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A synchronized quasi-static analysis of a drop jump and a squat
jump
Toni S. Evitts
Loughborough University, Biomechanics Laboratory. Department of Sport, Exercise and Health Studies. Loughborough University,
Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, ENGLAND.
ABSTRACT
Quai-static analysis uses kinematic and kinetic data to estimate joint moments during the execution of sporting
movements. Joint moments are approximated by considering static loads, but ignoring inertial loads. Static
loads, gravitational and external loads, are calculated using ground reaction force and position data from
digitisation. Inertial loads, angular acceleration, angular velocity, centre of mass and weight of segments are
not considered. The assumption that the body is static and that inertial load exert negligible effects results in
inaccurate values. Other sources of error, systematic error and random error, further amplify inaccuracy of
calculated joint moments. Sources of error include, recording kinematic data, digitisation error, joint centre
approximation, and multi-planar movement. Application of the estimated joint moments in interpreting real-life
movements is limited as; effects of other joints are not considered, sporting movements often involve
movement in more than one plane, no differentiation between bilateral limbs or individual muscle can be made,
and co-contraction and friction are not accounted for. There are many sources of error when estimating joint
moments using quasi-static analysis and therefore care should be taken to firstly reduce systematic error and
secondly in this interpretation of data due to the shortcomings of the model of human movement employed.
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these positions was used to find the reaction
moment and hence joint moment at each joint. Jump height cm
Counter
movement Drop-jump
jump
FT 38.2 44.3
DI 36.0 3010
SI 36.4 327
Jump heights calculated using the four The maximum moment at each joint and in each
aforementioned methods for the Counter jump is detailed in Table 2 and total moments are
movement- and drop-jump are detailed in Table 1. presented in table 3.
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algorithms). However, the accuracy in which total
Max Joint moment Nm joint loads can be approximated by static loads
only needs to be considered (Callis, 1997). One
Counter source of error may be that; although the body
segments have small masses and moments of
movement Drop-jump
inertia, the large accelerations they experience
jump during some sports movements result in inertial
forces and moments that are similar to, or greater
Ankle 552.7 633.6 than, the static loads, hence discounting these will
give inaccurate results.
Knee -615.5 -279.7 It may be appropriate to ignore the inertial load if
there is only interest in determining the order of
Hip 753.6 -350.0 magnitude of joint forces and moments under
certain conditions. However, the inertial loads,
Support especially the inertial forces, contribute greatly in
1572.0 1011.3
moment the non-dominant directions (i.e. in the coronal
plane). Furthermore, the inertial force is more
Table 2 - Maximum joint moment at each joint during a important at the proximal joint than at the distal
counter movement- and the drop-jump. joint (Ladin and Wu, 1996).
However one advantage of using quasi-static
analysis is that by only considering static loads,
Total moment (Absolute) Nm computation of derivatives from inherently noisy
displacement data is avoided, eliminating influence
Counter of error in derivative values (Lanshammer, 1982)
movement Drop-jump on moments.
The resultant force vector is assumed to act in the
jump
same direction on all segments; effects of other
joints are not considered. As each joint is
12383.6 7856.0 calculated in isolation the results are essentially
Ankle
(12404.2) (7876.9) approximations. Also, if the axis of motion is not
parallel to the camera then error will occur.
-7740.4 2290.7 Movement in the plane perpendicular to the
Knee
(8255.3) (3501.8) camera shot is not quantified, hence 3D analysis
may be required to analyse actions with significant
8088.5 3374.6 movement in such plane. Factors such as co-
Hip contraction of antagonistic muscle groups and
(10051.1) (6606.7)
friction are not considered, as joints assumed
Support freely rotational pin joints.
(30710.6) (17985.5) A source of error in the method used here is that
moment
joint centres are not accurately depicted by the
reflective markers, and their position may be
Table 3 - Total support and absolute total moment at each
distorted for example by muscle deformation
joint and total absolute support moment during a counter
movement- and a drop-jump. during contraction. This is an example of
systematic error. Other sources of systematic
error that should be considered include; error in
digitising, and the natural vibration frequency,
sample frequency (≥1000Hz necessary), cut-off
5. Discussion frequency (≥580Hz is acceptable), Street at al.
(2001), and calibration error of force plate. Care
Quasi-static analysis relies on a number of should be taken to minimise effects of systematic
assumptions in order to function. One assumption error. Also force data is not corrected hence
is that ground reaction force dominates movement introducing further error.
determination; the degree to which this is true As opposite limbs are assumed contributing equally
determines a proportion of the error introduced. and simultaneously, it is not possible to examine
Another assumption is that the body is in a static the contribution of individual limbs.
position; this is seldom true in sporting Contact time of the drop jump is shorter than the
movements, such as the jumps analysed here. The drop jump. Can not establish which individual
implications of these assumptions are discussed muscles are acting at each joint or what proportion
below. of the total torque they are producing.
The quasi-static analysis approach does not take
into account internal forces and therefore only
reflects the gravitational and external reactions 6. References
between the body and the environment. This may
introduce error in the results especially if fast [1] WU, G., LADIN, Z., 1996. Limitations of quasi-static
movements are analysed; the effect of the estimation of human joint loading during locomotion.
inertia/forces and moments becomes more Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing, 34:
important as the speed of locomotion increases. 472-476.
Eliminating these forces also may not be [2] BRESLER B., FRANKEL J. P., 1950. The forces and
appropriate for analysis of proximal joints, i.e. hip; moments in the leg during level walking. Transactions of
and where the shear components of the force and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 72: 27-36.
moment are of interest. (Ladin and Wu, 1996)
Quasi-static analysis may be beneficial is practical
[3] CAPPOZZO, A., LEO T., and CORTESl, S. S., 1980. A
polycentric knee-ankle mechanism for above knee
application due to its simplicity (no complicated
prostheses. Journal of Biomechanics, 13, (3): 231-239.
kinematic transducers, inverse dynamics
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[4] WELLS, R. P., 1981. The projection of the ground
reaction force as a predictor of internal joint moments.
Bull. Prosth. Res, 18, (1): 15-19.
[5] CHALLIS, J.H., 1997. Producing physiologically realistic
individual muscle force estimations by imposing
constraints when using optimization techniques. Medical
Engineering & Physics, 19 (3):253-261.
[6] LANSHAMMER, H., 1982. On precision limits for
derivatives numerically calculated from noisy data',
Journal of Biomechanics, 15, (6): 459-470.
[7] STREET, G., MCMILLAN, S., BOARD, W.,
RASMUSSEN, M., HENEGHAM, M.J., 2001. Sources of
error in determining countermovement jump height with
impulse method. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 17:43-
54.
[8] ARAGÓN-VARGAS, L. F., 1997. Kinesiological factors
in vertical jump performance: Differences among
individuals. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 13, 24–44.
[9] DOWLING, J. J., & VAMOS, L. 1993. Identification of
kinetic and temporal factors related to vertical jump
performance. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 9, 95–110.
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APPENDIX 1 – JUMP HEIGHT ESTIMATION METHODS
DI method used corrected force data to calculate where Vtd is the velocity of the CoM just before
acceleration, then numerical integration using the touchdown. Change in CoM position is therefore
trapezium rule to find velocity, then displacement.
Firstly force data was corrected so total impulse ≈
0. Correction factor was calculated by total impulse
divided by total time of force recording (T), and
subtracted from Fzp; this process was reiterated
until total impulse was negligible. FT, SI and I-M do not take into consideration the
displacement of the CoM prior to takeoff; therefore
may not be appropriate to compare jump
performance between individuals. Although,
previous researchers have found that the major
contribution to vertical jump height differences
Acceleration was calculated from this corrected
among participants comes from VTO, whereas the
force data.
relative takeoff height is very similar from one
participant to another (Aragón-Vargas, 1997). DJ
may be the most useful method as it can take into
consideration displacement of CoM prior to take
off, i.e. total CoM displacement relative to the
starting standing position.
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From Table 1 it can be seen that all four methods Data from the DJ gives somewhat more
give reliable results for CMJ although FT gives a inconsistent results. FT is the only realistic value
slightly higher value than the other three. This can obtained. Limitations of the other four methods
be explained as follows; the calculation of jump mean they are not suitable for calculating jump
height using the FT method has been criticized in height of DJs. Problems arise as it is not possible to
the literature because some of the assumptions correct the force data or to take into account
involved are not correct (Dowling & Vamos, 1993). corrected body mass as it is when considering CMJ
One clear limitation is that this method assumes data. This results in error in force data being
that the time to peak height of CoM is equal to one- magnified by integration, producing nonsense
half of the time in the air, which is only true if the displacement values. I-M method can not be
participant takes off and lands with the body in the performed as it is in CMJ analysis as take-off
same position. In reality body position at landing impulse can not be calculated. Although the
can be crouched.2, hence time down would be adapted method is theoretically correct the
longer than time up. This results in an uncorrected force data, and lack of consideration
overestimation of the distance from takeoff to for the effect of weight results in a meaningless
peak. outcome.