systems consist of small, computerized parts within a larger device that
serves a more general purpose. For example- a line follower autonomous robot which
follows a specific path and moves accordingly to the path.
4

The embedded systems are special purpose computer systems designed to perform only
the specific purposes. For Example- a system designed to display numbers cannot be used
to operate motors.


Embedded systems range from no user interface at all dedicated only to one task to
complex graphical user interfaces that resemble modern computer desktop operating
systems. Simple embedded devices use buttons, LEDs, graphic or character LCDs (for
example popular HD44780 LCD) with a simple menu system.

2.3 MICROCONTROLLER
Microcontrollers are single chip computers. The Intel 8051 is a single chip
microcontroller (C) which was developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems.
Intel's original versions were popular in the 1980s and early 1990s, but has today largely
been superseded by a vast range of faster and/or functionally enhanced 8051-compatible
devices manufactured by more than 20 independent manufacturers including Atmel,
Infineon Technologies (formerly Siemens AG), Maxim Integrated Products (via its Dallas
Semiconductor subsidiary), NXP (formerly Philips Semiconductor), Winbond, ST
Microelectronics, Silicon Laboratories (formerly Cygnal), Texas Instruments and Cypress
Semiconductor. Intel's official designation for the 8051 family of Cs is MCS 51.Intel's
original 8051 family was developed using NMOS technology, but later versions,
identified by a letter "C" in their name, e.g. 80C51, used CMOS technology and were less
power-hungry than their NMOS predecessors - this made them eminently more suitable
for battery-powered devices.


IMPORTANT FEATURES:
It provides many functions (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, interrupt logic, timer, etc.) in
a single package .
8-bit data bus - It can access 8 bits of data in one operation (hence it is an 8-bit
microcontroller).
5

16-bit address bus - It can access 2
16
memory locations - 64 kB each of RAM and
ROM.
On-chip RAM - 128 bytes ("Data Memory")
On-chip ROM - 4 kb ("Program Memory").
Four byte bi-directional input/output port.
UART (serial port).
Two 16-bit Counter/timers.
Two-level interrupt priority.

2.4 PROCESSORS IN EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Embedded processors can be broken into two broad categories. Ordinary microprocessors
(P) use separate integrated circuits for memory and peripherals. Microcontrollers (C)
have many more peripherals on chip, reducing power consumption, size and cost. In
contrast to the personal computer market, many different basic CPU architectures are
used, since software is custom-developed for an application and is not a commodity
product installed by the end user. RISC as well as non-RISC processors are found. Word
lengths vary from 4-bit to 64-bits and beyond, although the most typical remain 8/16-bit.

2.5 MICROCONTROLLERS AND MICROPROCESSORS

Table 2.1: Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller


Microcontrollers

Microprocessors
1. A Microcontroller (sometimes
abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small
computer on a single integrated
circuit containing a processor core,
memory, and
programmable input/output peripherals.
1. A Microprocessor is an IC which has
only the CPU inside them i.e. only the
processing powers such as Intels
Pentium 1,2,3,4, core 2 duo, i3, i5 etc.
6

2. Microcontrollers are designed to
perform specific tasks. Specific means
applications where the relationship of
input and output is defined. Depending
on the input, some processing needs to
be done and output is delivered. For
example, keyboards, mouse, washing
machine, digicam, pen drive, remote,
microwave, cars, bikes, telephone,
mobiles, watches, etc.
2. Microprocessor find applications
where tasks are unspecific like
developing software, games, websites,
photo editing, creating documents etc.
3. Since the applications are very
specific, they need small resources like
RAM, ROM, I/O ports etc. and hence
can be embedded on a single chip.
3. In such cases the relationship
between input and output is not defined.
They need high amount of resources like
RAM, ROM, I/O ports etc. So needs
external RAM, ROM and Memory.
4. The microcontrollers operate from a
few MHz to 30 to 50 MHz
4. The microprocessor operates above
1GHz as they perform complex tasks.
5.The microcontroller is designed for
embedded applications. Microcontrollers
are used in automatically controlled
products and devices, such as
automobile engine control systems,
implantable medical devices, remote
controls, office machines, appliances,
power tools, toys and other embedded
systems.
5. The microprocessors are used
in personal computers or other general
purpose applications such as for laptops
and heavy applications where
complexity is more and memory
requirements are high.






7


2.6 MICROCONTROLLER FAMILIES

8051- These microcontrollers are old but still trendy and most of the companies fabricate
these microcontrollers. The older types of 8051 have 12 clocks per instruction that make
it sluggish whereas the recent 8051 have 6 clocks per instruction. The 8051
microcontroller does not have an in built memory bus and A/D converters. In 1980, Intel
fabricated the single chip microcontroller 8051 with Harvard architecture.


PIC- Programmable Interface Controller is usually referred as PIC. They are slightly
older than 8051 microcontrollers but excel cause of their small low pin count devices.
They perform well and are affordable. The Microchip technology fabricated the single
chip microcontroller PIC with Harvard architecture. The programming part is very
tedious and hence it is not recommended for beginners.


AVR (Advanced Version RISC) - In 1996, Atmel fabricated this single chip
microcontroller with a modified Harvard Architecture.

2.7 8051 MICROCONTROLLER

The most commonly used microcontroller is 8051 families AT89C51 microcontroller
which is produced by Atmel. It is widely used in most of the application for having an
advantage of simple programming and low cost.


2.7.1 AT89C51
AT89C51 is an 8-bit, 40 pin microcontroller that belongs to Atmel's 8051
family. ATMEL 89C51 has 4KB of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory
(PEROM) and 128 bytes of RAM. It can be erased and program to a maximum of 1000
times.
8



In 40 pin AT89C51, there are four ports designated as P
1
, P
2
, P
3
and P
0
. All these ports
are 8-bit bi-directional ports, i.e., they can be used as both input and output ports. Except
P
0
which needs external pull-ups, rest of the ports have internal pull-ups. When 1s are
written to these port pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as
inputs. These ports are also bit addressable and so their bits can also be accessed
individually

.
2.7.2 SALIENT FEATURES OF AT89C51-
4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
Three-level Program Memory Lock
28 x 8-bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
Six Interrupt Sources
Programmable Serial Channel
Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
40-pin DIP
8051 BLOCK DIAGRAM:
9


Fig.2.1: 8051 Block diagram


2.7.3 USES OF MICROCONTROLLERS

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as
automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a
design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices,
microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and
processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components
needed to control non-digital electronic systems.Even pulses generated by the oscillator
enable harmonic and synchronous operation of all circuits within the microcontroller. It is
usually configured as to use quartz-crystal or ceramics resonator for frequency
stabilization. It can also operate without elements for frequency stabilization (like RC
oscillator). It is important to say that program instructions are not executed at the rate
10

imposed by the oscillator itself, but several times slower. It happens because each
instruction is executed in several steps. For some microcontrollers, the same number of
cycles is needed to execute any instruction, while it's different for other microcontrollers.
Accordingly, if the system uses quartz crystal with a frequency of 20MHz, the execution
time of an instruction is not expected 50nS, but 200, 400 or even 800 nsec, depending on
the type of the microcontroller.


Timers/Counters
Most programs use these miniature electronic "stopwatches" in their operation. These are
commonly 8- or 16-bit SFRs the contents of which is automatically incremented by each
coming pulse. Once the register is completely loaded, an interrupt is generated.If these
registers use an internal quartz oscillator as a clock source, then it is possible to measure
the time between two events (if the register value is T1 at the moment measurement has
started, and T2 at the moment it has finished, then the elapsed time is equal to the result
of subtraction T2-T1 ). If the registers use pulses coming from external source, then such
a timer is turned into a counter. This is only a simple explanation of the operation itself.
Its somehow more complicated in practice.


Input/output ports (I/O Ports)
In order to make the microcontroller useful, it is necessary to connect it to peripheral devices.
Each microcontroller has one or more registers (called a port) connected to the microcontroller
pins.


Special Function Registers (SFR)
Special function registers are part of RAM memory. Their purpose is predefined by the
manufacturer and cannot be changed therefore. Since their bits are physically connected
to particular circuits within the microcontroller, such as A/D converter, serial
communication module etc., any change of their state directly affects the operation of the
11

microcontroller or some of the circuits. For example, writing zero or one to the SFR
controlling an input/output port causes the appropriate port pin to be configured as input
or output. In other words, each bit of this register controls the function of one single pin.


Program Counter
Program Counter is an engine running the program and points to the memory address
containing the next instruction to execute. After each instruction execution, the value of
the counter is incremented by 1. For this reason, the program executes only one
instruction at a time just as it is written. However the value of the program counter can be
changed at any moment, which causes a jump to a new memory location. This is how
subroutines and branch instructions are executed. After jumping, the counter resumes
even and monotonous automatic counting +1, +1, +1


Central Processor Unit (CPU)
As its name0 suggests, this is a unit which monitors and controls all processes within the
microcontroller and the user cannot affect its work. It consists of several smaller subunits,
of which the most important are:


Instruction decoder
It is a part of the electronics which recognizes program instructions and runs other
circuits on the basis of that. The abilities of this circuit are expressed in the "instruction
set" which is different for each microcontroller family.


Arithmetical Logical Unit (ALU) performs all mathematical and logical
operations upon data.


12

PIN DIAGRAM
Fig.2.2: pins 32-39(8051 microcontroller)



Fig 2.3: pins 1-7 (8051 microcontroller)

13


Fig 2.4: Various pins (8051 microcontroller)



ALE/PROG:
Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during
accesses to external memory. ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 of the oscillator
frequency, for external timing or clocking purposes, even when there are no accesses to
external memory. (However, one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external
Data Memory.) This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during EPROM
programming.


PSEN:
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external Program Memory. When the device is
executing out of external Program Memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle
(except that two PSEN activations are skipped during accesses to external Data Memory).
PSEN is not activated when the device is executing out of internal Program Memory.


14

EA:
When EA is held high the CPU executes out of internal Program Memory (unless the
Program Counter exceeds 0FFFH in the 80C51). Holding EA low forces the CPU to
execute out of external memory regardless of the Program Counter value. In the 80C31,
EA must be externally wired low. In the EPROM devices, this pin also receives the
programming supply voltage (VPP) during EPROM programming.


XTAL1:
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier. The quartz crystal oscillator connected to
XTAL1 also needs a capacitor of 30 pf value as shown in figure2.One side of a
capacitor is grounded.


XTAL2:
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier. The quartz crystal oscillator connected to
XTAL2 also needs a capacitor of 30 pf value as shown in figure2.One side of a
capacitor is grounded.

Fig 2.5: Crystal Diagram
RST:
Pin 9 is the RESET pin. It is an input and is active high (normally low). Upon applying a
high pulse to this pin, the microcontroller will reset and terminate all activities. This is
15

often referred to as a power on reset. Activating a power-on reset will cause all values in
the registers to be lost. It will set program counter to all 0s.

RESET values of some 8051 registers
Table 2.2: RESET values of some 8051 registers
Register RESET values
PC 0000
ACC 0000
B 0000
PSW 0000
SP 0007
DPTR 0000

Port 0(pins 32 to 39):
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional port. As an open drain output port, it can sink
eight LS TTL loads. Port 0 pins that have 1s written to them float, and in that state will
function as high impedance inputs. Port 0 is also the multiplexed low-order address and
data bus during accesses to external memory. In this application it uses strong internal
pull-ups when emitting 1s. Port 0 emits code bytes during program verification. In this
application, external pull-ups are required.




16

Port 1(Pins 1 to 8):
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. Port 1 pins that have 1s
written to them are pulled high by the internal pull-ups, and in that state can be used as
inputs. As inputs, port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current
because of the internal pull-ups.


Port 2(Pins 1 to 8):
Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order
address byte during accesses to external memory that use 16-bit addresses. In this
application, it uses the strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s.Port 2 is also designated
as A8-A15, indicating its dual function. When the 8051 is connected to external memory,
P2 is used for the upper 8 bits of the 16-bit address

. Port 3(pins 32 to 39):
Port 3 occupies a total of 8 pins, pins 10 through 17.It can be used as input or output. Port
3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. It also serves the functions of
various special features of the 80C51. Port 3 has the additional function of providing
some extremely important signals such as interrupts.







17

CHAPTER 3
PROJECT WORK
3.1 INTERFACING DEVICES WITH
8051 MICROCONTROLLER

3.2 LCD INTERFACING
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this
LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers. For
interfacing an LCD with 8051, we give VCC to pins 2 and 15 and a Gnd to pins 1 and 16.
A pot (Variable resistor) is connected to pin no 3 or VEE by which we can control the
contrast of the LCD. The RS pin is the Register select pin if we give a logical 0 from our
8051 microcontroller to this pin we can send command to the LCD. If we give a Logical
1 from our 8051 microcontroller to this pin we can send data to the LCD.

1. Command/Instruction Register
Stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an instruction given to
LCD to do a predefined task like
Initializing, clearing the screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc.
2. Data Register - stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the
ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.
18


Fig 3.4 LCD Interfacing With 8051

3.2.1 CODE:
#include<Reg51.h>
sbit RS= P3^0;
sbit RW= P3^1;
sbit EN= P3^2;
void delay(unsigned int time)
{
int k,m;
for(k=0;k<=time;k++)
for(m=0;m<=1275;m++);
}
void Ldata (unsigned char x)
{
P2=x;
19

RS=1;
RW=0;
EN=1;
delay(10);
EN=0;
}
void Lcmd (unsigned char y)
{
P2=y;
RS=0;
RW=0;
EN=1;
delay(10);
EN=0;
}
unsigned char f[5] = {"CETPA"};
unsigned char s[8] ={"INFOTECH"};
int i,j;
void main()
{
while(1)
{
Lcmd(0x38);
Lcmd(0x01);
Lcmd(0x0e);
Lcmd(0x06);
Lcmd(0x85);
Lcmd(0x04);
for(i=4;i>=0;i--)
{
Ldata(f[i]);
20

delay(10);
}
Lcmd(0x87);
for(j=7;j>=0;j--)
{
Ldata(s[j]);
delay(10);
}
}
}

3.4 LCD BASED TEMPERATURE SENSOR USING
MICROCONTROLLER (AT89C51)

3.4.1 DESCRIPTION:
This project is design for the student to make them understand the technology used in a
now a days Temperature Sensor system, which is used in whole world. The Temperature
Sensor is programmed for the specific operation. Every operation on the Temperature
Sensor is defined is display on the monitor.


3.4.2 PROJECT SUMMARY:
In this project we try to give the Idea of prototype voting machines. We are using micro
controller AT89C51 for controlling the voting operation. The Temperature Sensor is
designed for Four Political parties. There is a LCD display for showing the status of
voting by interfacing the Temperature Sensor with the PC.



21

3.4.3 FEATURES:
Easy to use for day to day operation.
Stand alone device no computer or any other hardware required.
Needs to be programmed only once.
Easy to program.


3.4.4 BENEFITS:
No need to assign a person
No manual intervention
Saves man power and money
Easy programming with the help of manual.

Table 3.1 Components Used
Sr. no. Component used Quantity
1. AT 89c51 Micro controller (base +IC) 1
2. Rectifier(12 volt 1 ampere) 1
3. Resistance (1kohm) 1
4. Resistance (4.7kohm) 1
5. Resistance(8.2kohm) 1
6. Transformer (220v-909) 1
7. LEDs 1
8. Electrolytic capacitor (10 microfarad) 1
9. Electrolytic capacitor (1000 microfarad) 1
10. Electrolytic capacitor (33 pico farad) 2
11. 3-Pin connector 1
22

12. 8-pin connector 1
13. Push switches 7
14. Cello tape (for electrical use) 1
15. Potentiometer (10k value) 1
16. LCD(2*16) 1
17. Crystal oscillator (11.0592Mhz frequency) 1
18. L7805CN (voltage regulator) 1


3.4.5 SOURCE CODE:
//Program to display temperature in Celsius and Farenheit scale.

#include<reg51.h>
#define port P3
#define adc_input P1
#define dataport P0
#define sec 100
sbit rs = port^0;
sbit rw = port^1;
sbit e = port^2;

sbit wr= port^3;
sbit rd= port^4;
sbit intr= port^5;

int test_intermediate3=0,
test_final=0,test_intermediate1[10],test_intermediate2[3]={0,0,0};

void delay(unsigned int msec )
23

{
int i ,j ;
for(i=0;i<msec;i++)
for(j=0; j<1275; j++);
}

void lcd_cmd(unsigned char item) // Function to send commands to LCD
{
dataport = item;
rs= 0;
rw=0;
e=1;
delay(1);
e=0;
return;
}

void lcd_data(unsigned char item) // Function to send data to LCD
{
dataport = item;
rs= 1;
rw=0;
e=1;
delay(1);
e=0;
return;
}

void lcd_data_string(unsigned char *str) // Function to string to LCD
{
int i=0;
24

while(str[i]!='\0')
{
lcd_data(str[i]);
i++;
delay(10);
}
return;
}

void shape() // Function to make the shape of degree symbol
{
lcd_cmd(64);
lcd_data(2);
lcd_data(5);
lcd_data(2);
lcd_data(0);
lcd_data(0);
lcd_data(0);
lcd_data(0);
lcd_data(0);
}

void convert() // Function to convert the values of ADC into numeric value to be sent
to LCD
{
int s;
lcd_cmd(0x81);
delay(2);
lcd_data_string("TEMP:");
test_final=(((9*test_intermediate3)/5)+32);
s=test_final/100;
25

test_final=test_final%100;
lcd_cmd(0x88);
if(s!=0)
lcd_data(s+48);
else
lcd_cmd(0x06);
s=test_final/10;
test_final=test_final%10;
lcd_data(s+48);
lcd_data(test_final+48);
lcd_data(0);
lcd_data('F');
lcd_data(' ');

test_final=test_intermediate3;
lcd_cmd(0xc1); //Setting cursor to first position of first line
delay(2);
lcd_data_string("TEMP:");
s=test_final/100;
test_final=test_final%100;
lcd_cmd(0xc8);
if(s!=0)
lcd_data(s+48);
else
lcd_cmd(0x06);
s=test_final/10;
test_final=test_final%10;
lcd_data(s+48);
lcd_data(test_final+48);
lcd_data(0);
lcd_data('c');
26

lcd_data(' ');
delay(2);
}

void main()
{
int i,j;
adc_input=0xff;
lcd_cmd(0x38); //2 Line, 5X7 Matrix display
lcd_cmd(0x0c); //Display On, Cursor blinking
delay(2);
lcd_cmd(0x01); // clear screen
delay(2);

while(1)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
delay(1);
rd=1;
wr=0;
delay(1);
wr=1;
while(intr==1);
rd=0;
lcd_cmd(0x88);
test_intermediate1[i]=adc_input/10;
delay(1);
intr=1;
27

}
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
test_intermediate2[j]=test_intermediate1[i]+test_intermediate2[j];
}

test_intermediate2[0]=test_intermediate2[0]/3;
test_intermediate2[1]=test_intermediate2[1]/3;
test_intermediate2[2]=test_intermediate2[2]/3;

test_intermediate3=test_intermediate2[0]+test_intermediate2[1]+test_intermediate2[2];
shape();
convert();
}
}
end









CONCLUSION
28

The purpose of our project was to create an inexpensive and high-efficient electronic
Temperature Sensor . In the conclusion of this report, the machine was able to display to
us which candidate has won ,how much votes did he received whether it was tie or not.
The specific work we have finished are as follows:


We successfully modified the electronic Temperature Sensor with a few
components to add two more functions to the main body, namely the LCD display
and led.
We tested and optimized the AT89C51 development board designed and
produced by Cetpa lab in a large scale, which was used to control the voting
smoothly.
We choose the LCD, switches at a relatively low cost, fixed them and adjusted
them on the development board.
Currently an EVM can record a maximum of 999 votes, which is sufficient for a
polling station .
It is not possible to vote more than once by pressing the button again and again
.As soon as a initialize button is pressed, the vote is recorded for that particular
candidate.


Future Scope

Currently an EVM can record a maximum of 999 votes, which is not sufficient for a
polling station therefore we can maximize this voting number upto thousands so that the
voting number should be increased and some type of security should be introduced so
that no theft will be taken with the number of votes.





29

BOOKS REFERENCES

[1] SEDRA SMITH, MICROELECTRONIC CIRCUITS (2002), 5
TH

EDITION

[2] INTRODUCTION TO 8051 MICROCONTROLLER, Author Mazidi.
Publisher, Pearson Education, 2007

[3] INTRODUCTION TO 8051 MICROCONTROLLER, Author AYALA
(3
RD
EDITION)

[4] KJ.AYALA, The 8051 Microcontroller -. Pen rams International.

[5] Intel's manual on Embedded Microcontrollers"






30

The LM35 - An Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensor
Why Use LM35s To Measure Temperature?
o You can measure temperature more accurately than a
using a thermistor.
o The sensor circuitry is sealed and not subject to
oxidation, etc.
o The LM35 generates a higher output voltage than
thermocouples and may not require that the output
voltage be amplified.
What Does An LM35 Look Like?
o Here it is.

What Does an LM35 Do? How does it work?
o It has an output voltage that is proportional to the
Celsius temperature.
o The scale factor is .01V/
o
C
o The LM35 does not require any external calibration or
trimming and maintains an accuracy of +/-0.4
o
C at room
temperature and +/- 0.8
o
C over a range of 0
o
C to
+100
o
C.
o Another important characteristic of the LM35DZ is that
it draws only 60 micro amps from its supply and
possesses a low self-heating capability. The sensor self-
31

heating causes less than 0.1
o
C temperature rise in still
air.