ENE/EIE 423

Lecture III

Frequency dependent losses in fiber
The total loss (dB) is the summation of fixed loss (owing to absorption and
scattering), L
a
, and modulation-frequency dependent loss (owing to pulse spreading),
L
f
.
For the Gaussian response, L
f
can be expressed as

2
3
0.693
10
( ) 10log
dB
f
f
f
L dB e

| |
|
\ .
=
(
(
(


for f << f
3-dB
, L
f
can be negligible.

Ex. The modulation-frequency dependent loss of a fiber is measured to be 6 dB at a
modulation frequency of 2 GHz. Find the 3-dB optical bandwidth of the fiber.
Sol
n


















2

Reflections at a plane boundary
Normal incidence

The reflection coefficient, , can be written as

1 2
1 2
n n
n n

=
+


where = the ratio of the reflected electric field to the incident electric field
Reflectance or Reflectivity,
reflected power
R
incident power
= . We know that P
0
o E
2
, this
yields

2
1 2
1 2
n n
R
n n
| |
=
|
+
\ .


From the conservation of energy, R + T = 1 where T = transmittance.

Ex. Calculate transmittance, T, into fiber from air









air
Fiber; n = 1.5
air
Fiber; n = 1.5
3
Oblique incidence

s-polarization p-polarization


If the electric field is polarized perpendicular to the incident plane, it is called
s-polarization. If the electric field is polarized parallel to the plane of incidence, this
is called p-polarization. The reflection coefficients for the p- and s- polarizations
known as Fresnels laws of reflection are


2 2 2 2
2 1 2 1
2 2 2 2
2 1 2 1
2 2 2
1 2 1
2 2 2
1 2 1
cos ( sin )
cos ( sin )
cos ( sin )
cos ( sin )
i i
p
i i
i i
s
i i
n n n n
n n n n
n n n
n n n
u u

u u
u u

u u
+
=
+

=
+


Note:
2
R =
Zero reflection (R=0) occurs only for the p-polarization at the angle called
Brewster angle.

1 2
1
tan
B
n
n
u

| |
=
|
\ .


There is no incident angle that will make
s
= 0.
4


In case of =1, which occurs at
2 2 2
2 1
sin 0
i
n n u = .

2
1
sin
i
n
n
u =
This occurs at u
i
= u
c
= critical angle

1 2
1
sin
c
n
n
u

| |
=
|
\ .

At critical angle, all the lights reflect back into the first medium. This is called
Total reflection and it happens only if n
2
< n
1
.
In case of u
i
>u
c
,
1 2
sin
i
n n u >
then
2 2 2
2 1
sin 0
i
n n u < .

Therefore, can be written in the form of

1
1
2 2 tan ( / )
2
2 2 tan ( / )
j B A
j
j B A
A jB A B e
e
A jB
A B e
|

+
= = =
+
+

where | = tan
-1
(B/A)
Interference between the incident and reflected waves creates a standing wave
in the incident region. A field still exists in the 2
nd
medium, although all power is
reflected. This field is fading away and carrying no power called evanescent. This
evanescent E decays exponentially as e
-oZ
, where o = attenuation factor.


2 2 2
0 1 2
sin
i
k n n o u =

5
This o indicates how far the field extends into the second medium before returning to
the incident region.





Ex. A parallel-polarized ray is incident at an angle of 85 when traveling from a
medium of index 1.48 into a medium having index 1.465. The wavelength is 1.3 m.
(a) Compute the reflection coefficient. (b) At what distance from the boundary in the
transmission medium does the evanescent electric field decay to 10% of its value at
the boundary?
Sol
n

(a)





(b)






2 2 2 2
2 1 2 1
2 2 2 2
2 1 2 1
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
cos sin
cos sin
1.465 cos85 1.48 1.465 1.48 sin 85
1.465 cos85 1.48 1.465 1.48 sin 85
1 74.48
i i
p
i i
n n n n
n n n n
u u

u u


+
=
+
+
=
+
= Z
6
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 6 1
0
0.802 10
0 0
2
sin sin
2
1.48 sin 85 1.465 0.802 10 m
0.1
2.871 m
i i
Z
Z
k n n n n
E E e
E E e
z
o
t
o u u

= =
= =
=
=
=
6
Optical Waveguide

Optical waveguides are used for guiding lightwave.
They are regions of dielectric or semiconductor of
known refractive indices.







Dielectric slab waveguide

Ray will bounce from 2 interfaces provided TIR occurs at each interface
without exiting the middle regiodn (slab). The lightwave travels in the middle layer
which has a refractive index n
1
(n
1
> n
2
> n
3
). This neutral layer is sandwiched between
a top and bottom layers with indices n
2
and n
3
, respectively.

n
2
= n
3
: symmetric waveguide
If
n
2
n
3
: asymmetric waveguide

n
1
n
3
<

n
1
n
2
<

n
1

n
1
n
3
<

n
1
n
2
<

n
1

n
1
n
2
< n
1
n
3
< n
1
n
1
n
2
< n
1
n
3
< n
1
7
Consider symmetric structure (resembles optic fiber)
Light is guided for u
c
<u
i
<t/2 where
1 2
1
sin
c
n
n
u

| |
=
|
\ .

Propagation factor,
0 1 1
0
2
sin
cos
k k n n
k
h k
t

| u
u
= =
=
=

Consider |:
g
v
e
| = where v
g
= guided velocity
We define n
eff
= effective refractive index
=
0 g
c c
v k
| |
e
= =
From
0 1 0
sin sin
eff
k k n k n | u u = = =
1
sin
eff
n n u =
Fields in the waveguide can be expressed as
Inside:

1
1
cos( )sin( ) ...even mode
( , , )
sin( ) sin( ) ...odd mode
E hy t z
E y z t
E hy t z
e |
e |

Outside:

2
2
2
2
sin( ) / 2
( , , )
/ 2
sin( )
d
y
d
y
E e t z for y d
E y z t
for y d
E e t z
o
o
e |
e |
| |

|
\ .
| |
+
|
\ .
>
=
<

where E
2
is a magnitude of E at interface
u
u
d/2
-d/2
0
n
2
n
1
n
2
y
z
symmetric waveguide (optical fiber)
u
u
d/2
-d/2
0
n
2
n
1
n
2
y
z
symmetric waveguide (optical fiber)
8
For reflection from top and bottom interfaces to add up constructively, the
phase accumulation resulting from 2 bounces must be m(2t), where m = integer. This
restricts u to discrete selected values and this can be described modes.
By applying boundary condition at interfaces (y = d/2), it yields

2 2
1 2
1
2 2
1 2
1
sin
tan ...
2 cos
sin
tan ...
2 2 cos
n n hd
for even solutions
n
n n hd
for odd solutions
n
u
u
u t
u

| |
=
|
\ .

| |
=
|
\ .

where
0 1 1
1
( cos ) 2 cos
. . cos
2 2 2 2
k n d n hd d d
n
u t u
t u

= = =


Consider even solution case:

2 2 2
1 2 1
1
sin cos
tan
cos
n n d n
n
u t u
u

| |
=
|
\ .

For a given symmetric waveguide of n
1
and n
2

1. Choose values of u : u
c
<u< /2.
2. Calculate value of right-handed side of an equation above.
3. Find value of (d/2) that makes left-handed side of that equation equal to
the right-handed side for chosen u.
This yields
- If (d/2) is fixed, there may be several allowed values of u. Each u identifies
a mode. Each mode will have its own n
eff
.
- If u is fixed, there may be several (d/) values that satisfies the equation.
Each (d/) identifies a mode and all modes have the same n
eff
.
For TE polarization, modes are expressed as TE
0
, TE
1
, TE
2
, where m = 0 is
called fundamental mode.
9


Symmetric waveguide

Asymmetric waveguide

For a fixed u value, (d/) for m
th
mode is relatedto (d/) mode by

0 1
2 cos
d d m
n u
| | | |
= +
| |
\ . \ .




10
How to find number of modes
1. Using a mode chart


2. Finding cutoff modes by using u = u
c

2 2
,
1 2
2 m c
d m
n n

| |
=
|
\ .



If m is not an interger, it must be rounded down, for example, m = 2.45, then
we round it down to 2. Therefore, total number of modes, N = m+1.

Ex. Symmetric slab waveguide of n
1
= 1.48, n
2
= 1.46, d = 4 m, and = 0.82 m
(a) Calculate highest allowed mode order, m.
(b) Total number of modes, N.
Sol
n









11
TM Mode
The solutions for TM mode are

2 2 2 1
1 2 2
2
2 2 2 1
1 2 2
2
tan sin .......even mode
2 cos
tan sin .......odd mode
2 2 cos
n hd
n n
n
n hd
n n
n
u
u
t
u
u
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .

The cutoff values for TE and TM modes are the same. Therefore,
2 2
,
1 2
2 m c
d m
n n

| |
=
|
\ .

can be applied to TM mode also.

Ex. For TE mode in symmetric slab waveguide ofn
1
= 1.48, n
2
= 1.46,
(a) find allowed (d/) andcorresponding n
eff
values at variousus for the casem = 0, (b)
find (d/) for m = 1,2,3 foru = 82
Sol
n








u()
n
eff
=
n
1
sinu
R.H.S (d/)
0
(d/)
1
(d/)
2
(d/)
3

80.57 1.46 0 0 2.0685 4.12 6.18
82 1.4656 0.6212 0.859 3.2865 5.71 8.14

88 1.479 4.857 8.575 18.308 27.7 37.4
90 1.48

1
2
1
/ 2
sin 80.57
c
c
n
n
u u t
u

s s
| |
= =
|
\ .
2 2 2
1 2 1
1
sin cos
tan
cos
n n d n
n
u t u
u

| |
=
|
\ .
0 1
2 cos
m
d d m
n u
| | | |
= +
| |
\ . \ .
12















Ex.For slab waveguide n
1
= 1.48, n
2
= 1.46. If d = 3.164 mand = 0.6328 m.
Find (a) number of allowed TE modes (b) n
eff
andufor each allowed mode
Sol
n

(a) d/ = 3.164/0.628 = 5
From the chart, at (d/) = 5 and by drawing the vertical line, we have the
intercepts and modes.Therefore, total number of modes = 3.
(b) Projecting intercepts to LHS axis n
eff

Projecting intercepts to RHS axis u
m n
eff
u
0 1.4773 87.8
1 1.4728 84.6
2 1.4632 81.5




13
Numerical Aperature (NA)
NA identifies the largest angle which light can be coupled to the waveguide,
so that rays will be guided as modes in the waveguide.


Snells law:
0 0 1 1
sin sin n n o o =
( )
1
1
sin 90
cos
n
n
u
u

=
=

As we know no TIR for u<u
c
(cutoff at u= u
c
)

0 0 1
2
1
2
2
1 2
1
2 2
0 0 max 1 2
sin cos
1 sin
1
sin( )
c
n n
n
n
n
n
n NA n n
o u
u
o
=
=
=
= =


If we define the fractional refractive index change as

1 2
1
n n
n

A =
If n
1
~ n
2
,
1
2 NA n = A







14
Dispersion and distortion in the slab waveguide
We have learned that there was a distortion due to the dependence of n to .
There are other 2 additional distortions in waveguides: waveguide dispersion and
multimode distortion. We can conclude for the factors that lead to signal distortion as
1. Material dispersion

( )
. .
.
n n
M l
M
l

t
t

=
A = A
| |
A = A
|
\ .

where
2
2
d n
M
c d

=

2. Geometrical confinement
2.1 Waveguide dispersion
The effective refractive index varies with wavelength for a fixed film
thickness. This is called waveguide dispersion. This variation in n
eff
causes pulse
spreading just as the variation in n does.

g
M
l
t

| |
A = A
|
\ .

where
2
2
eff
g
d n
M
c d

=
2.2 Multimode dispersion
This can be called Intermodal dispersion. Waves with different modes are
propagating the slab with different net velocities. The lower the mode is, the faster the
wave velocity is. This causes distortion since the input energy is distributed among
several modes, each traveling at a different speed. This multimode distortion does not
depend on the A of source.

( )
1 1 2
2
n n n
l cn
t

| |
A =
|
\ .