Kenneth L. Higbee Your Memory How It Works and How To Improve It 2001

Y O U R
H o w I t W o r k s
( r
H o w t o I m p r o v e I t
S E C O N D E D I T I O N
KENNETH L. HI GBEE, PHD.
Marlowe & Company
New York
Fir s t Mar lo w e & C o m p any e dit io n, 1996
Publis he d by
Mar lo w e & C o m p any
632 Br o adw ay, S e v e nt h Flo o r
N e w Y o r k , N Y 10012
C o p yr ight . 1977,1988 and 1996 by Ke nne t h L. H igbe e
Al l r ight s r e s e r v e d. N o p ar t o f t his bo o k m ay be r e p r o duce d, in any fo r m , w it h-
o ut w r it t e n p e r m is s io n fr o m t he p ublis he r s , unle s s by a r e v ie w e r w ho w is he s t o
quo t e br ie f p as s age s .
Manufact ur e d in t he U nit e d S t at e s o f Am e r ica
Libr ar y o f C o ngr e s s C at alo ging- in- Publicat io n D at a
H igbe e , Ke nne t h L., 1941-
Y o ur m e m o r y : ho w it w o r k s and ho w t o im p r o v e it / Ke nne t h L.
H igbe e . 2nd e d.
p . cm .
O r iginally p ublis he d : N e w Y o r k : Pr e nt ice H all, cl988.
I nclude s biblio gr ap hical r e fe r e nce and inde x.
I S BN 1- 56924- 801- X
1. Mne m o nics . 2. Me m o r y. I . T it le
BF385.H 48 1996
153. 1 '4dc20 95- 49468
C I P
To Dawn, Janelle, Loren, andLana, who
have accepted their roles as children of a
memory researcher and willingly (?) tried
many of the techniques in this book.
Contents
INTRODUCTION: WHAT CAN YOU EXPECT FROM
THIS BOOK? x i
W hy D id I W r it e I t ? W hy S ho uld Y o u R e ad I t ? W hat
W ill Y o u Find in I t ?
WHAT CAN YOU EXPECT FROM YOUR
MEMORY? TEN MYTHS
Myt h 1: Me m o r y I s a T hing Myt h 2: T he r e I s a S e cr e t
t o a Go o d Me m o r y Myt h 3: T he r e I s an E as y W ay t o
Me m o r ize Myt h 4: S o m e Pe o p le Ar e S t uck w it h Bad
Me m o r ie s Myt h 5: S o m e Pe o p le Ar e Ble s s e d w it h
Pho t o gr ap hic Me m o r ie s Myt h 6: S o m e Pe o p le Ar e T o o
O ld/Y o ung t o I m p r o v e T he ir Me m o r ie s Myt h 7:
Me m o r y, Lik e a Mus cle , Be ne fit s fr o m E xe r cis e Myt h 8:
A T r aine d Me m o r y N e v e r Fo r ge t s Myt h 9:
R e m e m be r ing T o o Much C an C lut t e r Y o ur Mind Myt h
10: Pe o p le O nly U s e 10 Pe r ce nt o f T he ir Me nt al
Po t e nt ial
MEET YOUR MEMORY: WHAT IS IT? 16
W hat Ar e t he S t age s and Pr o ce s s e s o f Me m o r y? W hat
I s S ho r t - t e r m Me m o r y? W hat I s Lo ng- t e r m Me m o r y?
W hat Ar e t he Me as ur e s o f Me m o r y? W hat I s t he T ip -
o f- t he - lo ngue Phe no m e no n?
viii C O N T E N T S
MEET YOUR MEMORY: HOW DOES IT
WORK? 32
H o w and W hy D o W e Fo r ge t ? H o w Fas t D o W e
Fo r ge t ? H o w D o W e R e m e m be r Pict ur e s Ve r s us
W o r ds ? H o w D o E xce p t io nal Me m o r ie s W o r k ? H o w
W e ll D o e s S le e p Le ar ning W o r k ?
HOW TO REMEMBER ALMOST ANYTHING:
BASIC PRINCIPLES 4 6
Me aningfulne s s : "T hat D o e s n't Mak e S e ns e "
O r ganizat io n: "Ge t I t All T o ge t he r " As s o ciat io n: "T hat
R e m inds Me " Vis ualizat io n: "I C an S e e I t All N o w "
At t e nt io n: ' 'I D o n't Ge t I t ''
HOW TO REMEMBER ALMOST ANYTHING ELSE:
MORE BASIC PRINCIPLES 62
R e p e t it io n: "W hat W as T hat Again?" R e laxat io n:
"T ak e I t E as y" C o nt e xt : "W he r e Am I ?" I nt e r e s t :
"W hat 's I t t o Y a?" Fe e dback : "H o w Ar e Y o u D o ing?"
6
STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING:
STUDY SKILLS 74
R e duce I nt e r fe r e nce S p ace I t O ut Br e ak I t up ?
R e cit e I t U s e a S t udy S ys t e m H o w W e ll D o t he
Pr incip le s and S t r at e gie s W o r k ?
Contents ix
7
WORKING MIRACLES WITH YOUR MEMORY:
AN INTRODUCTION TO MNEMONICS 9 3
W hat Ar e Mne m o nics ? Fir s t Le t t e r s and Ke yw o r ds
Bas ic Pr incip le s o f Mne m o nics H o w t o Mak e E ffe ct iv e
Vis ual As s o ciat io ns * Mo r e o n E ffe ct iv e Mne m o nics
8
THE LEGITIMACY OF MNEMONICS: LIMITATIONS
AND PSEUDO- LIMITATIONS 1 1 3
S o m e Lim it at io ns o f Mne m o nics S o m e Ps e udo -
Lim it at io ns o f Mne m o nics
9
MENTAL FIUNG SYSTEMS: LINK AND
STORY MNEMONICS 131
Y o ur Me nt al Filing S ys t e m W hat I s t he Link S ys t e m ?
W hat I s t he S t o r y S ys t e m ? H o w W e ll D o t he Link and
S t o r y S ys t e m s W o r k ? H o w C an Y o u U s e t he Link and
S t o r y S ys t e m s ?
1 0
MENTAL FILING SYSTEMS: LOCI
MNEMONIC 1 44
W hat I s t he Lo ci S ys t e m ? H o w W e ll D o e s t he Lo ci
S ys t e m W o r k ? H o w C an Y o u U s e t he Lo ci System?
1 1
MENTAL FIUNG SYSTEMS: PEG MNEMONIC 157
W hat I s t he Pe g S ys t e m ? H o w W e ll D o e s t he Pe g
S ys t e m W o r k ? H o w C an Y o u U s e t he Pe g S ys t e m ?
X C O N T E N T S
12
MENTAL FILING SYSTEMS: PHONETIC MNEMONIC 172
W hat I s t he Pho ne t ic S ys t e m ? H o w W e ll D o e s t he
Pho ne t ic S ys t e m W o r k ? H o w C an Y o u U s e t he
Pho ne t ic S ys t e m ?
13
USING MNEMONICS: REMEMBERING
PEOPLE'S NAMES AND FACES 188
H o w D o W e R e m e m be r N am e s and Face s ? A S ys t e m
fo r R e m e m be r ing N am e s and Face s H o w W e ll D o e s
t he S ys t e m W o r k ?
14
USING MNEMONICS: ABSENTMINDEDNESS
AND EDUCATION 203
Abs e nt m inde dne s s Pr o s p e ct iv e R e m e m be r ing
R e t r o s p e ct iv e R e m e m be r ing Mne m o nics in E ducat io n
Me m o r y in E ducat io n
APPENDIX: KEYWORDS FOR THE PHONETIC
SYSTEM 219
CHAPTER NOTES 223
INDEX 255
I ntroducti on:
What Can You Expect from
Thi s Book?
W
hat is m e m o r y? W hy do yo u r e m e m be r s o m e t hings and fo r ge t
o t he r s ? H o w can yo u r e m e m be r m o r e ? D o e s it de p e nd o n w hat
yo u le ar n? D o e s it de p e nd o n ho w yo u le ar n? W e r e yo u bo r n w it h a go o d
o r a bad m e m o r y? C an a bad m e m o r y be im p r o v e d? C an yo u de v e lo p a
p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y? H o w can yo u s t udy m o r e e ffe ct iv e ly? W hat ar e
m ne m o nics ?* C an m ne m o nics im p r o v e yo ur m e m o r y in e v e r yday life ?
H o w can yo u s e t up and us e yo ur o w n m e nt al filing s ys t e m ? C an
m ne m o nics he lp yo u t o r e m e m be r p e o p le 's nam e s , t o o v e r co m e abs e nt -
m inde dne s s , and t o s ucce e d in s cho o l? T he s e ar e jus t a fe w o f t he
que s t io ns t hat w ill be ans w e r e d in t his bo o k .
WHY DID I WRITE IT?
My int e r e s t in que s t io ns s uch as t he o ne s abo v e be gan w he n I fir s t r e ad
a bo o k o n m e m o r y im p r o v e m e nt as a s t ude nt in high s cho o l. I w as
am aze d at t he t hings I co uld do w it h m y m e m o r y by us ing m ne m o nic
t e chnique s . T hr o ugh t he ye ar s I hav e co nt inue d t o add m e m o r y bo o k s t o
m y p e r s o nal libr ar y, and t o le ar n and us e ne w m e m o r y s ys t e m s and
t e chnique s . My r e ading o f p o p ular bo o k s o n m e m o r y im p r o v e m e nt has
s up p le m e nt e d m y acade m ic r e s e ar ch and p r o fe s s io nal t r aining as a
p s ycho lo gis t , giv ing m e a balance d p e r s p e ct iv e be t w e e n t he p o p ular ize d
t r e at m e nt s o f m e m o r y t r aining and t he s cie nt ific r e s e ar ch o n le ar ning
and m e m o r y. T hat balance is r e fle ct e d in t his bo o k . I am a univ e r s it y
Mne m o nics ar e de fine d and dis cus s e d in chap t e r 7. H o w e v e r , s ince t he w o r d
mnemonicis us e d fr e que nt ly in t he fir s t s ix chap t e r s , a br ie f de finit io n is als o giv e n
he r e . T he t e r m mnemonicm e ans "aiding t he m e m o r y." T hus , a m ne m o nic s ys t e m o r
t e chnique is lit e r ally any s ys t e m o r t e chnique t hat aids t he m e m o r y. T yp ically,
ho w e v e r , t he t e r m mnemonicr e fe r s t o r at he r unus ual, ar t ificial m e m o r y aids .
xi
x i i I N T R O D U C T I O N : W H A T C A N Y O U E X PE C T FR O M T H I S B O O K ?
p r o fe s s o r o f p s ycho lo gy w ho has a s e r io us t e aching and r e s e ar ch int e r e s t
in m e m o r y im p r o v e m e nt : I am no t p r im ar ily a m e m o r y p e r fo r m e r o r a
s e lf- p r o claim e d e xp e r t w it h "t he gr e at e s t m e m o r y in t he w o r ld." ( T he r e
ar e alr e ady p le nt y o f t ho s e "e x p e r t s " ar o und! )
S ince 19711 hav e giv e n hundr e ds o f le ct ur e s and co nduct e d s e m i-
nar s and w o r k s ho p s t hr o ugho ut t he U nit e d S t at e s and in a half do ze n
o t he r co unt r ie s . I hav e t aught m e m o r y im p r o v e m e nt and r e p o r t e d m y
m e m o r y r e s e ar ch t o div e r s e audie nce s , including p s ycho lo gis t s and
m e m o r y r e s e ar che r s , bus ine s s gr o up s , p r o fe s s io nal gr o up s , s t ude nt s ,
childr e n, and t he e lde r ly. D ur ing t his p e r io d, I hav e als o t aught a co lle ge
co ur s e o n m e m o r y im p r o v e m e nt .
My t e aching and r e s e ar ch e xp e r ie nce s hav e giv e n m e an ide a o f
w hat p e o p le w ant t o k no w and ne e d t o k no w abo ut m e m o r y. I n fact , t he
m ain r e as o n I w r o t e t he fir s t e dit io n o f t his bo o k in 1976 w as m y inabilit y
t o find any o ne t e xt bo o k t hat co v e r e d all t he s e ar e as fo r m y m e m o r y
co ur s e . Mo r e t han a de cade lat e r , m o s t bo o k s o h m e m o r y s t ill t e nd t o
fall int o o ne o f t w o cat e go r ie s : co lle ge t e xt bo o k s o n le ar ning and m e m o r y
and p o p ular bo o k s o n m ne no m ics and m e m o r y t r aining.
T his bo o k p r o v ide s a r e as o nable balance be t w e e n t he t e xt bo o k s and
t he p o p ular bo o k s . I lik e t o t hink o f it as t he t hink ing p e r s o n's m e m o r y
bo o k . Me t ho ds , p r incip le s , and s ys t e m s ar e r e lat e d t o r e le v ant r e s e ar ch
lit e r at ur e in s uch a w ay as t o m ak e t he bo o k accur at e ( s o t hat it w ill be
v alid t o p s ycho lo gis t s ) but als o unde r s t andable ( s o t hat it w ill be us e ful
t o t he laym an). Fe e dback o n t he fir s t e dit io n indicat e s t hat t his at t e m p t
t o co m bine s cho lar ly accur acy w it h r e adabilit y w as s ucce s s ful.
E v e n t ho ugh t he o r iginal im p e t us fo r t his bo o k ar o s e fr o m m y de s ir e
t o p r o v ide a t e xt bo o k fo r s t ude nt s in m y m e m o r y co ur s e , I hav e w r it t e n
t he bo o k s o t hat it can be us e d by anyo ne w ho is int e r e s t e d in im p r o v ing
m e m o r y. T his co ns ide r at io n has de t e r m ine d m y cho ice o f w hat s ubje ct s
t o co v e r , w hat t o s ay abo ut t he m , and in w hat o r de r t o co v e r t he m . T Jie
bo o k is a p r act ical, s e lf- co nt aine d guide t hat yo u can s t udy o n yo ur o w n
t o unde r s t and and im p r o v e yo ur m e m o r y.
WHY SHOULD YOU READ IT?
C o m m e nt s m ade by s t ude nt s in m y m e m o r y co ur s e s ugge s t s o m e o f t he
w ays in w hich t he co nt e nt s o f t his bo o k can aid yo u. S o m e r e p r e s e nt at iv e
r e m ar k s s e le ct e d fr o m hundr e ds o f co m m e nt s w r it t e n by s t ude nt s w ho
finis he d t he bo o k and t he co ur s e fo llo w .
By ap p lying m ne m o nics I find m ys e lf t o be m o r e e ffe ct iv e and m o r e o r ganize d,
and t o hav e a co ns ide r able am o unt o f s e lf- co nfide nce t hat I had no t e xp e r ie nce d
be fo r e .
xiii Introduction: What Can You Expect from This Book?
I f I co uld hav e le ar ne d t he s e t hings e ar ly in m y co lle ge car e e r , I w o uld hav e s av e d
m any ho ur s and p r o bably had a highe r gr ade p o int av e r age .
I ho ne s t ly did no t t hink any o f t his m e m o r y bus ine s s w o uld be o f he lp t o m e no w
t hat I am o ut o f s cho o l, but it r e ally has .
T he s ys t e m s m ak e le ar ning s e e m m o r e lik e a gam e t han w o r k . I alm o s t fe e l
guilt y it 's s o fun.
T r ut hfully, I had alw ays be e n s k e p t ical o f m ne m o nic de v ice s , e s p e cially in r e gar ds
t o m y abilit y t o us e t he m . Y e t no w I find t he m t o be us e ful as w e ll as fun.
I am no w aw ar e o f s o m e o f t he cap abilit ie s o f t he hum an m ind ( m ine s p e cifically)
w hich I p r e v io us ly t ho ught w e r e o ut o f r e ach.
W he n yo u finis h s t udying t his bo o k yo u, t o o , w ill hav e a be t t e r unde r -
s t anding o f w hat yo ur m e m o r y is and w hat it can do ; yo u w ill be aw ar e
o f bas ic p r incip le s t o guide yo u in im p r o v ing yo ur m e m o r y; and yo u w ill
hav e an e xt e ns iv e r e p e r t o ir e o f le ar ning s t r at e gie s and m ne m o nic s ys -
t e m s t hat w ill e nable yo u t o us e s o m e o f t he cap abilit ie s o f yo ur m ind
t hat yo u m ay hav e t ho ught p r e v io us ly w e r e "o ut o f r e ach." S p e cifically,
t his bo o k has fiv e char act e r is t ics t hat s ho uld he lp yo u achie v e t he s e
r e s ult s :
It is more practical than textbooks on learning and memory. Me m o r y
t e xt bo o k s ar e o r ie nt e d ge ne r ally t o w ar d an acade m ic unde r s t anding o f
m e m o r y t he o r ie s and r e s e ar ch, and co nt ain lit t le info r m at io n o n im p r o v -
ing m e m o r y. Mne m o nic t e chnique s ar e no t dis cus s e d o r ar e t o uche d o n
o nly in p as s ing as int e r e s t ing o ddit ie s t hat ar e o f lit t le p r act ical v alue .
T his bo o k av o ids dis cus s io n o f m any t he o r ie s and s ide is s ue s t hat ar e o f
int e r e s t t o t he acade m ician and r e s e ar che r but ar e no t as im p o r t ant t o
t he laym an. I hav e dis co v e r e d t hr o ugh m y t e aching e xp e r ie nce s t hat
m o s t p e o p le ar e m o r e co nce r ne d w it h im p r o v ing t he ir m e m o r ie s t han
t he y ar e w it h unde r s t anding ho w t he ir m e m o r ie s w o r k .
T his bo o k is int e nde d t o be a p r act ical guide t o unde r s t anding and
im p r o v ing yo ur m e m o r y; t he r e fo r e , t he e m p has is is m o r e o n ho w t o do
it t han o n acade m ic and t he o r e t ical is s ue s o f m e m o r y. T hus , o nly t he
fir s t t hr e e chap t e r s ar e p r im ar ly de v o t e d t o unde r s t anding m e m o r y ( t he
"ho w it w o r k s " p ar t ), and t he y co v e r o nly w hat is ne ce s s ar y t o be able
t o us e t he o t he r chap t e r s ( t he "ho w t o im p r o v e it " p ar t ).
It is less technical than textbooks on learning and memory. Be s ide s
be ing acade m ically o r ie nt e d in co nt e nt , m o s t m e m o r y t e xt bo o k s t e nd t o
be w r it t e n in a s t yle t hat is t o o t e chnical t o be int e r e s t ing and unde r s t and-
able t o p e o p le w it ho ut a back gr o und in p s ycho lo gy. T he s e r e ade r s alm o s t
ne e d a p s ycho lo gis t t o e xp lain t he bo o k t o t he m . T his bo o k w as w r it t e n
x i v I N T R O D U C T I O N : W H A T C A N Y o u E X PE C T FR O M T H I S B O O K ?
fo r t he int e llige nt s t ude nt and laym an w ho do e s no t hav e a back gr o und in
p s ycho lo gical r e s e ar ch o n le ar ning and m e m o r y, and it is int e nde d t o
br idge t he co m m unicat io n gap t hat s o m e t im e s e xis t s be t w e e n s cie nt is t s
and laym e n. T hus , t he t e chnical t e r m s and p r o fe s s io nal jar go n us e d in
m any t e xt bo o k s ar e av o ide d as m uch as p o s s ible , and s uch t e r m s ar e
e xp laine d w he ne v e r t he y ar e us e d.
It is more technical than popular books on memory training. T his
bo o k is int e nde d p r im ar ily t o ins t r uct , no t t o e nt e r t ain ( alt ho ugh I hav e
no t hing agains t e nt e r t aining, and I t r y t o co m bine t he t w o w he ne v e r
p o s s ible ). T hus , it is int e nde d t o be s t udie d, no t t o be r e ad lik e a no v e l
o r a m agazine ar t icle . I t is int e nde d m o r e fo r p e o p le w ho ar e s e r io us
abo ut w ant ing t o im p r o v e t he ir m e m o r ie s t han fo r p e o p le w ho w ant t o
do s o m e light r e ading.
I n addit io n, alt ho ugh t he p r im ar y e m p has is o f t his bo o k is o n
im p r o v ing yo ur m e m o r y, s o m e at t e nt io n is als o giv e n t o unde r s t anding
yo ur m e m o r y. T he s e r io us r e ade r no t o nly le ar ns ho w t o us e m e m o r y
t e chnique s but gains an unde r s t anding o f ho w and w hy t he y w o r k ; t his
ap p r o ach is no t fo und in m o s t p o p ular bo o k s o n t he s ubje ct .
It is more objective than popular books on memory training. Many
p o p ular bo o k s o n m e m o r y t r aining t e nd t o be s e ns at io nalis t ic and s o m e -
w hat unr e alis t ic in t he ir claim s . Fo r e xam p le , t he y giv e t he r e ade r t he
im p r e s s io n t hat t he m ne m o nic t e chnique s dis cus s e d w ill he lp in e v e r y
p o s s ible le ar ning t as k ( w it h lit t le o r no e ffo r t ), and t hat if yo u us e t he
r ight t e chnique s yo u w ill ne v e r fo r ge t anyt hing again. I n addit io n, t he y
giv e t he im p r e s s io n t hat m ne m o nic t e chnique s ar e all- p o w e r ful and hav e
no lim it at io ns . Many bo o k s ar e s p r ink le d w it h s uch s e ns at io nalis t ic t e r m s
as "s up e r - p o w e r m e m o r y," "co m p ut e r m ind," and "am azing m e nt al
p o w e r s ." T his bo o k p r e s e nt s a m o r e r e alis t ic p e r s p e ct iv e .
Mne m o nics can m ak e a s ignificant co nt r ibut io n t o m e m o r y in m any
s it uat io ns , but diffe r e nt p r incip le s and m e t ho ds ( dis cus s e d in t his bo o k )
can be ap p lie d in o t he r s it uat io ns . I n addit io n, alt ho ugh m ne m o nic
t e chnique s ar e v e r y p o w e r ful fo r m any k inds o f le ar ning, t he y do hav e
lim it at io ns . T his bo o k p r e s e nt s bo t h t he s t r e ngt hs and lim it at io ns o f
m ne m o nics . I canno t p r o m is e yo u t hat aft e r r e ading t his bo o k ( o r any
o t he r bo o k ) yo u w ill be able t o le ar n e v e r yt hing t he fir s t t im e yo u s e e o r
he ar it , and t hat yo u w ill ne v e r fo r ge t anyt fiing yo u le ar n. H o w e v e r , I can
p r o m is e yo u t hat if yo u ap p ly t he m e t ho ds de s cr ibe d in t his bo o k , yo ur
m e m o r y w ill im p r o v e s ignificant ly, and yo u w ill be able t o do t hings w it h
yo ur m e m o r y t hat yo u co uld no t do be fo r e r e ading t his bo o k .
It is based on recent research evidence. Mo s t p o p ular bo o k s o n
m e m o r y t r aining do no t p r e s e nt any s o und e v ide nce t hat t he t e chnique s
xv Introduction: What Can You Expect from This Book?
r e ally w o r k . As a r e s ult , m any p e o p le ge t t he im p r e s s io n t hat m ne m o nics
and s o m e o t he r t e chnique s ar e jus t gim m ick s as s o ciat e d w it h s ho w m an-
s hip , o r t hat t he y ar e no t p r act ical, o r t hat t he y ar e no t w o r t h t he e ffo r t .
Aft e r r e ading s uch a bo o k , p e o p le m ay s ay, "W e ll, t hat w as int e r e s t ing,"
and go o n t he ir w ay unchange d be caus e t he y do n't p lan t o giv e m e m o r y
de m o ns t r at io ns o ns t age . T his bo o k p r e s e nt s r e s e ar ch e v ide nce t hat
illus t r at e s t he s t r e ngt hs and w e ak ne s s e s o f t he p r incip le s , t e chnique s ,
and s ys t e m s dis cus s e d. T hus , w hat has act ually be e n fo und t o w o r k is
dis cus s e d, r at he r t han w hat s o m e o ne s ays s ho uld w o r k , o r w hat s e e m s
as if it s ho uld w o r k . T his ap p r o ach s ho uld he lp yo u r e alize t hat t he
t e chnique s ar e bas e d o n s o und s cie nt ific p r incip le s o f le ar ning: T he y can
m ak e a s ignificant co nt r ibut io n t o p r act ical m e m o r y t as k s in e v e r yday
life .
T he r e s e ar ch e v ide nce in t his bo o k is r e ce nt , no t w hat w as k no w n
abo ut m e m o r y a de cade o r m o r e ago . Mo r e t han t hr e e - fo ur t hs o f t he
r e s e ar ch r e fe r e nce s ar e dat e d aft e r t he fir s t e dit io n o f t his bo o k w as
p ublis he d in 1977, w it h t w o - t hir ds o f t he s e ne w r e fe r e nce s dat e d dur ing
t he las t fiv e ye ar s .
WHAT WILL YOU FIND IN IT?
A lo t has hap p e ne d in t he ar e a o f m e m o r y t r aining s ince 1977. At le as t
t w o m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k s t hat w e r e o r iginally p ublis he d m o r e t han 25
ye ar s ago w e r e r e p r int e d in t he 1980s . I n addit io n, m o r e t han a do ze n
ne w bo o k s hav e be e n p ublis he d; t w o o f t he s e w e r e w r it t e n fo r ge ne r al
audie nce s by p s ycho lo gis t s and m e m o r y r e s e ar che r s , and ano t he r half
do ze n w e r e t ar ge t e d at s p e cific audie nce s bus ine s s e xe cut iv e s , e lde r ly
p e o p le , s t ude nt s . ( And t he s e ar e o nly t he bo o k s I hav e r e ad. U ndo ubt -
e dly, t he r e ar e o t he r s t hat I 'm no t e v e n aw ar e o f! )
D ur ing t he p as t de cade , m e m o r y r e s e ar che r s and p s ycho lo gis t s
hav e als o s ho w n an incr e as e d int e r e s t in m ne m o nics and o t he r p r act ical
as p e ct s o f m e m o r y ( e .g., s cho o lw o r k , nam e s and fe ce s , e v e r yday e xp e -
r ie nce s , abs e nt m inde dne s s , e ye w it ne s s t e s t im o ny). T his incr e as e d r e -
s e ar ch int e r e s t w as r e fle ct e d in t he fir s t int e r nat io nal co nfe r e nce o n
p r act ical as p e ct s o f m e m o r y in 1978; t he s e co nd w as he ld in 1987. ( I
p ar t icip at e d in bo t h.) T he ap p e ar ance o f s e v e r al ne w jo ur nals t hat p ublis h
p r im ar ily r e s e ar ch o n t he p r act ical as p e ct s o f m e m o r y and t he p ublicat io n
o f s e v e r al bo o k s de aling w it h r e s e ar ch o n m ne m o nics and o t he r p r act ical
as p e ct s o f m e m o r y unde r s co r e t his r e dir e ct e d int e r e s t . W hat all t his
m e ans is t hat in 1988 t he r e is at le as t as m uch, if no t m o r e , int e r e s t in
t he t o p ics t hat t his bo o k co v e r s as t he r e w as w he n t he fir s t e dit io n w as
p ublis he d in 1977.
x v i I N T R O D U C T I O N : W H A T C A N Y O U E X P E C T FR O M T H I S B O O K ?
C hap t e r 1 clar ifie s s o m e m e m o r y m yt hs m is co nce p t io ns t hat m any
p e o p le hav e abo ut w hat t he y can e xp e ct fr o m t he ir m e m o r ie s . C hap t e r s
2 and 3 giv e a bas ic unde r s t anding o f t he nat ur e o f m e m o r y and ans w e r
s o m e que s t io ns yo u m ay hav e abo ut yo ur m e m o r y. T he fir s t t hr e e
chap t e r s s e r v e as a fo undat io n fo r unde r s t anding and us ing t he r e s t o f
t he bo o k . C hap t e r s 4 and 5 dis cus s s o m e p r incip le s o n w hich e ffe ct iv e
m e m o r y s t r at e gie s ( including m o s t m ne m o nics ) ar e bas e d. C hap t e r 6
de s cr ibe s le ar ning s t r at e gie s t hat can he lp yo u le ar n m at e r ial t hat m ay
no t be e s p e cially s uit e d fo r m ne m o nics . C hap t e r s 7 and 8 giv e an
int r o duct io n t o m ne m o nics , including t he s t r e ngt hs and lim it at io ns o f
m ne m o nic t e chnique s and s ys t e m s . C hap t e r s 9 t hr o ugh 12 e xp lain t he
nat ur e and us e s o f s p e cific m ne m o nic s ys t e m s as m e nt al filing s ys t e m s .
C hap t e r s 13 and 14 s ugge s t addit io nal p r act ical us e s o f m ne m o nics in
t hr e e ar e as o f e v e r yday life : r e m e m be r ing p e o p le 's nam e s , o v e r co m ing
abs e nt m inde dne s s , and do ing s cho o lw o r k .
As a r e s ult o f a de cade o f e xp e r ie nce w it h t he fir s t e dit io n, I hav e
m ade m any m ino r change s in co nt e nt and o r ganizat io n t o m ak e t he
s e co nd e dit io n e v e n m o r e be ne ficial. Many o f t he t o p ics co v e r e d in t he
fir s t e dit io n hav e be e n e xp ande d in t he s e co nd e dit io n, and m any ne w
t o p ics hav e be e n include d. S o m e o f t he s e ne w t o p ics ar e s cat t e r e d
t hr o ugho ut t he bo o k , s uch as e xam p le s o f ho w m y m e m o r y s t ude nt s
hav e us e d m ne m o nics and t he r e le v ance o f s o m e m e m o r y aids t o s p e cial
p o p ulat io ns lik e t he e lde r ly, yo ung childr e n, s t ude nt s , and t he le ar ning
dis able d. O t he r ne w t o p ics hav e be e n adde d in s p e cific s e ct io ns : addi-
t io nal m e m o r y m yt hs ( chap t e r 1), t he s e r ial p o s it io n e ffe ct and t he
s t r at e gy o f "t hink ing ar o und it " ( chap t e r 4), t he e ffe ct s o f anxie t y and
co nt e xt o n m e m o r y ( chap t e r 5), t he p r o ble m o f m aint aining ne w ly le ar ne d
m e m o r y s k ills ( chap t e r 8), and t he r o le o f m ne m o nics and m e m o r y in
e ducat io n ( chap t e r 14).
Ano t he r m ajo r change in t he s e co nd e dit io n is t he up dat ing o f t he
r e s e ar ch r e fe r e nce s s o t hat t he bo o k s t ill r e fle ct s t he m o s t r e ce nt
findings . Mo s t o f t he hundr e ds o f ho ur s I s p e nt o n t he s e co nd e dit io n
w e r e s p e nt finding and r e ading t he r e le v ant r e s e ar ch p ublis he d s ince
1976.1 r e ad abo ut t he s am e num be r o f ar t icle s and bo o k s fo r t he s e co nd
as I did fo r t he fir s t e dit io n ( 700- 800); ho w e v e r , fe w e r t han half o f t he m
ar e include d in t he bo o k .
T he r e s e ar ch act iv it y o n unde r s t anding and im p r o v ing m e m o r y has
acce le r at e d dur ing t he t im e s ince t he fir s t e dit io n w as w r it t e n. Lit e r ally
t ho us ands o f r e s e ar ch ar t icle s and s cho lar ly bo o k s ar e r e le v ant t o t he
t o p ics co v e r e d in t his bo o k . ( I nde e d, w ho le bo o k s hav e be e n w r it t e n o n
t o p ics t hat co ns t it ut e o nly o ne s e ct io n o f a chap t e r in t his bo o k .) T o cit e
all o f t he r e le v ant r e s e ar ch w o uld be unduly bur de ns o m e ( bo t h t o m e and
xvii Introduction: What Can You Expect from This Book?
t o yo u), s o I hav e us e d t w o s t r at e gie s t o lim it t he num be r o f r e fe r e nce s .
Fir s t , w he n s e v e r al s t udie s ar e r e le v ant t o a ce r t ain p o int , o ne o r t w o o f
t he m o s t r e ce nt s t udie s hav e us ually be e n cit e d. S e co nd, ar t icle s o r
bo o k s t hat r e v ie w a num be r o f s t udie s hav e fr e que nt ly be e n cit e d, r at he r
t han t he o r iginal s t udie s .
Y O U R
I I
What Can Ybu Expect from
Your Memory? Ten Myths
Y o u, t o o , can hav e a p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y! W it h t his ne w m ir acle
m e m o r y s ys t e m , yo u w ill ne v e r again fo r ge t anyt hing. I t r e quir e s
no w o r k o r w illp o w e r , and anyo ne can us e it im m e diat e ly. O nce yo u
le ar n t his s e cr e t o f a s up e r - p o w e r m e m o r y yo u w ill be able t o le ar n
e v e r yt hing p e r fe ct ly and e ffo r t le s s ly!
F
o r ye ar s , claim s lik e t he s e hav e be e n m ade in adv e r t is e m e nt s fo r
m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k s and co ur s e s . I n fact , t he s e claim s co m e fr o m
act ual adv e r t is e m e nt s I hav e r e ad. I f yo u t hink s uch claim s s o und t o o
go o d t o be t r ue , yo u ar e r ight . Y e t t he y co nt inue t o at t r act p e o p le
be caus e t he y ar e co ns is t e nt w it h m yt hs t hat m any p e o p le be lie v e abo ut
w hat is inv o lv e d in im p r o v ing m e m o r y.
T his chap t e r dis cus s e s s o m e m e m o r y m yt hs t o giv e yo u a r e alis t ic
ide a o f w hat yo u can e xp e ct and w hat yo u canno t e xp e ct fr o m yo ur
m e m o r y. I n s o m e w ays p e o p le e xp e ct t o o m uch fr o m t he ir m e m o r ie s ; in
o t he r w ays t he y e xp e ct t o o lit t le . At o ne e xt r e m e ar e p e o p le w ho be lie v e
t he fant as t ic claim s lik e t ho s e in t he adv e r t is e m e nt abo v e ; at t he o t he r
e xt r e m e ar e p e o p le w ho be lie v e t he y ar e s t uck fo r e v e r w it h a "bad"
m e m o r y, and t he r e is no t hing t he y can do abo ut it . A r e alis t ic unde r -
s t anding o f w hat t he p o t e nt ial is fo r yo ur m e m o r y can he lp yo u achie v e
t hat p o t e nt ial.
As yo u r e ad t he fo llo w ing m yt hs , k e e p in m ind t hat s o m e o f t he m
m ay hav e a gr ain o f t r ut h. H o w e v e r , all t he m yt hs ar e fals e e no ugh t o be
m is le ading. Le t 's lo o k at s o m e m e m o r y m yt hs t hat can affe ct w hat yo u
e xp e ct fr o m yo ur m e m o r y.
1
2 Y O U R ME MO R Y
MYTH 1: MEMORY IS A THING
Pe o p le o ft e n t alk abo ut t he ir m e m o r ie s as if a m e m o r y w e r e s o m e thing
t hat t he y p o s s e s s . T he y t alk abo ut hav ing a go o d m e m o r y o r a bad
m e m o r y lik e t he y t alk abo ut hav ing go o d t e e t h o r a bad he ar t ; o r t he y
s p e ak o f s t r o ng and w e ak m e m o r ie s lik e m us cle s ( s e e m yt h 7); o r t he y
s ay t he ir m e m o r y is failing lik e t he ir e ye s ar e failing. Me m o r y do e s no t
e xis t in t he s e ns e o f s o m e t hing ( o bje ct , o r gan, gland, e t c.) t hat can be
s e e n, t o uche d, w e ighe d, o r X- r aye d. W e can't cut o p e n a p e r s o n's he ad
and s ay, "T hat 's a go o d, he alt hy- lo o k ing m e m o r y" o r "T hat m e m o r y
lo o k s bad, it m us t co m e o ut " o r "T his p e r s o n de finit e ly ne e ds a m e m o r y
t r ans p lant ."
T he w o r d memory is m e r e ly an abs t r act io n t hat r e fe r s t o a p r o ce s s
r at he r t han a s t r uct ur e . As o ne e xp e r ie nce d m e m o r y r e s e ar che r w r o t e
r e ce nt ly, "O v e r t he p as t 10 ye ar s m y ide as hav e m o v e d p r o gr e s s iv e ly
aw ay fr o m a v ie w o f m e m o r y as a s t r uct ur al s ys t e m a 't hing in t he
he ad'and t o w ar ds t he v i e w p o i nt . . . o f remembering as an act iv it y."
1
N o t o nly is m e m o r y no t an ide nt ifiable s t r uct ur e but t he p r o ce s s canno t
e v e n be lo cat e d at an ide nt ifiable p lace in t he br ain: T he r e is no o ne
p ar t icular p ar t o f t he br ain w he r e all r e m e m be r ing o ccur s . ( R e s e ar che r s
do no t e v e n fully unde r s t and e xact ly what o ccur s w he n w e r e m e m be r ,
le t alo ne where it o ccur s .)
T hus , m e m o r y is m o r e ap p r o p r iat e ly v ie w e d as an abs t r act p r o ce s s
r at he r t han as a t angible t hing. Act ually, ho w e v e r , m e m o r y m ay no t e v e n
be a s ingle p r o ce s s , but r at he r a num be r o f diffe r e nt p r o ce s s e s ( act iv i-
t ie s , s k ills , at t r ibut e s , e t c.). R e ce nt ap p r o ache s t o m e m o r y ar e o r ganize d
ar o und t he ide a o f s e p ar at e s ubs ys t e m s .
2
T he r e ap p e ar t o be at le as t
t hr e e m e m o r y s ys t e m s s e ns o r y, s ho r t - t e r m , and lo ng- t e r m and
m any p s ycho lo gis t s be lie v e t hat lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y is co m p o s e d o f
s e v e r al diffe r e nt t yp e s o f r e m e m be r ing ( s e e chap t e r 2).
E v e n a s p e cific m e m o r y o f a s p e cific o bje ct m ay co ns is t o f a num be r
o f diffe r e nt at t r ibut e s o r cat e go r ie s .
3
Fo r e xam p le , yo u m ay r e m e m be r a
p ar t icular chair in t e r m s o f it s clas s ( fur nit ur e ), it s char act e r is t ics ( lar ge ),
it s funct io n ( s it t ing), and it s lo cat io n ( liv ing r o o m ). Me m o r ie s can als o be
s t o r e d in diffe r e nt s e ns e s . T he r e is a diffe r e nce be t w e e n r e m e m be r ing
w hat t hings lo o k lik e , w hat t he y s o und lik e , w hat t he y fe e l lik e , and w hat
t he y t as t e o r s m e ll lik e . E v e n w it hin t he s am e s e ns e t he r e can be
diffe r e nce s ; fo r e xam p le , a p e r s o n m ay be able t o r e p e at a co nv e r s at io n
he has he ar d but no t be able t o r e p r o duce a s im p le m e lo dy. T he r e ar e
als o m o t o r m e m o r ie s t hat ar e no t e v e n s t o r e d in t he co ns cio us le v e ls o f
t he br ain ( t r y t o de s cr ibe ho w yo u t ie a s ho e lace , o r w he r e ce r t ain k e ys
ar e lo cat e d o n a t yp e w r it e r ).
What Can hbu Expectfrom Itbur Memory? 1fen. Myths 3
I n light o f t he co m p le xit y o f yo ur m e m o r y it s ho uld no t be t o o
s ur p r is ing t hat p s ycho lo gis t s m us t m e as ur e s e v e r al fe at ur e s w he n t he y
t r y t o diagno s e m e m o r y. Fo r e xam p le , t he m o s t w ide ly us e d m e m o r y
s cale , t he W e chs le r Me m o r y S cale , co ns is t s o f s e v e n diffe r e nt s ubt e s t s
t hat ar e adde d t o ge t he r t o giv e a s um m ar y s co r e o f m e m o r y funct io ning.
H o w e v e r , p s ycho lo gis t s do no t alw ays agr e e o n w hat fe at ur e s t o m e as -
ur e : O ne analys is o f 9 m e m o r y s cale s fo und t hat t he y m e as ur e d a t o t al
o f 18 diffe r e nt m e m o r y fe at ur e s and no s ingle s cale m e as ur e d m o r e t han
10 o f t he fe at ur e s .
4
T hus , w he n w e t alk abo ut im p r o v ing "m e m o r y," w e ar e no t t alk ing
abo ut s o m e t hing t hat w e ar e m ak ing s t r o nge r o r bigge r . W e hav e s e e n
t hat t he r e ar e t w o m is co nce p t io ns inv o lv e d in t he m yt h t hat m e m o r y is a
t hing. O ne is t hat m e m o r y is a thing ( a t angible s t r uct ur e r at he r t han an
abs t r act p r o ce s s ) and t he o t he r is t hat m e m o r y is a t hing ( o ne m e m o r y
r at he r t han m any m e m o r ie s ). T his m yt h unde r lie s s e v e r al o t he r s .
MYTH 2: THERE IS A SECRET TO A GOOD MEMORY
O ne o f t he m o s t co m m o n que s t io ns p e o p le as k abo ut m e m o r y im p r o v e -
m e nt is , "W hat is t he s e cr e t o f a go o d m e m o r y?" S o m e p e o p le w ho r e ad
a bo o k o r t ak e a co ur s e o n m e m o r y t r aining e xp e ct t o find the s e cr e t o f
m e m o r y im p r o v e m e nt t he o ne k e y t hat w ill e nable t he m t o m as t e r
t he ir m e m o r ie s co m p le t e ly. T he y ho p e t hat if t he y can jus t do t hat o ne
t hing, t he y w ill ne v e r again fo r ge t anyt hing t he y s e e o r he ar . T his is an
unr e alis t ic e xp e ct at io n.
S up p o s e yo u s ho w t o p e o p le in a car p e nt r y clas s a t o o l t hat yo u call
a "ham m e r ." Y o u de m o ns t r at e t he am azing t hings it can do t hat canno t
be do ne w it h t he unaide d hand. S o m e o ne s ays , "Y e s , but ho w do yo u
s aw a bo ar d w it h it ?" Y o u e xp lain, "T his t o o l is n't int e nde d t o s aw bo ar ds .
T he r e is ano t he r t o o l fo r s aw ing bo ar ds ; it 's calle d a saw. W hat a ham m e r
do e s , it do e s v e r y p o w e r fully, but it is no t s up p o s e d t o do e v e r yt hing."
W o uldn't it s e e m unr e alis t ic o f p e o p le t o e xp e ct o ne t o o l t o do all
car p e nt r y jo bs ?
S im ilar ly, t he r e is no s ingle t o o l t hat w ill handle all m e m o r y jo bs ;
t he r e is no s ingle "s e cr e t " t o a go o d m e m o r y. Many t e chnique s and
s ys t e m s can s e r v e as t o o ls t o build an e ffe ct iv e m e m o r y and e nable us t o
do am azing t hings t hat canno t be do ne w it h t he unaide d m e m o r y. W hat
t he s e m e m o r y t o o ls do , t he y do v e r y p o w e r fully, but no t o o l do e s t he
w ho le jo b by it s e lf. Y o u canno t build a co m p le t e m e m o r y w it h a s ingle
m e m o r y t o o l any m o r e t han yo u can build a co m p le t e building w it h a
s ingle car p e nt r y t o o l.
4 Y O U R ME MO R Y
W e ll, if t he r e is no s ingle m e m o r y m e t ho d t hat w ill do e v e r yt hing, is
t he r e a best o ne ? T his que s t io n is analo go us t o as k ing: I s t he r e a be s t go lf
club t o us e ? T he ans w e r is : I t v ar ie s w it h t he cir cum s t ance s . Many
cir cum s t ance s de t e r m ine w hat m e m o r y m e t ho d is be s t t o us e t o le ar n
m at e r ial. Fo r e xam p le :
1. W ho is do ing t he le ar ning? A che m is t r y p r o fe s s o r and a be ginning
che m is t r y s t ude nt m ay us e diffe r e nt m e t ho ds t o s t udy a ne w che m -
is t r y bo o k .
2. W hat is t o be le ar ne d? D iffe r e nt m e t ho ds m ay be us e d fo r le ar ning
w o r d lis t s , no ns e ns e s yllable s , num be r s , p o e m s , s p e e che s , and bo o k
chap t e r s .
3. H o w w ill r e m e m be r ing be m e as ur e d? Pr e p ar ing fo r a r e co gnit io n t as k
m ay r e quir e a diffe r e nt m e t ho d t han p r e p ar ing fo r a r e call t as k .
'4. W hat k ind o f r e m e m be r ing is r e quir e d? R o t e r e m e m e r ing o f fact s
m ay r e quir e a diffe r e nt m e t ho d t han unde r s t anding and ap p lying t he
fact s , and w o r d- fo r - w o r d m e m o r izing m ay r e quir e a diffe r e nt m e t ho d
t han r e m e m be r ing ide as and co nce p t s .
5. H o w lo ng w ill r e m e m be r ing be r e quir e d? Pr e p ar ing t o r e call m at e r ial
im m e diat e ly aft e r le ar ning it m ay r e quir e a diffe r e nt m e t ho d t han
p r e p ar ing t o r e call it a w e e k lat e r .
T he p r act ical im p licat io n o f t his co ns ide r at io n is t hat w he n a p e r s o n
as k s ho w he can im p r o v e his m e m o r y, he canno t e xp e ct a us e ful ans w e r
unt il he m ak e s his que s t io n m o r e s p e cific.
3
W hat k ind o f m at e r ial do e s
he w ant t o r e m e m be r ? I n w hat w ay? U nde r w hat cir cum s t ance s ? Fo r
ho w lo ng? T he r e ar e m e t ho ds and p r incip le s in t his bo o k t hat ap p ly t o
alm o s t any k ind o f le ar ning s it uat io n, but no ne ap p lie s t o all s it uat io ns .
N o t o nly is t he r e no s ingle s e cr e t t o m as t e r ing yo ur m e m o r y but
m o s t m e m o r y t e chnique s ar e no t e v e n "s e cr e t s ." Many m e m o r y- t r aining
aut ho r s and le ct ur e r s giv e t he im p r e s s io n t hat t he y ar e le t t ing- yo u in o n
t he ir o w n s e cr e t m e m o r y t e chnique s ; ho w e v e r , t he t e chnique s ar e s e cr e t
o nly in t he s e ns e t hat m any p e o p le ar e no t aw ar e o f t he m . T he y ar e no t
s e cr e t in t he s e ns e o f be ing s o m e o ne 's o w n dis co v e r y o r inv e nt io n, o r o f
anyo ne hav ing a p at e nt o n t he m o r hav ing t he r ight t o co nt r o l w ho ge t s
t o le ar n t he m o r us e t he m . O ne w ide ly us e d m e m o r y s ys t e m ( dis cus s e d
in chap t e r 10) is abo ut 2,500 ye ar s o ld, and m any o t he r s ar e m o r e t han
300 ye ar s o ld ( s e e chap t e r s 11 and 12).
MYTH 3: THERE IS AN EASY WAY TO MEMORIZE
T his m yt h go e s hand in hand w it h m yt h 2. Many p e o p le no t o nly ho p e t o
find t he o ne k e y t o a go o d m e m o r y but e xp e ct t hat k e y t o t ak e t he w o r k
o ut o f m e m o r izing. I n fact , t hat is w hy t he y ar e lo o k ing fo r t he s e cr e t .
H o w e v e r , r e m e m be r ing is har d w o r k , and m e m o r y t e chique s do no t
ne ce s s ar ily m ak e it e as y, t he y jus t m ak e it m o r e e ffe ct iv e . Y o u s t ill hav e
t o w o r k at it , but yo u ge t m o r e o ut o f yo ur e ffo r t s . S o m e p e o p le t alk
abo ut m e m o r y "t r ick s " as if t he y w e r e us e d in t he p lace o f "r e al"
m e m o r izat io n, but m e m o r y t e chnique s do no t replace t he bas ic p s ycho -
lo gical p r incip le s o f le ar ning ( s uch as t ho s e dis cus s e d in chap t e r s 4 and
5), t he y use t he m ( s e e chap t e r 7).
S o m e p e o p le be lie v e t hat an int e llige nt p e r s o n ( o ne w it h a high I Q)
w ill nat ur ally r e m e m be r m o r e e as ily t han a p e r s o n w it h a lo w e r I Q. I t is
t r ue t hat s o m e r e lat io ns hip e xis t s be t w e e n int e llige nce and m e m o r y
abilit y. I f m e m o r y t e s t s w e r e giv e n t o t w o gr o up s o f p e o p le w ho had no
fo r m al m e m o r y t r aining, o ne gr o up w it h high I Qs and o ne gr o up w it h lo w
I Qs , m o s t o f t he high- I Q p e o p le w o uld s co r e be t t e r o n t he t e s t . O ne
r e as o n fo r t his is t hat int e llige nt p e o p le m ay be m o r e lik e ly t o le ar n and
us e e ffe ct iv e m e m o r y t e chnique s and m e t ho ds o n t he ir o w n. ( R e s e ar ch
has fo und t hat in s cho o l go o d s t ude nt s s ho w m o r e init iat iv e in us ing
m e m o r y aids and le ar ning s t r at e gie s o n t he ir o w n t han do p o o r s t u-
de nt s .)
6
H o w e v e r , if a gr o up o f p e o p le w it h high I Qs w ho had no t le ar ne d
e ffe ct iv e m e m o r y t e chnique s w e r e co m p ar e d o n a m e m o r y t e s t w it h
p e o p le w it h av e r age I Qs w ho had le ar ne d e ffe ct iv e m e m o r y t e chnique s ,
t he av e r age - I Q p e o p le w o uld p e r fo r m be t t e r . R e m e m be r ing is a le ar ne d
s k ill.
Be caus e r e m e m be r ing is a le ar ne d s k ill, im p r o v ing m e m o r y is lik e
de v e lo p ing any o t he r s k ill. Y o u m us t w o r k at it by le ar ning t he ap p r o p r iat e
t e chnique s and p r act icing t he m . S up p o s e yo u w ant t o be go o d at go lf,
m at h, s p e e d- r e ading, o r anyt hing e ls e . W o uld yo u e xp e ct t o le ar n jus t
o ne s e cr e t and hav e t he s k ill m as t e r e d w it ho ut fur t he r e ffo r t ? N o . Y o u
w o uld e xp e ct t o le ar n p r incip le s and t e chnique s , ap p ly t he m , p r act ice
t he m , and t hus gr adually de v e lo p t he s k ill.
U nfo r t unat e ly, m any p e o p le do no t t hink t his w ay w he n it co m e s t o
m e m o r y; t he y do n't w ant t o w o r k at it . S o m e aut ho r s p ur p o s e ly ap p e al
t o s uch p e o p le ; fo r e xam p le , at le as t t w o m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k s p ub-
lis he d in t he 1980s hav e t he w o r d easy in t he t it le . W he n s uch p e o p le find
o ut t hat im p r o v ing m e m o r y t ak e s e ffo r t , t he y o ft e n de cide t he y can ge t
alo ng w e ll e no ugh w it h t he ir p r e s e nt m e m o r ie s . Plan t o e xp e nd s o m e
e ffo r t if yo u r e ally w ant t o be ne fit fr o m t he p r incip le s and s ys t e m s
dis cus s e d in t his bo o k . ( R e s e ar ch o n le ar ning s t r at e gie s us e d by s t ude nt s
in s cho o l s up p o r t s t his ide a: I m p r o v e d s t udy e ffe ct iv e ne s s and s cho o l
p e r fo r m ance do no t co m e e as y, but de p e nd o n e xt e ns iv e t r aining and
p r act ice w it h s t udy s k ills and le ar ning s t r at e gie s .)
7
My e xp e r ie nce s and o bs e r v at io ns s ugge s t t hat lazine s s m ay p lay a
r o le in t he inabilit y o f m any adult s t o le ar n and r e m e m be r as w e ll as t he y
6 Y O U R ME MO R Y
s ay t he y w o uld lik e t o . T he y ar e no t us e d t o inv e s t ing t he m e nt al e ffo r t
ne ce s s ar y t o le ar n as t he y had t o do w he n t he y w e r e in s cho o l. T he y
hav e go t t e n o ut o f t he habit o f s t udying and ar e no t w illing t o p ut in t he
w o r k it t ak e s t o r e m e m be r e ffe ct iv e ly. R e s e ar ch has s ho w n t hat num be r
o f ye ar s o f s cho o ling and cur r e nt ly be ing in s cho o l w e r e bo t h p o s it iv e ly
r e lat e d t o m e m o r y abilit y and us e o f m e m o r y t e chnique s in m iddle - age d
w o m e n, and t hat adult s w ho r e m ain m e nt ally act iv e by m aint aining
r e ading and s t udying habit s ar e able t o r e m e m be r w hat t he y r e ad be t t e r
t han adult s w ho do no t s t ay m e nt ally act iv e .
8
MYTH 4: SOME PEOPLE ARE STUCK WITH BAD MEMORIES
"I hav e a bad m e m o r y." H av e yo u e v e r he ar d t hat s t at e m e nt ? H av e yo u
e v e r m ade it ? I n t he fir s t p lace , yo u do no t e v e n hav e a m e m o r y ( s e e
m yt h 1). But e v e n if w e v ie w m e m o r y as an abilit y o r s k ill r at he r t han a
t hing, t his m yt h s t ill ap p lie s . I f p e o p le m e an t hat t he y hav e no t le ar ne d
t he m e m o r y s k ills t hat o t he r s hav e le ar ne d w he n t he y s ay "I hav e a bad
m e m o r y," t he n t his s t at e m e nt w o uld no t be a m yt h. But w hat p e o p le
us ually m e an w he n t he y s ay t he y hav e a bad m e m o r y is "T he r e is
s o m e t hing innat e ly infe r io r abo ut m y m e m o r y abilit y." T his s t at e m e nt
im p lie s t hat no t hing can be do ne t o im p r o v e m e m o r y.
R e m e m be r ing is a bas ic p s ycho lo gical p r o ce s s t hat is co m m o n t o all
p e o p le , bar r ing br ain dam age o r s e v e r e m e nt al o r p s ycho lo gical dis t ur -
bance s . S o m e p o p ular bo o k s o n m e m o r y t r aining e v e n go s o far as t o
s ugge s t t hat t he r e is no s uch t hing as a go o d m e m o r y o r a bad m e m o r y:
T he r e ar e o nly t r aine d m e m o r ie s o r unt r aine d m e m o r ie s . Alt ho ugh t he r e
m ay be s o m e t r ut h t o t his s t at e m e nt , it is no t co m p le t e ly accur at e .
T he r e ar e p r o bably s o m e diffe r e nce s am o ng p e o p le in innat e m e m o r y
abilit ie s ; in t his s e ns e , t he r e m ay be s uch a t hing as a go o d m e m o r y and
a bad m e m o r y. H o w e v e r , t he im p o r t ant p o int is t hat e v e n if t he r e ar e
s uch innat e diffe r e nce s in m e m o r y, e xce p t fo r a fe w e xt r e m e cas e s t he s e
innat e diffe r e nce s ar e no t ne ar ly as im p o r t ant in t he abilit y t o r e m e m be r
as ar e diffe r e nce s in le ar ne d m e m o r y s k ills .
T he cap acit y o f yo ur m e m o r y is a funct io n o f t he m e m o r y t e chnique s
yo u us e m o r e t han a funct io n o f any innat e diffe r e nce s in m e m o r y abilit y.
T hus , im p r o v ing yo ur t e chnique s im p r o v e s yo ur cap acit y. T o illus t r at e
t his p o int , le t us co m p ar e a lar ge car dbo ar d bo x t o a s m all 3" x 5" file
bo x. W hich o ne has m o r e "cap acit y" in t e r m s o f ho w m uch it can ho ld?
T he car dbo ar d bo x do e s . But s up p o s e t hat o ne p e r s o n w r it e s no t e s o n
3" x 5" car ds and t hr o w s t he m in t he car dbo ar d bo x. A s e co nd p e r s o n
w r it e s his no t e s o n 3" x 5" car ds and file s t he m alp habe t ically in t he
s m all file bo x. N o w , s up p o s e e ach p e r s o n lat e r w ant s t o find a s p e cific
car d. W hich o ne w ill be able t o find it m o r e e as ily? E v e n t ho ugh t he
car dbo ar d bo x can ho ld m o r e car ds , t he file bo x act ually has a lar ge r
us able cap acit y be caus e t he car ds ar e s t o r e d in s uch a w ay t hat t he y can
be fo und w he n ne e de d. S im ilar ly, t he us able cap acit y o f yo ur m e m o r y
de p e nds m o r e o n ho w yo u s t o r e info r m at io n t han it do e s o n any innat e
"cap acit y." ( I n fact , w e w ill s e e in chap t e r 2 t hat yo ur lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y
has a v ir t ually unlim it e d cap acit y.) U nfo r t unat e ly, m o s t p e o p le us e t he ir
m e m o r ie s lik e t he big car dbo ar d bo xt he y jus t t hr o w t he info r m at io n in
and ho p e t hat t he y w ill be able t o find it w he n t he y ne e d it .
W e s aw in m yt h 1 t hat m e m o r y co ns is t s o f a num be r o f diffe r e nt
act iv it ie s . T his m e ans t hat t he r e is no s ingle s t andar d by w hich t o judge
a "go o d" o r "bad" m e m o r y. Fo r e xam p le , a p e r s o n w ho claim s t o hav e a
go o d m e m o r y m ay m e an t hat he can do any o ne o f a num be r o f v e r y
diffe r e nt t hings : R e ad a bo o k and t e ll yo u e v e r yt hing t hat is in it ; r e ad a
p ar agr ap h and r e cit e it w o r d fo r w o r d; t e ll yo u anyt hing yo u w ant t o
k no w abo ut a giv e n t o p ic; r e call m any e xp e r ie nce s fr o m his e ar ly,
childho o d; ne v e r fo r ge t anniv e r s ar ie s and ap p o int m e nt s ; o r s t ill be able
t o do s o m e t hing, lik e p lay che s s o r s p e ak a fo r e ign language , t hat he has
no t do ne fo r ye ar s .
9
Many p e o p le w o uld hav e a go o d m e m o r y fo r s o m e
o f t he s e m e m o r y t as k s and a bad m e m o r y fo r o t he r s .
MYTH 5: SOME PEOPLE ARE BLESSED WITH PHOTOGRAPHIC
MEMORIES
W o uldn't it be gr e at t o hav e a p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y t hat w o r k s lik e a
cam e r a t ak ing a s nap s ho t ? Y o u co uld t ak e a quick p ict ur e o f a s ce ne o r a
p age o f p r int , and t he n de s cr ibe it in co m p le t e de t ail at any t im e by
co njur ing up t he w ho le s nap s ho t in yo ur m ind. Ar e t he r e p e o p le w ho can
do t his ? W o uld it s o lv e all yo ur m e m o r y p r o ble m s if yo u co uld do t his ?
Mo s t p s ycho lo gis t s do no t be lie v e in t his p o p ular no t io n o f a p ho t o gr ap hic
m e m o r y, alt ho ugh t he r e is a v alid p he no m e no n calle d eidetic imagery t hat
is s o m e w hat s im ilar t o t his no t io n ( s e e chap t e r 3).
As a t e ache r o f m e m o r y im p r o v e m e nt , I am co nce r ne d t hat t he
p o p ular no t io n o f p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y le ads p e o p le t o be lie v e t hat a
p e r s o n w ho r e m e m be r s w e ll has s o m e thingt hat o t he r s do no t ( s e e
m yt h 1). W he ne v e r t he y s e e s o m e o ne p e r fo r m an am azing m e m o r y fe at
t he y m ay t hr o w it unde r t he v ague he ading o f "p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y"
be caus e t he y do no t k no w ho w e ls e t o e xp lain it . Aft e r s e e ing a p e r s o n
p e r fo r m a fant as t ic m e m o r y fe at , t he y s hr ug t he ir s ho ulde r s and s ay,
"H e has a p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y. I do n't . T hat 's w hy I co uld ne v e r do
t hat ." T he fact t hat t his p e r s o n has a p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y s e e m s t o
giv e t he m a co nv e nie nt e xcus e fo r no t be ing able t o r e m e m be r as w e ll as
he can.
8 Y O U R ME MO R Y
I n a s e ns e , t he p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y m yt h is jus t t he flip s ide o f
t he bad m e m o r y m yt h. Bo t h le ad p e o p le t o e m p has ize innat e diffe r e nce s
in m e m o r y abilit y r at he r t han le ar ne d m e m o r y s k ills . T he r e m ay p o s s ibly
be s uch a t hing as p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y. I canno t co m p le t e ly dis co unt
t he p o s s ibilit y o f it s e xis t e nce , be caus e o f r ar e e xam p le s o f t r uly
e xce p t io nal m e m o r ie s lik e t ho s e de s cr ibe d in chap t e r 3. H o w e v e r , w he n
p e o p le w it h am azing m e m o r ie s ar e t e s t e d in co nt r o lle d r e s e ar ch s e t t ings
it is us ually fo und t hat w hat m o s t p e o p le w o uld at t r ibut e t o p ho t o gr ap hic
m e m o r y is no t s o m e t hing innat e , but is m e r e ly t he s k illful ap p licat io n o f
p o w e r ful m e m o r y t e chnique s lik e t ho s e dis cus s e d in t his bo o k t hat
v ir t ually anyo ne can us e if he o r s he r e ally w ant s t o le ar n t he t e chnique s
and p r act ice t he m .
I hav e do ne a de m o ns t r at io n s e v e r al t im e s t hat illus t r at e s t he
diffe r e nce be t w e e n a p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y and t he ap p licat io n o f p o w -
e r ful m e m o r y t e chnique s . T he de m o ns t r at io n co ns is t s o f m e m o r izing a
50- p age m agazine co m p le t e ly e no ugh t o be able t o ans w e r s uch que s t io ns
as : W hat is o n p age 32? O n w hat p age is t he ar t icle abo ut co m m unicat io n?
W hat is o n t he p age o p p o s it e t he p ict ur e o f a t o w e r ? H o w m any p ict ur e s
ar e o n p age 46? H o w m any p e o p le ar e in t he lo w e r le ft p ict ur e o n p age
9, and w hat ar e t he y do ing? W ho w r o t e t he ar t icle abo ut t o le r ance ?
W hat is t he nam e o f t he m ain char act e r in t he s t o r y t hat be gins o n p age
17, and w hat hap p e ne d t o he r o n p age 19? I can ans w e r alm o s t any
que s t io n p e o p le m ay as k .
W he n I finis h s uch a de m o ns t r at io n, s o m e o ne alm o s t alw ays as k s if
I hav e a p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y. I e xp lain t hat I p o s s e s s no s uch p o w e r ,
but m e r e ly us e t he p o w e r ful m ne m o nic t e chnique s e xp laine d in t his bo o k .
( I ncide nt ally, m y daught e r p e r fo r m e d t his s am e de m o ns t r at io n w he n s he
w as t hir t e e n ye ar s o ld.) T he r e is no t hing m agical o r e ffo r t le s s abo ut m y
m e m o r izing a 50- p age m agazine s o t hat I k no w w hat is o n e v e r y p age ,
w he r e it is o n t he p age , w ho w r o t e e v e r yt hing and t o o k all t he p ho t o -
gr ap hs , and w hat is in e v e r y p ict ur e and ar t icle . I t t ak e s m e abo ut t hr e e
ho ur s o f s t udy t o m e m o r ize a m agazine t o t hat e xt e nt . T he fact t hat I do
no t hav e a p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y is s ho w n by an o ccas io nal que s t io n t hat
I canno t ans w e r , s uch as : H o w m any o f t he p e o p le in t he p ict ur e o n p age
21 ar e w e ar ing glas s e s ? O r , w hat is t he t hir d w o r d o n p age 42? I f I did
no t co ns cio us ly r e co r d s uch info r m at io n w he n s t udying t he m agazine in
t he fir s t p lace , I canno t ans w e r t he que s t io n. O n t he o t he r hand, if I had
a p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y I co uld m e r e ly co njur e up in m y m ind a p ict ur e
o f p age 21 o r p age 42 and co unt ho w m any p e o p le ar e w e ar ing glas s e s ,
o r r e ad t he t hir d w o r d.
MYTH 6: SOME PEOPLE ARE TOO OLD/YOUNG TO IMPROVE
THEIR MEMORIES
Y o u hav e p r o bably he ar d t he s aying t hat yo u can't t e ach an o ld do g ne w
t r ick s . Act ually, t he r e is ano t he r s aying t hat is p r o bably m o r e accur at e ,
but is no t quit e as w e ll k no w n: "T he quick e s t w ay t o be co m e an o ld do g
is t o quit le ar ning ne w t r ick s ." T he r e has be e n a lo t o f r e ce nt r e s e ar ch
int e r e s t in m e m o r y o f t he e lde r ly. T he num be r o f p ublis he d s t udie s o n
adult de v e lo p m e nt and aging do uble d fr o m t he m id- 1970s t o t he m id-
1980s , r e aching m o r e t han 1,000 ar t icle s a ye ar ; abo ut t w o - t hir ds o f t hat
r e s e ar ch is o n m e m o r y and t he r e w e r e at le as t 17 r e v ie w ar t icle s
p ublis he d o n t he s ubje ct in jus t t he fir s t half o f t he 1980s .
10
N o t t o o s ur p r is ingly, m o s t r e s e ar ch has s ho w n t hat e lde r ly adult s
do no t le ar n as e fficie nt ly o r r e m e m be r as w e ll as yo ung adult s do .
H o w e v e r , r e s e ar ch s ince t he 1970s has be e n le s s ne gat iv e in t his r e s p e ct
t han e ar lie r r e s e ar ch, indicat ing in ge ne r al t hat de cline s in m e nt al abilit ie s
o ccur lat e r in life , and in fe w e r abilit ie s , t han w as t ho ught e ar lie r .
S e v e r al s ignificant co ns ide r at io ns s ho uld be k e p t in m ind r e gar ding
t he ap p ar e nt m e m o r y de cline in t he e lde r ly.
1. T he t e r m elderly ge ne r ally r e fe r s t o p e o p le in t he ir m id- s ixt ie s
t hr o ugh t he ir s e v e nt ie s ( a fe w p e o p le in t he ir e ight ie s and a fe w in t he ir
e ar ly s ixt ie s m ay be include d); t yp ically, t he y ar e co m p ar e d w it h yo ung
adult s in t he ir t w e nt ie s . N o t m uch m e m o r y r e s e ar ch has be e n do ne o n
adult s in t he ir t hir t ie s t hr o ugh fift ie s .
2. T he am o unt o f de cline in m e m o r y p e r fo r m ance w it h age is no t
as gr e at as is p o p ular ly be lie v e d; m iddle - age d and e lde r ly p e o p le p ar t ic-
ular ly o ft e n hav e e xagge r at e d be lie fs abo ut t he ir o w n m e nt al inade qua-
cie s . Me m o r y difficult ie s t hat o ccur in p e o p le o f all age s m ay be e m p ha-
s ize d in t he e lde r ly and at t r ibut e d t o age , w hich caus e s le s s co nfide nce
in t he ir abilit ie s and m o r e r e p o r t ing o f m e m o r y p r o ble m s .
3. All m e m o r y s k ills do no t de cline e qually; fo r e xam p le , v is ual and
s p at ial s k ills t yp ically de cline in m o s t adult s fr o m t he ir t w e nt ie s t hr o ugh
t he ir s ixt ie s , but v e r bal s k ills ( s uch as m e m o r y fo r nam e s , s t o r ie s ,
w o r ds , and, num be r s ) s ho w v e r y lit t le , if any, de cline .
4. A fo ur t h co ns ide r at io n is s ugge s t e d by a s aying I o nce r e ad: T he
e r r o r o f yo ut h is t o t hink t hat int e llige nce is a s ubs t it ut e fo r e xp e r ie nce ,
w hile t he e r r o r o f age is t o t hink t hat e xp e r ie nce is a s ubs t it ut e fo r
int e llige nce . Alt ho ugh ne it he r int e llige nce no r e xp e r ie nce m ay co m p le t e ly
s ubs t it ut e fo r t he o t he r , r e s e ar ch indicat e s t hat a r ich e xp e r ie nce and
k no w le dge bas e he lp s m any o ld adult s p e r fo r m s o m e m e nt al t as k s at t he
s am e o r highe r le v e ls as yo ung adult s , e v e n t ho ugh t he y m ight no t be
10 Y O U R ME MO R Y
able t o le ar n as quick ly. S uch "p r act ical int e llige nce " can co m p e ns at e fo r
m any ne gat iv e e ffe ct s o f aging.
11
5. R e s e ar che r s do no t agr e e o n t he caus e s o f a de cline o f m e m o r y
s k ills in o ld age . Mo s t r e s e ar che r s do agr e e t hat t he r e is p r o bably no
s ingle p r o ce s s t hat acco unt s fo r age diffe r e nce s in m e m o r y. S o m e o f t he
aging e ffe ct s m ay be due t o p hys io lo gical caus e s ( e .g., ce ll lo s s o r ce nt r al
ne r v o us s ys t e m dys funct io n), but m any o f t he e ffe ct s ar e p r o bably due
t o p s ycho lo gical caus e s o r o t he r caus e s t hat m ay be am e nable t o change .
E xam p le s o f s uch caus e s s ugge s t e d by r e s e ar ch include m o t iv at io n,
dis t r act ibilit y, r e s p o ns e s p e e d, m o t o r s k ills , lazy m e nt al habit s , int e r e s t ,
de p r e s s io n, he alt h, e ducat io n, and anxie t y in r e s e ar ch s e t t ings t hat ar e
ne w o r inv o lv e t im e p r e s s ur e . N o t ice t hat m any o f t he s e fact o r s hav e
no t hing t o do dir e ct ly w it h m e nt al abilit y: T his has le d s o m e r e s e ar che r s
t o m ak e a dis t inct io n be t w e e n competence and performance in r e m e m be r -
ing and o t he r m e nt al s k ills in t he e lde r ly.
R e gar dle s s o f t he r e as o ns w hy m any e lde r ly adult s r e m e m be r le s s
t han yo ung adult s , a m o r e im p o r t ant que s t io n is w he t he r t he e lde r ly can
im p r o v e t he ir m e m o r y abilit ie s . T hat is , fo r an e lde r ly p e r s o n t he
que s t io n, "C an yo u r e m e m be r as w e ll as a t w e nt y- ye ar - o ld?" m ay no t be
as im p o r t ant as t he que s t io n, "C an yo u r e m e m be r be t t e r t han yo u do
no w ?" T he ans w e r t o t he lat t e r que s t io n is ye s ! Much r e s e ar ch has
s ho w n t hat e lde r ly p e o p le can le ar n and us e t he m e m o r y t e chnique s in
t his bo o k t o r e m e m be r be t t e r , and m y o w n e xp e r ie nce s in t e aching
e lde r ly s t ude nt s als o s up p o r t t his claim .
12
At t he o t he r e nd o f t he age s cale fr o m t he v e r y o ld ar e t he v e r y
yo ung. T he r e has als o be e n a gr e at am o unt o f r e s e ar ch do ne o n le ar ning
and m e m o r y in yo ung childr e n.
13
Mo s t childr e n yo unge r t han t he e ar ly
t e e ns w o uld p r o bably hav e a har d t im e r e ading and unde r s t anding a bo o k
s uch as t his o ne w e ll e no ugh t o us e t he m e m o r y t e chnique s e ffe ct iv e ly
o n t he ir o w n. H o w e v e r , a lo t o f r e s e ar ch s ho w s t hat w it h t he he lp o f
adult s , childr e n as yo ung as age s s e v e n o r e ight can us e m o s t o f t he
t e chnique s and s ys t e m s in t his bo o k ; e v e n p r e s cho o l childr e n can be
t aught t o us e s o m e o f t he t e chnique s . I hav e t aught m e m o r y co ur s e s t o
childr e n as yo ung as age e ight , and I t aught t he Be g s ys t e m t o t w o o f m y
o w n childr e n w he n t he y w e r e age s t hr e e and fo ur ( s e e chap t e r 11).
E xp e r im e nt al r e s e ar ch has e v e n be e n do ne o n m e m o r y in infant s ,
alt ho ugh, o bv io us ly, t he y canno t be t aught t he t e chnique s in t his bo o k .
MYTH 7: MEMORY, LIKE A MUSCLE, BENEFITS
FROM EXERCISE
S o m e p o p ular bo o k s o n m e m o r y t r aining s ugge s t t hat m e m o r y is lik e a
m us cle . I f yo u w ant a m us cle t o be co m e s t r o nge r , yo u e xe r cis e it .
S im ilar ly, t he y s ay t hat if yo u w ant yo ur m e m o r y t o be co m e s t r o nge r , all
yo u hav e t o do is e xe r cis e it p r act ice m e m o r izing. I n fact , s o m e p e o p le
be lie v e t hat p r act ice is o ne o f t he s im p le "k e ys " t o m e m o r y im p r o v e m e nt
( s e e m yt h 2): All yo u hav e t o do is p r act ice m e m o r izing t hings and yo ur
m e m o r y w ill be co m e s t r o nge r . Fo r e xam p le , in o ne bo o k , a chap t e r
t it le d, "H o w t o C as h in o n Y o ur U nus e d Br ainp o w e r ," adv o cat e s "I s o -
m e nt al e xe r cis e s " ( p at t e r ne d aft e r is o m e t r ic e xe r cis e s fo r t he bo dy) as
"t he s e cr e t o f le ar ning fas t e r and r e m e m be r ing m o r e ." A chap t e r in
ano t he r bo o k o n le ar ning is t it le d "S t r e ngt he ning Y o ur Me nt al Mus cle ,"
and t e lls us , "I n o ne s e ns e , t he m ind is lik e a s e t o f m us cle s . And t ho s e
m us cle s ne v e r gain t o ne us abilit yunt il t he y'r e p r o p e r ly e xe r cis e d."
T his m e nt al e xe r cis e is p r o p o s e d as t he ans w e r t o t he que s t io n o f ho w
w e can unlo ck t he "o t he r 80 o r 90 p e r ce nt " o f o ur m e nt al p o w e r s ( s e e
m yt h 10).
14
I n t he lat e 1800s , W illiam Jam e s , o ft e n r e fe r r e d t o as t he fat he r o f
Am e r ican p s ycho lo gy, t e s t e d w he t he r he co uld im p r o v e his m e m o r y by
e xe r cis ing it . H e m e m o r ize d s o m e o f Vict o r H ugo 's w o r k s , and t he n
p r act ice d m e m o r izing Milt o n fo r 38 days . Aft e r t his p r act ice , he m e m o -
r ize d m o r e fr o m H ugo , and fo und t hat he act ually m e m o r ize d a bit s lo w e r
t han he had p r e v io us ly; he r e p o r t e d s im ilar r e s ult s fo r s e v e r al o t he r
p e o p le w ho t r ie d t he s am e t as k . S im ilar ly, t w e lv e - ye ar - o ld gir ls p r act ice d
m e m o r izing p o e t r y, s cie nt ific fo r m ulas , and ge o gr ap hical dis t ance s fo r 30
m inut e s a day, 4 days a w e e k , fo r 6 w e e k s . T he p r act ice did no t r e s ult in
any im p r o v e m e nt in t he ir abilit y t o m e m o r ize . A m o r e r e ce nt s t udy fo und
t hat aft e r p r act icing s e v e r al ho ur s a w e e k fo r 20 m o nt hs , a co lle ge
s t ude nt w as able t o incr e as e his s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y s p an fo r digit s fr o m
7 t o 80 digit s . H o w e v e r , he s ho w e d no incr e as e d abilit y in o t he r k inds o f
m e m o r y t as k s , including s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y fo r le t t e r s o r w o r ds : H e
im p r o v e d his m e m o r y fo r digit s be caus e he had le ar ne d t o ap p ly a
m ne m o nic t e chnique t o t he digit s , no t be caus e o f any act ual incr e as e in
t he cap acit y o f his s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y.
15
T he r e is no s ubs t ant ial e v ide nce t hat p r act ice alo ne m ak e s a s ignifi-
cant diffe r e nce in im p r o v ing m e m o r y. I t is t r ue t hat p r act icing m e m o r iz-
ing can he lp im p r o v e m e m o r y, but w hat yo u do dur ing p r act ice is m o r e
im p o r t ant t han t he amount o f p r act ice . O ne clas s ic s t udy ( dis cus s e d in
chap t e r 6) fo und t hat 3 ho ur s o f p r act icing m e m o r izing did no t im p r o v e
lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y, but t hat 3 ho ur s o f p r act icing us ing ce r t ain t e ch-
nique s did im p r o v e lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y.
T he m e m o r y- m us cle m yt h has be e n e xp r e s s e d in t he fie ld o f
e ducat io n as m e nt al dis cip line . T he "do ct r ine o f fo r m al dis cip line " s ays
t hat t he m ind can be s t r e ngt he ne d t hr o ugh e xe r cis e . T his no t io n w as
p r e v ale nt in e ducat io n ar o und t he t ur n o f t he ce nt ur y, and w as us e d as
an ar gum e nt fo r t e aching s ubje ct s s uch as Gr e e k and Lat in in s cho o l. I t
12
Y O U R ME MO R Y
w as ar gue d t hat t he s t udy o f s uch s ubje ct s e xe r cis e d and dis cip line d t he
m ind, s o t hat t he s t ude nt w o uld do be t t e r in his o t he r s ubje ct s , and it
w as o bs e r v e d t hat s t ude nt s w ho s t udie d t he s e difficult s ubje ct s did t e nd
t o do be t t e r in t he ir o t he r s cho o l s ubje ct s . H o w e v e r , s t udie s do ne o n
t ho us ands o f high s cho o l s t ude nt s dur ing t he fir s t half o f t his ce nt ur y
fo und t hat t he r e as o n s t ude nt s w ho s t udie d Gr e e k , fo r e xam p le , did
be t t e r in s cho o l t han s t ude nt s w ho did no t s t udy Gr e e k w as t hat it w as
t he br ight e r s t ude nt s w ho t o o k Gr e e k . I t w as no t t he Gr e e k t hat m ade
t he m br ight e r . S o m e e ducat o r s s t ill adhe r e t o t he co nce p t o f m e nt al
dis cip line , e v e n t ho ugh it is no t s up p o r t e d by r e s e ar ch e v ide nce .
16
MYTH 8: A TRAINED MEMORY NEVER FORGETS
Pe o p le w ho k no w t hat I hav e w r it t e n a bo o k and t e ach a co ur s e o n
m e m o r y im p r o v e m e nt ar e o ft e n s ur p r is e d w he n t he y find o ut t hat I hav e
fo r go t t e n s o m e t hing. ( W he n I do no t r e m e m be r s o m e t hing I t r y t o s ay
"I do n't k no w " ins t e ad o f "I do n't r e m e m be r "; t his w ay, m o s t p e o p le do
no t m ak e t he co nne ct io n and accus e m e o f be ing a char lat an fo r fo r ge t -
t ing.) O ne w e ll- k no w n m e m o r y e xp e r t and p e r fo r m e r s im ilar ly has no t e d
t hat p e o p le s o m e t im e s co m e up t o him and as k , fo r e xam p le , "D id yo u
r e ad t he ne w s p ap e r t his m o r ning?" W he n he s ays ye s , t he y as k , "W e ll,
w hat is o n p age 6, line 4?" and he canno t t e ll t he m . O r aft e r s p e ak ing
w it h him fo r a fe w m inut e s , t he y as k him t o r e p e at t he co nv e r s at io n
w o r d fo r w o r d, and he canno t do it . W hy no t ? Be caus e he did no t r e ad
t he ne w s p ap e r fo r t he p ur p o s e o f m e m o r izing it , and he did no t e ngage
in co nv e r s at io n fo r t he p ur p o s e o f m e m o r izing it
1 7
Many p e o p le do no t r e alize t hat a p e r s o n w ho has a t r aine d m e m o r y
do e s no t ne ce s s ar ily r e m e m be r e v e r yt hing. As I m e nt io ne d in m yt h 2,
t he y e xp e ct t hat o nce t he y le ar n t he s e cr e t o f a go o d m e m o r y, t he y w ill
ne v e r again fo r ge t anyt hing. But t he adv ant age o f a w e ll- t r aine d m e m o r y
is t hat yo u can r e m e m be r w hat yo u want t o r e m e m be r , and yo u do n't
ne ce s s ar ily w ant t o r e m e m be r e v e r yt hing. R e alis t ically, e v e n w it h a
t r aine d m e m o r y, yo u ar e s t ill lik e ly t o fo r ge t e v e n s o m e o f t he t hings yo u
w ant t o r e m e m be r . Y o u jus t w o n't fo r ge t as m uch as m o s t p e o p le do , o r
as m uch as yo u us e d t o fo r ge t .
Act ually, t he r e is s o m e t r ut h in t he co nt e nt io n t hat w e ne v e r r e ally
"fo r ge t " anyt hing in t he s e ns e t hat it is r e co r de d in o ur br ains fo r
unt r aine d as w e ll as t r aine d m e m o r ie s . H o w e v e r , w he n w e t alk abo ut
"r e m e m be r ing," o ur p r act ical int e r e s t is us ually in ge t t ing t he info r m at io n
o ut o f o ur br ains w he n w e w ant it . I t do e s n't do us m uch go o d t o k no w
t hat t he info r m at io n w e ne e d is in t he r e s o m e p lace if w e canno t ge t it o ut
at w ill. Me m o r y t r aining he lp s yo u s t o r e info r m at io n in yo ur br ain in s uch
a w ay t hat yo u ar e m o r e lik e ly t o be able t o find it and ge t it o ut w he n
yo u w ant it ( as during t he e xam o r t he s p e e ch r at he r t han jus t aft e r yo u
hav e finis he d).
MYTH 9: REMEMBERING TOO MUCH CAN CLUTTER YOUR
MIND
Pe o p le s o m e t im e s t hink o f t his m yt h w he n t he y s e e s o m e o ne w ho giv e s
m e m o r y de m o ns t r at io ns fe at s t hat inv o lv e m e m o r izing v as t am o unt s o f
info r m at io n t hat m ay o r m ay no t be us e ful. T he y t hink t hat t he p e r s o n's
m ind w ill ge t clut t e r e d w it h us e le s s info r m at io n, w hich w ill ge t in t he
w ay o f r e m e m be r ing w hat he ne e ds t o r e m e m be r .
Act ually, t o s ay t hat r e m e m be r ing t o o m uch can clut t e r yo ur m ind
is an ir o nic m e m o r y m yt h, be caus e m o s t p e o p le 's m inds ar e alr e ady
clut t e r e dand t he y do n't r e m e m be r e no ugh! Y o ur abilit y t o r e m e m be r
s o m e t hing de p e nds le s s o n how much m at e r ial yo u hav e s t o r e d in yo ur
m e m o r y t han it do e s o n how yo u le ar ne d it ( s e e "o r ganizat io n" in chap t e r
4). R e call t he e xam p le in m yt h 4 o f t he lar ge uno r ganize d car dbo ar d bo x
and t he s m all o r ganize d file bo x. T he p e r s o n w it h t he s m all o r ganize d file
bo x can find ne e de d info r m at io n be t t e r t han t he p e r s o n w it h t he lar ge
uno r ganize d bo x. But it is t he dis o r ganizat io n, not t he am o unt o f m at e r ial
in t he lar ge bo x, t hat hinde r s m e m o r y. A lar ge o r ganize d file bo x w o uld
be v e r y e fficie nt , and a s m all file bo x w o uld be v e r y ine fficie nt if t he
m at e r ial w e r e file d hap hazar dly.
I n s o m e w ays , t he m o r e yo u le ar n abo ut s o m e t hing t he m o r e it m ay
act ually help m e m o r y. W e w ill s e e in chap t e r 4 t hat t he m o r e yo u le ar n
abo ut a p ar t icular t o p ic t he e as ie r it is t o le ar n ne w t hings abo ut t hat
t o p ic. W e w ill als o s e e in lat e r chap t e r s t hat m o s t m ne m o nic s ys t e m s
act ually add t o t he am o unt yo u ne e d t o r e m e m be r , but t he y do s o in a w ay
t hat incr e as e s yo ur m e m o r y abilit y.
Ano t he r as p e ct o f t he "clut t e r e d m ind" m yt h can be illus t r at e d by
p ur s uing t he file - bo x analo gy a lit t le fur t he r . S up p o s e yo u jus t k e e p
t hr o w ing m at e r ial int o t he car dbo ar d bo x. S o o n it w ill fill up . Filing any
m o r e m at e r ial w o uld m e an s t uffing it in, and s o m e t hing w o uld hav e t o fall
o ut o f t he o t he r e nd o f t he bo x t o m ak e r o o m fo r it . T his is ho w s o m e
p e o p le v ie w t he m e m o r y t hat has s t o r e d v as t am o unt s o f m at e r ial. N o t
o nly w ill t he m at e r ial clut t e r t he m e m o r y, but it w ill t ak e up v aluable
s t o r age s p ace t hat yo u m ay w ant t o us e lat e r fo r m o r e im p o r t ant
info r m at io n. T his is no t co m p le t e ly v alid, be caus e t he s t o r age cap acit y
o f yo ur m e m o r y is v ir t ually unlim it e d ( s e e chap t e r 2). T hus , r e m e m be r -
ing t o o m uch do e s no t ne ce s s ar ily e it he r clut t e r yo ur m ind o r fill up yo ur
m e m o r y.
14
Y O U R ME MO R Y
MYTH 10: PEOPLE ONLY USE 10 PERCENT OF THEIR MENTAL
POTENTIAL
T he claim is o ft e n m ade t hat w e us e o nly abo ut 10 p e r ce nt o f o ur
p o t e nt ial br ainp o w e r in r e m e m be r ing and in o t he r m e nt al act iv it ie s . H e r e
ar e jus t t hr e e e xam p le s fr o m p ublis he d s o ur ce s : "Mo s t o f us , p s ycho lo -
gis t s s ay, do n't us e m o r e t han 10 p e r ce nt o f o ur nat iv e abilit y t o
r e m e m be r ." "Y o u'v e p r o bably he ar d t hat w e us e o nly 10 o r 20 p e r ce nt
o f o ur m e nt al p o w e r s . H o w can t hat be ? I s t he r e s o m e s e cr e t t o unlo ck ing
t he o t he r 80 t o 90 p e r ce nt ?" "I f yo u'r e lik e m o s t p e o p le , yo u'r e us ing
o nly abo ut 10 p e r ce nt o f yo ur br ainp o w e r ."
18
Alt ho ugh t he claim e d am o unt o f p o t e nt ial us e d is ge ne r ally ar o und
10 p e r ce nt , s o m e aut ho r s hav e claim e d e v e n s m alle r p e r ce nt age s . O ne
aut ho r o bs e r v e d t hat it us e d t o be an o ft - quo t e d s t at is t ic t hat w e us e
o nly 10 p e r ce nt o f o ur p o t e nt ial br ainp o w e r , but t hat t he m o r e p s ycho lo -
gis t s hav e le ar ne d in t he p as t t e n ye ar s , t he le s s lik e ly t he y ar e t o dar e
t o at t e m p t t o quant ify o ur br ain p o t e nt ial. S o far , s o go o d, but t he n he
w e nt o n t o dr aw t he fo llo w ing am azing co nclus io n: "T he o nly co ns is t e nt
co nclus io n is t hat t he p r o p o r t io n o f o ur p o t e nt ial br ainp o w e r is p r o bably
ne ar e r 4 p e r ce nt t han 10 p e r ce nt . Mo s t o f us , t he n, ap p e ar t o le t 96
p e r ce nt o f o ur m e nt al p o t e nt ial lie unus e d." W hy s t o p at 4 p e r ce nt ?
Ano t he r aut ho r w r o t e t hat "t he co m m o nly he ar d s t at e m e nt t hat o n t he
av e r age w e us e o nly 1 p e r ce nt o f o ur br ain m ay w e ll be w r o ng, be caus e
it no w s e e m s t hat w e us e e v e n le s s t han 1 p e r ce nt ."
19
W he t he r t he claim e d p e r ce nt age o f us e d br ainp o w e r is 1 p e r ce nt o r
10 p e r ce nt , t he infe r e nce us ually dr aw n fr o m t his claim is t hat it is e as y
t o m ak e m ir aculo us im p r o v e m e nt s in m e nt al abilit y be caus e t he y r e quir e
v e r y s m all incr e as e s in br ain us age . Fbr e xam p le , if yo u ar e o p e r at ing at
o nly 10 p e r ce nt o f yo ur p o t e nt ial yo u ne e d t o us e o nly 2 p e r ce nt o f t he
r e m aining p o t e nt ial, and yo u hav e incr e as e d yo ur p e r fo r m ance by 20
p e r ce nt ( 200 p e r ce nt fo r t he 1- p e r ce nt claim ). O ne bo o k o bs e r v e d t hat
t he av e r age I Q is 100, t he ge nius le v e l is 160, and t he av e r age hum an
be ing p r o bably us e s 4 p e r ce nt o f his p o t e nt ial br ainp o w e r , and t he n
as k e d, "I f t hat av e r age hum an co uld le ar n t o us e no t 4 p e r ce nt o f his
br ain but a s t ill m inim al 7 p e r ce nt o f his br ain, co uld he at t ain ge nius
le v e l?" T he im p licat io n, o f co ur s e , is t hat a 75- p e r ce nt im p r o v e m e nt
( fr o m 4 p e r ce nt t o 7 p e r ce nt ) co r r e s p o nds w it h a 75- p e r ce nt im p r o v e -
m e nt in I Qfr o m 100 t o 175.
20
Ano t he r bo o k giv e s t he illus io n o f s cie nt ific p r e cis io n by w o r k ing o ut
t his r e as o ning in a m at he m at ical fo r m ula us ing a "Me nt al Pe r fo r m ance
R at io ( MPR ), t he p e r ce nt age o f yo ur t o t al m e nt al cap acit y t hat yo u ar e
p ut t ing t o us e ." S up p o s e a p e r s o n w ho us e s t he t yp ical 10 p e r ce nt o f his
br ainp o w e r has an I Q o f 140; his "Le ar ning Po w e r " w o uld be 14.0
( 140 I Q x .10 MPR ). N o w s up p o s e a s e co nd p e r s o n w it h an I Q o f 120
( abo ut t he av e r age o f m o s t co lle ge gr aduat e s ) co uld incr e as e t he us e o f
his br ainp o w e r by o nly o ne - fift h ( fr o m 10 p e r ce nt t o 12 p e r ce nt ); his
Le ar ning Po w e r w o uld no w be highe r t han t hat o f t he p e r s o n w it h t he I Q
o f 140 ( 120 I Q X .12 MPR = 14.4 Le ar ning Po w e r ).
21
W hat is w r o ng w it h t he 10- p e r ce nt claim and t he r e as o ning t hat
unde r lie s t he co m p le x calculat io ns abo v e ? T he m ain p r o ble m is t hat no ne
o f t he s e aut ho r s ( o r any o t he r s I hav e e v e r r e ad) p r e s e nt s any e v ide nce
t o s up p o r t t he 10- p e r ce nt figur e . I n fact , I hav e ne v e r fo und any act ual
r e s e ar ch e v ide nce anyw he r e fo r t he 10- p e r ce nt claim , no r hav e I e v e r
s e e n t he claim m ade by any br ain r e s e ar che r s ( and I p r o bably hav e us e d
m o r e t han 10 p e r ce nt o f m y p o t e nt ial s e ar ching abilit y lo o k ing fo r s uch
e v ide nce ). I hav e e v e n challe nge d m y m e m o r y s t ude nt s , m any o f w ho m
hav e he ar d t he 10- p e r ce nt claim , t o find e v ide nce fo r m e , and no o ne has
ye t be e n able t o do s o e v e n fo r e xt r a cr e dit !
I t is p o s s ible t hat t he r e m ay be s o m e r e s e ar ch e v ide nce t o s up p o r t
t he 10- p e r ce nt claim , but I do ubt it fo r s e v e r al r e as o ns . Fir s t , I do ubt
t hat r e s e ar che r s co uld agr e e o n a de finit io n o f w hat "m e nt al p o t e nt ial"
o r "p o t e nt ial br ainp o w e r " r e ally m e ans . S e co nd, e v e n if r e s e ar che r s
co uld de fine m e nt al p o t e nt ial, I do ubt t hat t he y co uld m e as ur e it t o
de t e r m ine w hat co ns t it ut e s a p e r s o n's t o t al p o t e nt ial. T hir d, e v e n if t he y
co uld de fine and m e as ur e m e nt al p o t e nt ial, I do ubt t hat r e s e ar che r s
co uld de fine w hat it m e ans t o "us e " o ur m e nt al p o t e nt ial, and t hat t he r e
w o uld be any w ay t o m e as ur e w hat p e r ce nt age o f t he t o t al w e us e .
My o w n be lie f is t hat w e do hav e m o r e p o t e nt ial m e nt al abilit y t han
w e us e . T hat is w hy I w r o t e t his bo o k : t o he lp yo u co m e clo s e r t o
achie v ing t he full p o t e nt ial o f yo ur le ar ning and m e m o r y abilit ie s . H o w -
e v e r , I do no t t hink w e can quant ify ho w m uch o ur p o t e nt ial is , o r
de t e r m ine w he t he r t he p e r ce nt age o f p o t e nt ial t hat w e us e is 1 p e r ce nt ,
10 p e r ce nt , 50 p e r ce nt , o r 99 p e r ce nt .
Meet Your Memory
What I s I t?
P
e o p le can le ar n an am azing num be r o f diffe r e nt t hings . W e can le ar n
t o w alk , dance , and s w im . W e can le ar n t o t yp e , r e p air w at che s , and
p r o gr am co m p ut e r s . W e can le ar n t o dr iv e car s , r ide bik e s , and fly
air p lane s . W e can le ar n language s , che m ical fo r m ulas , and m at he m at ical
p r o o fs . W e can le ar n t o r e ad r o ad m ap s , m ak e o ut inco m e t ax r e t ur ns ,
and balance che ck bo o k s . T he lis t o f t hings w e can le ar n t o do co uld be
co nt inue d alm o s t inde finit e ly.
O f co ur s e , all t his le ar ning w o uld be us e le s s if w e co uld no t
r e m e m be r . W it ho ut m e m o r y w e w o uld hav e t o r e s p o nd t o e v e r y s it uat io n
as if w e had ne v e r e xp e r ie nce d it . T he v alue o f m e m o r y is als o s ho w n by
t he fact t hat w e r e as o n and m ak e judgm e nt s w it h r e m e m be r e d fact s . I n
addit io n, w e ar e able t o de al w it h t im e , r e lat ing t he p r e s e nt t o t he p as t
and m ak ing p r e dict io ns abo ut t he fut ur e , be caus e o f w hat is s t o r e d in
o ur m e m o r ie s . E v e n o ur o w n s e lf- p e r ce p t io ns de p e nd o n o ur m e m o r ie s
o f o ur p as t .
T he us e s and t he cap acit y o f t he hum an m e m o r y ar e inde e d
am azing. Y o u can s t o r e billio ns o f it e m s o f info r m at io n in yo ur m e m o r y.
Y o ur t w o - p o und br ain can s t o r e m o r e t han t o day's m o s t adv ance d
co m p ut e r s .
1
But p e o p le als o fo r ge t . W e fo r ge t t hings w e w o uld lik e t o
r e m e m be r . W e fo r ge t nam e s , anniv e r s ar ie s , bir t hdays , and ap p o int -
16
Meet Your Memory: What Is It? 17
m e nt s . W e fo r ge t w hat w e le ar ne d fo r an e xam in s cho o l ( us ually w it hin
a s ho r t t im e aft e r t he e xam , and s o m e t im e s be fo r e t he e xam ).
W hat is yo ur m e m o r y? H o w do e s yo ur m e m o r y w o r k ? C hap t e r s 2
and 3 t r y t o ans w e r t he s e t w o clo s e ly r e lat e d que s t io ns . T he as p e ct s o f
m e m o r y t hat I hav e s e le ct e d t o dis cus s in t he s e t w o chap t e r s ar e t ho s e
t hat w ill giv e yo u an unde r s t anding o f yo ur m e m o r y s ufficie nt t o m ak e
t he r e s t o f t his bo o k m e aningful. S o m e unde r s t anding o f t he t he o r ie s
unde r lying m e m o r y t e chnique s can he lp in us ing t he t e chnique s m o r e
e ffe ct iv e ly and als o in be ing m o t iv at e d t o us e t he m .
2
T hus , chap t e r s 2
and 3 p r o v ide a bas ic fo undat io n fo r unde r s t anding and us ing t he p r inci-
p le s , m e t ho ds , and s ys t e m s dis cus s e d in t he r e s t o f t his bo o k . Fo r t he
r e ade r w ho w ant s a m o r e co m p le t e unde r s t anding o f t he nat ur e o f
m e m o r y, m o r e co m p r e he ns iv e ( and m o r e t e chnical) co v e r age is giv e n in
a num be r o f r e ce nt m e m o r y t e xt bo o k s in w hich yo u can r e ad m o r e abo ut
m o s t o f t he t o p ics in chap t e r s 2 and 3, p lus addit io nal t o p ics .
3
WHAT ARE THE STAGES AND PROCESSES OF MEMORY?
R e m e m be r ing is ge ne r ally v ie w e d as co ns is t ing o f t hr e e s t age s :
1. Acquisition o r encodingis le ar ning t he m at e r ial in t he fir s t p lace .
2. Storage is k e e p ing t he m at e r ial unt il it is ne e de d.
3. Retrieval is finding t he m at e r ial and ge t t ing it back o ut w he n it is
ne e de d.
T o he lp r e m e m be r t he s e t hr e e s t age s , w e can r e fe r t o t he m as t he
"T hr e e R s o f R e m e m be r ing": R e co r ding ( acquis it io n), R e t aining ( s t o r -
age ), and R e t r ie v ing ( r e t r ie v al). Ano t he r w ay t o r e m e m be r t he t hr e e
s t age s o f m e m o r y is by r e fe r r ing t o t he "T hr e e Fs o f Fo r ge t t ing" ( o r ,
m o r e accur at e ly, t he t hr e e Fs o f not fo r ge t t ing). C o r r e s p o nding w it h
R e co r ding, R e t aining, and R e t r ie v ing ar e , r e s p e ct iv e ly, Fixat ing, Filing,
and Finding.
T he t hr e e s t age s o f m e m o r y can be illus t r at e d by co m p ar ing t he
m e m o r y t o a file cabine t . Y o u fir s t t yp e t he de s ir e d info r m at io n o n a
p ie ce o f p ap e r ( R e co r ding). T he n yo u p ut it in a file cabine t dr aw e r unde r
t he ap p r o p r iat e he ading ( R e t aining). Lat e r yo u go t o t he file cabine t , find
t he info r m at io n, and ge t it back o ut ( R e t r ie v ing).
S o m e t im e s w he n a p e r s o n canno t lo cat e w hat he w ant s in a file
cabine t it m ay be be caus e t he info r m at io n w as ne v e r r e co r de d; s o m e -
t im e s it m ay be be caus e t he r e co r de d info r m at io n w as ne v e r p ut in t he
cabine t ; but o ft e n it is be caus e t he info r m at io n w as no t p ut in t he cabine t
in s uch a w ay as t o be e as y t o find. S up p o s e a p e r s o n us ing t he file
cabine t t hr o w s le t t e r s and do cum e nt s hap hazar dly int o t he dr aw e r s . A
fe w m o nt hs lat e r he go e s t o t he cabine t t o r e t r ie v e a s p e cific do cum e nt .
H e w o uld lik e ly hav e a p r o ble m ge t t ing it . W hy? Be caus e it w as no t
r e co r de d? N o , t he do cum e nt had be e n t yp e d. Be caus e it w as no t
r e t aine d? N o , t he do cum e nt had be e n p ut in t he cabine t . How t he
do cum e nt w as s t o r e d is t he p r o ble m .
S im ilar ly, m o s t p r o ble m s in r e m e m be r ing co m e at t he r e t r ie v al
s t age r at he r t han t he s t o r age s t age . W e ar e all v e r y aw ar e t hat m e m o r y
is lim it e d m o r e in ge t t ing t hings o ut t han in ge t t ing t he m in. Mo r e can be
s t o r e d in m e m o r y t han can be r e t r ie v e d. T he r e is no t m uch w e can do t o
im p r o v e r e t r ie v al dir e ct ly, but r e t r ie v al is a funct io n o f ho w t he m at e r ial
is r e co r de d and r e t aine d. T he r e fo r e , im p r o v e d m e t ho ds o f r e co r ding and
r e t aining w ill im p r o v e r e t r ie v al, bo t h fr o m a file cabine t and fr o m yo ur
m e m o r y. T he p r incip le s and m e t ho ds dis cus s e d in t his bo o k w ill he lp yo u
r e co r d and r e t ain info r m at io n in s uch a w ay as t o be able t o r e t r ie v e it
m o r e e ffe ct iv e ly;
I t is us e fU l t o dis t inguis h be t w e e n m at e r ial in m e m o r y t hat is
accessible and m at e r ial t hat is available. T his dis t inct io n can be illus t r at e d
by t he bo y w ho as k s his fat he r , "D ad, is s o m e t hing lo s t w he n yo u k no w
w he r e it is ?" H is fat he r r e p lie s , "N o , s o n." C le ar ly r e lie v e d, t he bo y
r e s p o nds , "Go o d, yo ur car k e ys ar e at t he bo t t o m o f t he w e ll." T he k e ys
w e r e av ailable but t he y w e r e no t acce s s ible . S im ilar ly, m at e r ial t hat is
m is p lace d in a file cabine t is av ailable be caus e it is s t o r e d, but it is no t
acce s s ible be caus e it canno t be r e t r ie v e d. H o w e v e r , if t he m at e r ial is no t
e v e n in t he file cabine t t he n it is ne it he r acce s s ible no r av ailable .
Lik e w is e , m at e r ial t hat is r e co r de d and r e t aine d in yo ur m e m o r y m ay
no t be acce s s ible e v e n if it is av ailable ; yo u k no w it is in t he r e s o m e w he r e ,
but yo u jus t canno t find it . I n t his s it uat io n, t he ans w e r t o t he bo y's
que s t io n m ay be , "Y e s , s o m e t hing can be lo s t e v e n w he n yo u k no w
w he r e it is ."
I n addit io n t o t he t hr e e s t age s o f m e m o r y t he r e ap p e ar t o be at
le as t t w o diffe r e nt p r o ce s s e s inv o lv e d in m e m o r yshort- term memory
( als o calle d primary memory and working memory) and long- term memory
( als o calle d secondary memory). T he dis t inct io n be t w e e n s ho r t - t e r m
m e m o r y and lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y is m o r e t han jus t a s e m ant ic dis t inct io n
be t w e e n r e m e m be r ing fo r a s ho r t t im e and r e m e m be r ing fo r a lo ng t im e .
Mo s t p s ycho lo gis t s v ie w s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y and lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y as
be ing t w o s e p ar at e s t o r age m e chanis m s t hat diffe r in s e v e r al w ays ,
alt ho ugh s o m e p s ycho lo gis t s hav e s ugge s t e d t hat t he y ar e no t r e ally
diffe r e nt m e chanis m s but m e r e ly diffe r e nt m anife s t at io ns o f t he s am e
m e chanis m ( s uch as diffe r e nt le v e ls o f p r o ce s s ing). I w ill av o id t his
t he o r e t ical is s ue and m e r e ly fo llo w t he co nv e nt io nal ap p r o ach o f v ie w ing
t he m as t w o diffe r e nt p r o ce s s e s .
WHAT IS SHORT- TERM MEMORY?
S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y r e fe r s t o ho w m any it e m s can be p e r ce iv e d at o ne
t im e ho w m uch a p e r s o n can co ns cio us ly p ay at t e nt io n t o at o nce . I t is
s im ilar t o t he o lde r co nce p t o f "at t e nt io n s p an." S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y has
a r ap id fo r ge t t ing r at e . I nfo r m at io n s t o r e d in s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y.is
fo r go t t e n in le s s t han 30 s e co nds , and s o m e t im e s t he fo r ge t t ing r at e can
be m uch fas t e r . ( Pe o p le w ho do n't e xp e ct a m e m o r y t e s t can r ar e ly
r e call t hr e e co ns o nant s co r r e ct ly aft e r o nly 2 s e co nds o f dis t r act io n.)
4
T he us ual w ay o f co m bat ing t his r ap id fo r ge t t ing r at e is r e he ar s al, w hich
co ns is t s o f r e p e at ing t he info r m at io n o v e r and o v e r again. R e he ar s ing
can s e r v e t w o funct io ns : I t can k e e p t he info r m at io n in s ho r t - t e r m
m e m o r y, and it can he lp yo u t r ans fe r t he info r m at io n int o lo ng- t e r m
m e m o r y by giv ing yo u t im e t o co de it . T he s e t w o funct io ns ap p ly t o
r e m e m be r ing p ict ur e s and im age s ( m e nt al p ict ur e s ) as w e ll as t o r e m e m -
be r ing v e r bal m at e r ial.
5
T he r ap id fo r ge t t ing r at e o f s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y is s ho w n in an
e xp e r ie nce t hat m ay be fam iliar t o yo u. H av e yo u e v e r lo o k e d up a
t e le p ho ne num be r and fo r go t t e n it be fo r e yo u go t t o t he p ho ne t o dial it ?
O r p e r hap s yo u r e m e m be r e d it ( by r e he ar s ing it ) lo ng e no ugh t o dial it ,
but yo u r e ce iv e d a bus y s ignal. A fe w s e co nds o r a fe w m inut e s lat e r ,
yo u had t o lo o k up t he num be r again t o dial it . T he e as e w it h w hich
s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y can be dis r up t e d is s ho w n if s o m e o ne as k s yo u a
que s t io n s uch as , "W hat t im e is it ?" r ight aft e r yo u lo o k up a num be r .
Y o u ans w e r t he que s t io n, and find yo u hav e t o go back t o t he p ho ne
bo o k . O ne s t udy fo und t hat t his dis r up t io n can be caus e d jus t by an
o p e r at o r s aying, "H av e a nice day," r ight aft e r t e lling yo u a p ho ne
num be r .
6
Be s ide s hav ing a r ap id fo r ge t t ing r at e and be ing e as ily dis r up t e d,
s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y als o has a lim it e d cap acit y, ar o und s e v e n it e m s fo r
m o s t p e o p le . ( T his cap acit y has be e n fo und t o be abo ut t he s am e fo r
e lde r ly adult s as fo r yo ung adult s , and fo r p e o p le in o r ie nt al cult ur e s as
fo r p e o p le in w e s t e r n cult ur e s .)
7
Y o u can de m o ns t r at e t he lim it e d cap acit y
o f s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y by hav ing s o m e o ne r e ad t o yo u a lis t o f digit s o ne
at a t im e at t he r at e o f abo ut o ne digit p e r s e co nd. T he n yo u r e p e at
t he m . S t ar t w it h a lis t o f 4 digit s ( fo r e xam p le , 8293). N e xt t r y a lis t o f 5
digit s ( fo r e xam p le , 27136). Add 1 digit e ach t im e , building up t o a lis t o f
12 digit s ( fo r e xam p le , 382749562860).
Mo s t p e o p le find t hat w he n t he y ge t abo v e s e v e n digit s t he y canno t
r e m e m be r all o f t he m lo ng e no ugh t o r e p e at t he m . I t s e e m s as if t he y
m us t lo s e t he fir s t fe w digit s t o "m ak e r o o m " fo r t he las t fe w . A fe w
p e o p le can r e m e m be r 10 o r 11 digit s , but v e r y fe w p e o p le can r e m e m be r
m o r e t han 11 digit s . T his de m o ns t r at io n can als o be us e d t o illus t r at e
t he r ap id fo r ge t t ing r at e o f s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y. I ns t e ad o f r e p e at ing t he
digit s as s o o n as t he y ar e r e ad t o yo u, w ait fo r 5 t o 10 s e co nds t o r e p e at
t he m . I f yo u do no t r e he ar s e t he digit s dur ing t his de lay, yo u w ill find
t hat t he num be r o f digit s yo u can r e m e m be r de cr e as e s co ns ide r ably.
Chunking
W e can incr e as e t he lim it e d cap acit y o f s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y by a p r o ce s s
t hat is r e fe r r e d t o as "chunk ing." C hunk ing co ns is t s o f gr o up ing s e p ar at e
bit s o f info r m at io n int o lar ge r chunk s . Fo r e xam p le , a p e r s o n can
r e m e m be r t he fo llo w ing e ight le t t e r s , c-o -m -p -l-e -t -e , by chunk ing t he m
int o o ne w o r d, complete. N um be r s ar e als o e as ie r t o r e m e m be r if t he y
ar e gr o up e d int o chunk s o f t w o o r t hr e e . A num be r s uch as
376315374264 can be r e m e m be r e d as 12 s e p ar at e digit s , but it is e as ie r
t o r e m e m be r as fo ur chunk s o f 3 digit s e ach376- 315- 374- 264. S im i-
lar ly, a p ho ne num be r can be r e m e m be r e d be t t e r as 601- 394- 1217 t han
as 6013941217, and a s o cial s e cur it y num be r o f 513- 63- 2748 is e as ie r t o
r e m e m be r t han 513632748. O f co ur s e , chunk ing t ak e s t im e ; if t he it e m s
ar e p r e s e nt e d t o o fas t ( fo r e xam p le , 1 digit p e r s e co nd) t he n chunk ing is
le s s e ffe ct iv e t han if t he y ar e p r e s e nt e d m o r e s lo w ly ( fo r e xam p le , 1 digit
e v e r y 5 s e co nds ).
S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y can be co m p ar e d t o a p ur s e t hat can ho ld s e v e n
co ins . I f t he co ins ar e p e nnie s , t he n t he cap acit y o f t he p ur s e is o nly 7
ce nt s . But if t he co ins ar e nick le s ( e ach r e p r e s e nt ing a "chunk " o f 5
p e nnie s ), t he n t he cap acit y is 35 ce nt s . I f t he y ar e dim e s , t he cap acit y is
incr e as e d t o 70 ce nt s . S im ilar ly, a s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y m ay be able t o
ho ld o nly abo ut s e v e n it e m s , but w e can incr e as e t he am o unt o f info r m a-
t io n co nt aine d in t he s e it e m s by gr o up ing t he s e p ar at e bit s o f info r m at io n
int o lar ge r chunk s . Fo r e xam p le , t he cap acit y o f s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y is
abo ut 8.0 fo r s e p ar at e digit s , abo ut 7.3 fo r co ns o nant s , abo ut 5.8 fo r
co ncr e t e no uns , and abo ut 1.8 fo r 6- w o r d s e nt e nce s ; as s um ing t hat t he
no uns co nt ain an av e r age o f 4 le t t e r s e ach, w e incr e as e t he cap acit y fr o m
7.3 le t t e r s us ing o nly co ns o nant s , t o abo ut 23 le t t e r s us ing co ncr e t e
no uns , and t o m o r e t han 40 le t t e r s us ing s e nt e nce s .
8
C hunk ing is als o illus t r at e d by an int e r e s t ing p he no m e no n in che s s .
An e xce lle nt che s s p laye r can lo o k fo r 5 s e co nds at t he bo ar d o f a che s s
gam e in p r o gr e s s and t he n lo o k aw ay and r e call t he p o s it io n o f e v e r y
p ie ce . T his s ugge s t s t hat che s s m as t e r s hav e unus ual m e m o r ie s . H o w -
e v e r , if t he che s s p ie ce s ar e p lace d r ando m ly o n t he bo ar d, r at he r t han
in t he p o s it io ns o ne w o uld find in an o ngo ing gam e , t he che s s m as t e r
canno t r e m e m be r t he p o s it io ns o f any m o r e p ie ce s t han can t he be ginning
che s s p laye r . W hat m ak e s t he diffe r e nce ? O ne p o s s ible e xp lanat io n is
t hat t he che s s m as t e r m ak e s us e o f his v as t che s s e xp e r ie nce t o
r e co gnize fam iliar v is ual p at t e r ns and int e r r e lat io ns am o ng t he p ie ce s .
R at he r t han r e m e m be r ing t he p o s it io n o f e ach s e p ar at e p ie ce , he r e m e m -
be r s gr o up s ( chunk s ) o f p ie ce s . H e can o nly r e m e m be r abo ut s e v e n
chunk s , but e ach o f his chunk s co ns is t s o f s e v e r al p ie ce s .
9
What Good Is Short- term Memory?
Be caus e s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y has s uch a lim it e d cap acit y and it e m s in it
ar e fo r go t t e n s o r ap idly, yo u m ight w o nde r w hy s uch a p r o ce s s is p ar t o f
o ur m e m o r y s ys t e m at all. S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y has s e v e r al us e s .
1. T he r ap id fo r ge t t ing in s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y is no t ne ce s s ar ily
unde s ir able . I m agine ho w clut t e r e d and jum ble d yo ur m ind w o uld be if
yo u w e r e co ns cio us ly aw ar e o f e v e r y lit t le bit o f info r m at io n yo ur m ind
r e co r de d. I t w o uld be alm o s t im p o s s ible t o co nce nt r at e o n o ne t hing o r
t o s e le ct us e ful info r m at io n. Fo r e xam p le , add t he fo llo w ing num be r s
m e nt ally: 1,8,4,6,3,5. I n do ing t his p r o ble m , s o m e t hing lik e t he fo llo w ing
p r o bably w e nt t hr o ugh yo ur m ind: "1 p lus 8 is 9, p lus 4 is 13, p lus 6 is
19, p lus 3 is 22, p lus 5 is .27." O f all t he num be r s t hat w e nt t hr o ugh yo ur
m ind t he o nly o ne t hat is ne ce s s ar y t o r e m e m be r fo r any le ngt h o f t im e
is 27. All t he o t he r s ne e de d t o be r e m e m be r e d o nly lo ng e no ugh t o us e
t he m . I m agine ho w difficult it w o uld be t o k e e p t r ack o f yo ur addit io n if
e ach s ubt o t al did no t dis ap p e ar as s o o n as yo u r e ache d t he ne xt o ne .
T hus , s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y can s e r v e as a s o r t o f t e m p o r ar y s cr at ch
p ad, allo w ing us t o r e t ain int e r m e diat e r e s ult s w hile w e t hink and s o lv e
p r o ble m s . S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y is us e d no t o nly in num e r ical p r o ble m s
but als o in t he w ho le r ange o f co m p le x p r o ble m s w e face r e gular ly.
10
W he n a che s s m as t e r is p lanning t he ne xt m o v e , fo r e xam p le , he o r s he
de v e lo p s in s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y a t e m p o r ar y, im aginar y p ict ur e o f cr it ical
p ar t s o f t he che s s bo ar d as t he y w ill ap p e ar aft e r s e v e r al fut ur e m o v e s
and co unt e r m o v e s . And t hink abo ut ho w har d it w o uld be fo r w ait e r s o r
w ait r e s s e s t o k e e p t r ack o f w hat t he y w e r e do ing if t he y did no t fo r ge t
e ach o r de r as s o o n as it had be e n fille d.
2. S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y he lp s us m aint ain o ur cur r e nt p ict ur e o f t he
w o r ld ar o und us indicat ing w hat o bje ct s ar e o ut t he r e and w he r e t he y
ar e lo cat e d. By co ns t r uct ing and m aint aining t he s e w o r ld fr am e s , s ho r t -
t e r m m e m o r y k e e p s o ur v is ual p e r ce p t io ns s t able . O ur p r o ce s s o f v is ual
p e r ce p t io n act ually s k it t e r s he r e and t he r e abo ut a s ce ne , t ak ing abo ut
fiv e r e t inal im age s , o r "s nap s ho t s ," p e r s e co nd. Y e t w e do no t dis car d an
o ld im age e v e r y fift h o f a s e co nd and co ns t r uct a ne w s ce ne o f o ur
s ur r o undings . R at he r , w e int e gr at e info r m at io n fr o m all t he "s nap s ho t s "
int o o ne s us t aine d im age , o r m o de l, o f t he s ce ne ar o und us . As w e no t ice
s m all change s , w e up dat e t his m o de l, de le t ing o ld o bje ct s , adding ne w
o ne s , and changing t he r e lat iv e lo cat io n o f o bje ct s . S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y
e nable s us t o do t his .
3. S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y ho lds w hat e v e r go als o r p lans w e ar e
fo llo w ing at t he m o m e nt . By k e e p ing o ur int e nt io ns in act iv e m e m o r y,
w e ar e able t o guide o ur be hav io r t o w ar d t ho s e go als .
4. S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y k e e p s t r ack o f t he t o p ics and r e fe r e nt s t hat
hav e be e n r e ce nt ly m e nt io ne d in co nv e r s at io n. I f I m e nt io n m y fr ie nd
Jo hn, I can lat e r r e fe r t o him as "he " o r "m y fr ie nd" and yo u w ill k no w
w ho I am t alk ing abo ut ; t he ide a o f Jo hn is s t ill in yo ur act iv e m e m o r y:
Y o u can figur e o ut t hat I m e an Jo hn and no t S co t t o r D av id.
Aft e r no t ing t he abo v e us e s o f s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y, a r e ce nt
p s ycho lo gy t e xt bo o k m ade t he fo llo w ing int e r e s t ing o bs e r v at io n:
Pe r hap s be caus e s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r ie s ar e s o v e r y us e ful, ne ar ly e v e r y co m p ut e r
s ys t e m fo r s t o r ing info r m at io n is de s igne d w it h a k ind o f s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y,
lo cat e d w it hin it s ce nt r al p r o ce s s ing unit ( C PU ). T he C PU o f a co m p ut e r s ys t e m
r e ce iv e s dat a, s t o r e s it in m e m o r y, r e t r ie v e s it , p e r fo r m s a v ar ie t y o f calculat io ns ,
and e it he r s t o r e s t he r e s ult , dis p lays it o n a s cr e e n, o r p r int s i t T he s e funct io ns
ar e r e m ar k ably s im ilar t o t he funct io ns o f o ur s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y. I n fact , t he
p ar alle ls ar e s o clo s e t hat m any co gnit iv e p s ycho lo gis t s v ie w t he co m p ut e r 's
C PU as a us e ful m e t ap ho r ical m o de l o f hum an s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y.
11
WHAT IS LONG- TERM MEMORY?
Lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y is w hat m o s t p e o p le m e an w he n t he y t alk abo ut
m e m o r y, and w hat m o s t m e m o r y- im p r o v e m e nt t e chnique s ar e aim e d at
im p r o v ing. Many p s ycho lo gis t s be lie v e t hat lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y is co m -
p o s e d o f s e v e r al diffe r e nt t yp e s . Fo r e xam p le , o ne co m m o n v ie w div ide s
lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y int o t hr e e t yp e s .
1. Procedural m e m o r y inv o lv e s r e m e m be r ing ho w t o do s o m e t hing
( s k ills s uch as t yp ing o r s o lv ing a quadr at ic e quat io n).
2. Semantic m e m o r y inv o lv e s r e m e m be r ing fact ual info r m at io n ( s uch as
m at h e quat io ns o r w o r d m e anings ) w it h no co nne ct io n t o t im e o r
p lace ; w e do n't r e m e m be r w he n o r w he r e w e le ar ne d t he info r m a-
t io n.
Meet Your Memory: What Is It?
23
3. Episodic m e m o r y inv o lv e s r e m e m be r ing p e r s o nal e v e nt s ( s uch as
yo ur fir s t dat e o r w he r e yo u le ar ne d a p ar t icular e quat io n).
12
Lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y diffe r s fr o m s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y in s e v e r al
w ays :
1. T he ne r v e change s t hat t ak e p lace in t he br ain m ay be diffe r e nt fo r
s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y and lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y.
2. S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y is an act iv e , o ngo ing p r o ce s s t hat is e as ily
dis r up t e d by o t he r act iv it ie s ; lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y is no t as e as ily
dis r up t e d.
3. S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y has a lim it e d cap acit y; t he cap acit y o f lo ng- t e r m
m e m o r y is v ir t ually unlim it e d.
4. R e t r ie v al fr o m s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y is an aut o m at ic, dum p ing- o ut
p r o ce s s ; r e t r ie v al p r o ble m s co m e in lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y.
5. S o m e dr ugs and dis e as e s can affe ct s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y w it ho ut
affe ct ing lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y, and v ice v e r s a.
T he r e is e v ide nce t hat m o r e is s t o r e d in o ur m e m o r ie s , and t hat
m e m o r ie s ar e m o r e p e r m ane nt ly r e co r de d in o ur br ains , t han w e m ight
as s um e . Lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y is r e lat iv e ly p e r m ane nt , and has a v ir t ually
unlim it e d cap acit y. W he n yo u r e ally t r y t o r e m e m be r a s p e cific e v e nt ,
yo u s o m e t im e s find t hat yo u can r e call m o r e t han yo u t ho ught p o s s ible .
O n r e p e at e d r e call at t e m p t s , p e o p le can r e call m o r e m at e r ial t han t he y
did o n t he fir s t r e call at t e m p t , w it ho ut hav ing t he m at e r ial p r e s e nt e d
again. R e call o f "fo r go t t e n" info r m at io n ( s uch as e ar ly childho o d e xp e r i-
e nce s ) unde r dr ugs o r hyp no s is als o illus t r at e s t he lar ge cap acit y and
p e r m ane nt nat ur e o f lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y.
E le ct r ical s t im ulat io n o f t he br ain p r o v ide s s o m e o f t he m o s t s t r ik ing
e v ide nce fo r t he lar ge cap acit y and r e lat iv e ly p e r m ane nt nat ur e o f lo ng-
t e r m m e m o r y. W he n s ur ge o ns p r e p ar e p at ie nt s fo r br ain s ur ge r y, t he y
m ay t o uch p ar t s o f t he br ain w it h an e le ct r ic p r o be . T he p at ie nt is
co ns cio us and can r e p o r t w hat he e xp e r ie nce s as diffe r e nt p ar t s o f t he
br ain ar e e le ct r ically s t im ulat e d. U nde r s uch co ndit io ns , p at ie nt s hav e
r e p o r t e d r e liv ing a p r e v io us e v e nt , co m p le t e w it h all t he s e ns at io ns
e xp e r ie nce d at t hat e ar lie r t im e . T he s e m e m o r ie s ar e m uch m o r e v iv id
t han o r dinar y m e m o r ie s , as if t he e le ct r ic p r o be s t ar t e d a film s t r ip o r a
t ap e r e co r ding o n w hich t he de t ails o f t he e v e nt w e r e r e gis t e r e d. O ne
m an s aw him s e lf in his childho o d ho m e laughing and t alk ing w it h his
co us ins . A w o m an r e p o r t e d t hat s he he ar d a s o ng p laying t hat s he had
no t he ar d s ince he r yo ut h; and s he be lie v e d t hat t he r e w as a p ho no gr ap h
in t he r o o m p laying t he s o ng. T he s e p e o p le ar e no t jus t r e m inde d o f t he
e v e nt : T he ir m e m o r y o f t he e v e nt s e e m s v e r y r e al, e v e n t ho ugh t he y
k no w t hat t he y ar e o n t he o p e r at ing t able ; it is as if t he y ar e e xp e r ie ncing
a do uble - co ns cio us ne s s . T he e xp e r ie nce s t o p s w he n t he p r o be is r e -
m o v e d, and m ay be r e p e at e d if t he p r o be is r e p lace d.
13
E v ide nce t hat ne r v e change s in t he br ain m ay be diffe r e nt fo r s ho r t -
t e r m m e m o r y and lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y is p r o v ide d by br ain- dam age d
p at ie nt s . O ne p at ie nt ( K. E ) had a de fe ct iv e s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y w it h a
no r m al lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y. H is r e t e nt io n o f e v e nt s in e v e r yday life w as
no t im p air e d, indicat ing t hat his lo ng- t e r m le ar ning abilit y w as no r m al.
H o w e v e r , K. F. co uld no t r e p e at num be r s e que nce s o f m o r e t han t w o
digit s . Ano t he r p at ie nt ( H . M.) co uld no t fo r m ne w lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y
t r ace s , alt ho ugh his s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y and his e xis t ing lo ng- t e r m
m e m o r y ap p e ar e d t o be no r m al. H e p e r fo r m e d w e ll o n t e s t s inv o lv ing
k no w le dge acquir e d be fo r e his br ain dam age , and had no ap p ar e nt
p e r s o nalit y change s as a r e s ult o f t he br ain dam age . H o w e v e r , he co uld
no t r e m e m be r any ne w info r m at io n fo r v e r y lo ng. H . M. r e ad t he s am e
m agazine s o v e r and o v e r and w o r k e d t he s am e jigs aw p uzzle s w it ho ut
r e alizing he had s e e n t he m be fo r e . As lo ng as info r m at io n w as he ld in
s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y he be hav e d no r m ally, but t he co nt e nt s o f his s ho r t -
t e r m m e m o r y w e r e lo s t w he n his at t e nt io n w as dis t r act e d. T he co nne ct -
ing link be t w e e n s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y and lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y s e e m e d t o
hav e be e n br o k e n; H . M. co uld no t t r ans fe r info r m at io n fr o m s ho r t - t e r m
m e m o r y int o lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y.
14
Relationship of Long- term Memory to Short- term Memory
E ar lie r I co m p ar e d m e m o r y t o a file cabine t . W e can no w r e fine t he
analo gy. S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y is lik e t he in- bas k e t o n an o ffice de s k .
Lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y is lik e t he lar ge file cabine t s in an o ffice . T he in-
bas k e t has a lim it e d cap acit y; it can ho ld o nly s o m uch info r m at io n be fo r e
it m us t be e m p t ie d t o m ak e r o o m fo r m o r e . S o m e o f w hat is r e m o v e d is
t hr o w n aw ay, and s o m e is p ut int o t he file cabine t s ; ho w e v e r , no t hing is
p ut int o t he file cabine t s w it ho ut fir s t s o r t ing t hr o ugh t he in- bas k e t .
S im ilar ly, info r m at io n go e s t hr o ugh s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y t o r e ach
lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y. T his m ak e s s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y t he bo t t le ne ck in
s t o r ing info r m at io n. N o t o nly do e s s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y hav e a lim it e d
cap acit y but info r m at io n in s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y m us t be co de d in s o m e
w ay t o be t r ans fe r r e d int o lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y. T his co ding t ak e s t im e ,
w hich lim it s t he am o unt o f info r m at io n t hat can be s e nt int o lo ng- t e r m
m e m o r y in a giv e n p e r io d. Ge t t ing info r m at io n o ut o f s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y
is no t t o o har d; e v e r yt hing is dum p e d o ut at o nce . Pr o ble m s ar is e in
r e t r ie v ing info r m at io n fr o m lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y. S o m e k ind o f s ys t e m at ic
s e ar ch is ne ce s s ar y. W e hav e s e e n t hat t he info r m at io n w ill be har d t o
find if it is no t s t o r e d in s o m e o r de r ly w ay. T he p r incip le s and m e t ho ds
dis cus s e d in lat e r chap t e r s p r o v ide w ays t o co de and cat e go r ize info r -
m at io n s o t hat it can be e fficie nt ly t r ans fe r r e d fr o m s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y
t o lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y.
A w o r k r o o m analo gy can be us e d t o s he d light o n t he r e lat io ns hip
be t w e e n lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y and s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y.
15
S up p o s e a car -
p e nt e r is building a cabine t . All his m at e r ials ar e ne at ly o r ganize d o n
s he lv e s ar o und t he w alls o f his w o r k r o o m . H e ge t s t he m at e r ials t hat he
is cur r e nt ly us ing ( t o o ls , bo ar ds r e ady t o p ut in p lace , e t c.) fr o m t he
s he lv e s and p lace s t he m o n t he w o r k be nch, le av ing s p ace o n t he be nch
t o w o r k . W he n t he be nch ge t s t o o m e s s y, he m ay s t ack m at e r ial in p ile s
s o t hat he can ge t m o r e o n t he be nch. I f t he num be r o f s t ack s ge t s t o o
lar ge , s o m e m ay fall o ff, o r t he car p e nt e r m ay p ut s o m e o f t he m at e r ials
o n a s he lf.
W e can t hink o f t he s he lv e s as lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y ( ho lding t he lar ge
am o unt o f m at e r ial av ailable fo r t he car p e nt e r t o us e ), and o f t he be nch
as s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y ( div ide d int o t he w o r k s p ace and a lim it e d- cap acit y
s t o r age ar e a). T he car p e nt e r 's o p e r at io ns ar e lik e t he w o r k t hat go e s o n
in s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y. S t ack ing t hings t o m ak e m o r e s p ace and ge t
m o r e m at e r ial o n t he w o r k be nch is lik e chunk ing. T hings t hat fall o ff t he
be nch ar e lik e it e m s fo r go t t e n fr o m s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y, and ge t t ing
t hings fr o m t he s he lv e s and p ut t ing t he m back is lik e t r ans fe r r ing
info r m at io n fr o m and t o lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y. Mat e r ials t hat t he car p e nt e r
m ay ne e d t hat ar e no t o n t he s he lv e s ar e lik e info r m at io n t hat is
unav ailable ; m at e r ials o n t he s he lv e s t hat t he car p e nt e r canno t lo cat e ar e
lik e info r m at io n t hat is inacce s s ible .
T he fo llo w ing diagr am s um m ar ize s m any o f t he p o int s dis cus s e d s o
far in t his chap t e r . I t p ict o r ially illus t r at e s t he r e lat io ns hip be t w e e n s ho r t -
t e r m m e m o r y and lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y.
"f orgot t en"
rehearsed
coded
failure
1
information
Short -t erm
Memory

S i
Long-t erm
Memory
i retrii
immei
WHAT ARE THE MEASURES OF MEMORY?
H o w w e m e as ur e m e m o r y affe ct s o ur de finit io n o f w hat m e m o r y is .
T he r e ar e t hr e e m ain w ays t o m e as ur e ho w m uch a p e r s o n r e m e m be r s ,
and e ach can giv e a diffe r e nt p ict ur e o f m e m o r y. W e can as k him t o t e ll
us e v e r yt hing he r e m e m be r s ; w e can as k him t o p ick o ut t he it e m s he
r e m e m be r s fr o m a gr o up o f it e m s ; o r w e can s e e ho w e as ily he le ar ns
t he m at e r ial a s e co nd t im e . T he s e t hr e e ap p r o ache s ar e r e fe r r e d t o ,
r e s p e ct iv e ly, as r e call, r e co gnit io n, and r e le ar ning.
16
Recall
Mo s t p e o p le ar e t hink ing o f r e call w he n t he y t alk abo ut r e m e m be r ing.
R e call r e quir e s p r o ducing info r m at io n by s e ar ching t he m e m o r y fo r i t I n
s cho o l, r e call is t he t as k yo u ar e giv e n in t e s t que s t io ns s uch as : "N am e
t he fir s t fiv e p r e s ide nt s o f t he U nit e d S t at e s ," o r "N am e t he cap it al o f
Ar ge nt ina," o r "R e cit e t he Ge t t ys bur g Addr e s s ." W he n m o s t p e o p le s ay
t he y do no t r e m e m be r s o m e t hing, w hat t he y m e an is t hat t he y do no t
r e call i t
A p e r s o n w ho is unable t o r e call s o m e t hing m ay be able t o r e call it
if he is giv e n s o m e cue s . T his is calle d aided recall. Fo r e xam p le , w e w ill
s e e in chap t e r 7 t hat giv ing p e o p le t he fir s t le t t e r s o f w o r ds t he y hav e
le ar ne d im p r o v e s t he ir r e call o f t he w o r ds . I f yo u ar e unable t o r e call t he
nam e s o f t he fir s t fiv e p r e s ide nt s , t r y again, us ing t he fir s t le t t e r s o f t he
las t nam e s o f t he p r e s ide nt s as cue s : W, A, J, M, M.
T he r e ar e s e v e r al diffe r e nt m e t ho ds t hat p s ycho lo gis t s us e t o s t udy
r e call. I n t he free- recall m e t ho d a p e r s o n is p r e s e nt e d a lis t o f w o r ds o ne
at a t im e and r e quir e d t o le ar n t he lis t s o t hat he can r e call as m any
w o r ds as p o s s ible in any o r de r . E xam p le s o f fr e e r e call in e v e r yday life
ar e r e m e m be r ing t he it e m s o n a s ho p p ing lis t and r e m e m be r ing w hat
m o v ie s ar e p laying in t o w n. I n t he serial learning m e t ho d t he p e r s o n is
p r e s e nt e d a lis t o f w o r ds o ne at a t im e and is r e quir e d t o le ar n t he lis t s o
t hat he can r e call t he w o r ds in t he s am e o r de r t he y w e r e p r e s e nt e d.
S e r ial le ar ning diffe r s fr o m fr e e r e call in t hat t he o r de r o f r e call is
im p o r t ant , and e ach w o r d s e r v e s as t he cue fo r t he ne xt w o r d. E xam p le s
o f s e r ial le ar ning in e v e r yday life ar e le ar ning t he alp habe t and le ar ning a
s p e e ch. A t hir d m e t ho d fo r s t udying r e call is t he paired- associate m e t ho d.
I n t his m e t ho d p air s o f w o r ds ar e s ho w n, and t he p e r s o n is r e quir e d t o
as s o ciat e t he m s o t hat w he n he is giv e n t he fir s t w o r d he w ill r e call t he
s e co nd w o r d. E xam p le s o f p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning in e v e r yday life ar e
le ar ning t he cap it als o f s t at e s and le ar ning a fo r e ign language v o cabular y.
T he Link s ys t e m dis cus s e d in chap t e r 9 is e s p e cially ap p r o p r iat e fo r
im p r o v ing m e m o r y in s e r ial le ar ning t as k s . T he s ys t e m s dis cus s e d in
chap t e r s 10, 11, and 12 als o inv o lv e p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning. All t he
.s ys t e m s can he lp in fr e e - r e call t as k s .
Recognition
A p e r s o n m ay be unable t o r e call s o m e t hing e v e n w he n giv e n cue s , but
m ay s t ill s ho w e v ide nce o f r e m e m be r ing if r e co gnit io n is us e d as t he
m e as ur e o f m e m o r y. W he n w e r e co gnize s o m e t hing, w e ack no w le dge
t hat it is fam iliar , t hat w e hav e m e t it be fo r e ( t he w o r d recognition m e ans
lit e r ally "t o k no w again"). I n r e co gnit io n t he t e s t is , "I s t his t he it e m ?";
in r e call t he t e s t is , "W hat is t he it e m ?" An e xam p le o f a r e co gnit io n t as k
in s cho o l is a m ult ip le - cho ice que s t io n s uch as : W hich o f t he fo llo w ing is
t he cap it al o f Ar ge nt ina? ( a) Lim a ( b) R io de Jane ir o ( c) S ant iago ( d)
Bue no s Air e s .
R e co gnit io n is us ually e as ie r t han r e call be caus e w e do no t hav e t o
s e ar ch fo r t he info r m at io n; it is giv e n t o us and all w e hav e t o do is be
able t o ide nt ify it as s o m e t hing w e le ar ne d. T he high s e ns it iv it y o f
r e co gnit io n as a m e as ur e o f m e m o r y w as de m o ns t r at e d by s ho w ing
p e o p le 600 p air s o f it e m s ( w o r ds , s e nt e nce s , p ict ur e s ). Lat e r t he p e o p le
w e r e s ho w n s o m e o f t he s e it e m s p air e d w it h ne w it e m s and w e r e as k e d
t o indicat e w hich m e m be r o f t he p air w as t he o ne t he y had s e e n
p r e v io us ly. T he av e r age co r r e ct r e co gnit io n s co r e w as abo ut 88 p e r ce nt
fo r s e nt e nce s , 90 p e r ce nt fo r w o r ds , and 98 p e r ce nt fo r p ict ur e s .
Alt ho ugh m o s t e lde r ly adult s do no t p e r fo r m as w e ll as m o s t yo ung adult s
in fr e e - r e call t as k s , t he y do p e r fo r m as w e ll in r e co gnit io n o r cue d- r e call
t as k s .
17
Lo ng aft e r p e o p le can no lo nge r r e call m o s t o f t he s t ude nt s in t he ir
high s cho o l gr aduat ing clas s , t he y can s t ill r e co gnize t he ir ye ar bo o k
p ict ur e s and nam e s fr o m s e t s o f p ict ur e s and nam e s .
18
Mo s t p e o p le
r e m e m be r o t he r p e o p le 's face s be t t e r t han t he ir nam e s . ( D o yo u o ft e n
he ar p e o p le s ay, "Y o ur nam e is fam iliar but I do n't r e m e m be r yo ur
face "?) O ne r e as o n is t hat r e m e m be r ing a face is us ually a r e co gnit io n
t as k and r e m e m be r ing a nam e is us ually a r e call t as k . O t he r p o s s ible
r e as o ns w hy w e r e m e m be r face s be t t e r t han nam e s ar e dis cus s e d in
chap t e r 13.
Relearning
A p e r s o n m ay be unable t o r e call s o m e t hing, t o r e call it w it h cue s , o r
e v e n t o r e co gnize it , but m ay s t ill s ho w e v ide nce o f r e m e m be r ing by t he
t hir d m e as ur e r e le ar ning o r s av ings .
19
S up p o s e yo u m e as ur e ho w lo ng
it t ak e s yo u t o le ar n s o m e t hing t he fir s t t im e . Lat e r yo u m e as ur e ho w
lo ng it t ak e s yo u t o le ar n it again. I f yo u le ar n it fas t e r t he s e co nd t im e
( t he r e is a s av ings in le ar ning t im e ), t hat is e v ide nce t hat yo u s t ill hav e
s o m e m e m o r y o f t he m at e r ial. Fo r e xam p le , co lle ge p r o fe s s o r s s ho w e d
e v ide nce o f m e m o r y fo r fo r m e r s t ude nt s ' nam e s w he n t he m e as ur e o f
r e le ar ning w as us e d but no t w he n p ict ur e - cue d r e call w as us e d.
20
R e le ar ning m ay be illus t r at e d by t he co m m o n e xp e r ie nce o f a p e r s o n
w ho s t udie s a fo r e ign language t hat he le ar ne d m any ye ar s ago . H e m ay
no t be able t o r e call any o f it . H e m ay r e co gnize v e r y lit t le . But w he n he
s t ar t s s t udying it , he m ay find t hat it co m e s back t o him r at he r e as ily.
S im ilar ly, yo u m ay no t be able t o r e cit e t he Ge t t ys bur g Addr e s s , o r t he
D e clar at io n o f I nde p e nde nce , o r s o m e t hing e ls e t hat yo u le ar ne d in
s cho o l, but yo u co uld p r o bably r e le ar n t he m fas t e r t han s o m e o ne w ho
has ne v e r s e e n t he m be fo r e co uld le ar n t he m .
An int e r e s t ing s t udy t hat a p s ycho lo gis t co nduct e d o n his o w n s o n
s ho w s t hat r e le ar ning is a v e r y s e ns it iv e m e as ur e o f m e m o r y, and als o
t hat r e le ar ning m ay s ho w e v ide nce o f m e m o r y e v e n w he n t he m at e r ial
w as no t fully le ar ne d o r iginally. T he p s ycho lo gis t r e ad p as s age s o f Gr e e k
t o his s o n fr o m t he age o f fift e e n m o nt hs t o t hr e e ye ar s . H e lat e r t e s t e d
t he bo y fo r r e t e nt io n at age s e ight , fo ur t e e n, and e ight e e n by hav ing him
m e m o r ize t he o r iginal p as s age s and s o m e co m p ar able ne w p as s age s . At
age e ight it t o o k t he bo y 27 p e r ce nt fe w e r t r ials t o m e m o r ize t he o r iginal
p as s age s t han t he ne w p as s age s , s ugge s t ing a co ns ide r able s av ings in
r e le ar ning e ffo r t as a r e s ult o f. r e t e nt io n o f t he e ar lie r le ar ning. T he
m e t ho ds o f r e call and r e co gnit io n w o uld lik e ly hav e s ho w n no e v ide nce o f
r e m e m be r ing. T he s av ings de cr e as e d fr o m 27 p e r ce nt at age e ight , t o 8
p e r ce nt at age fo ur t e e n, and t o o nly 1 p e r ce nt at age e ight e e n.
21
T hus , it is no t accur at e t o s ay t hat yo u do no t r e m e m be r s o m e t hing
m e r e ly be caus e yo u do no t r e call it . I nfo r m at io n t hat is av ailable in
m e m o r y m ay be inacce s s ible by r e call but m ay be acce s s ible by r e co gni-
t io n o r r e le ar ning. R e co gnit io n is ge ne r ally a m o r e s e ns it iv e m e as ur e o f
m e m o r y t han is r e call in t he s e ns e o f de t e ct ing r e t e nt io n w he r e r e call
do e s no t . ( S ur p r is ingly, ho w e v e r , s o m e s t udie s hav e fo und co ndit io ns in
w hich s o m e w o r ds can be r e calle d aft e r Mur e t o r e co gnize t he m .)
22
Lik e w is e , r e le ar ning is m o r e s e ns it iv e t han r e co gnit io n. I f yo u can
r e co gnize s o m e t hing o r can r e le ar n it fas t e r t han yo u le ar ne d it t he fir s t
t im e , yo u hav e s o m e m e m o r y o f it e v e n t ho ugh yo u canno t r e call it . T his
is o ne ans w e r t o t he p e r s o n w ho s ays t hat it do e s no t do any go o d fo r
him t o r e ad s o m e t hing be caus e he canno t "r e m e m be r " ( r e call) it anyw ay.
S im ilar ly, s t ude nt s w ho cr it icize s cho o l e xam s be caus e t he y fo r ge t
m o s t o f w hat t he y le ar n s o o n aft e r t he e xam ar e bas ing t he ir co m p laint
s o le ly o n r e call. I t is int e r e s t ing t o no t e t hat s o m e o f t he s e s am e s t ude nt s
m ay co m p lain t hat a ce r t ain co ur s e is a w as t e o f t im e be caus e t he y hav e
Meet Your Memory: What Is It? 2 9
had t he s am e m at e r ial in ano t he r co ur s e . T his s ugge s t s t hat t he y hav e
no t fo r go t t e n t he m at e r ial be caus e t he y can s t ill r e co gnize it .
O f co ur s e , p r act ically s p e ak ing, w e ar e m o r e co nce r ne d w it h r e call
t han w it h r e co gnit io n o r r e le ar ning be caus e m o s t o f us hav e t he gr e at e s t
p r o ble m w it h r e call. O ne w ay in w hich t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s dis cus s e d
in chap t e r s 9 t hr o ugh 12 he lp r e call is t o change r e call t o aide d r e call by
p r o v iding yo u w it h cue s t hat yo u can us e t o cue yo ur s e lf.
W it h r e s p e ct t o m e as ur ing m e m o r y, a m e t ho d t hat is fr e que nt ly
us e d t o s t udy m e m o r y s ho uld be no t e d. O ne o f t he p r o ble m s in s t udying
m e m o r y is t hat p e o p le hav e diffe r e nt de gr e e s o f fam iliar it y w it h diffe r e nt
w o r ds . T hus , if o ne p e r s o n le ar ns a lis t o f w o r ds fas t e r t han ano t he r
p e r s o n, it m ight be be caus e he has s e e n t ho s e w o r ds m o r e o ft e n, l b
co nt r o l fo r t his diffe r e nce in fam iliar it y, m uch r e s e ar ch o n le ar ning has
us e d nonsense syllables t hat ar e unfam iliar t o v ir t ually e v e r yo ne w ho
p ar t icip at e s in t he s t udy. A no ns e ns e s yllable is a m e aningle s s t hr e e -
le t t e r "w o r d" s uch as C E J, ZU L, o r ZI B.
WHAT IS THE TIP- OF- THE- TONGUE PHENOMENON?
H av e yo u e v e r had t he e xp e r ie nce o f alm o s t be ing able t o r e call a s p e cific
w o r d but no t quit e be ing able t o ge t it ? Y o u ar e s ur e yo u k no w t he w o r d
but ar e unable t o r e call it . Y o u m ay hav e had t his e xp e r ie nce w he n t r ying
t o r e call a nam e . Pe r hap s yo u co uld t e ll w hat le t t e r t he nam e s t ar t e d
w it h, w hat it r hym e d w it h, o r m aybe e v e n ho w m any s yllable s it had, but
co uld no t quit e ge t t he nam e it s e lf. I t is fr o m s uch a s it uat io n t hat w e ge t
t he e xp r e s s io n, "I t 's o n t he t ip o f m y t o ngue ," and m o s t p e o p le hav e had
t his k ind o f e xp e r ie nce .
23
I had t his e xp e r ie nce w he n t r ying t o r e call t he las t nam e o f a p e r s o n
I k ne w m any ye ar s ago . I co uld p ict ur e him in m y m ind but co uldn't t hink
o f his nam e . I n s e ar ching m y m ind fo r t he nam e I t ho ught o f S co t land
and o f hillbillie s . I t s e e m e d t hat t he nam e had t w o s yllable s and w as
r at he r s ho r t . Finally it cam e t o m e . T he nam e w as "McC o y." T he
as s o ciat io ns w e r e o bv io us : T he S co t t is h as s o ciat io n cam e fr o m t he "Mc"
p r e fix ( McD uff, McD o ugall, e t c.); t he hillbilly as s o ciat io n cam e fr o m an
o ld t e le v is io n s ho w abo ut hillbillie s "T he R e al McC o ys ."
Ps ycho lo gis t s hav e t r ie d t o s t udy t his int e r e s t ing, w ide s p r e ad p he -
no m e no n.
24
T he fir s t e xp e r im e nt al s t udie s o n t he t ip - o f- t he - t o ngue p he -
no m e no n ( and t he clo s e ly r e lat e d fe e ling- o f- k no w ing p he no m e no n) w e r e
p ublis he d in t he m id- 1960s , alt ho ugh it had be e n o bs e r v e d and analyze d
m uch e ar lie r . S e v e r al s t udie s p ublis he d dur ing t he 1970s dup licat e d t he
init ial findings and inv e s t igat e d p o s s ible t he o r e t ical e xp lanat io ns and
im p licat io ns o f t he p he no m e no n.
O ne w ay t o s t udy t he t ip - o f- t he - t o ngue p he no m e no n has be e n t o
r e ad t o p e o p le de finit io ns o f w o r ds t hat ar e infr e que nt ly us e d ( fo r
e xam p le , sextant, nepotism, sampan). T he p e o p le w e r e as k e d t o t e ll
w hat t he w o r d w as . I f t he y co uld no t t hink o f t he e xact w o r d, t he y w e r e
t o t e ll e v e r yt hing t he y co uld abo ut t he w o r d. S o m e p e o p le co uld giv e
o t he r w o r ds w it h a s im ilar m e aning o r s im ilar s o unds ( s o und be ing m o r e
fr e que nt t han m e aning), t e ll t he fir s t o r las t le t t e r o f t he w o r d, and e v e n
t e ll ho w m any s yllable s it had, but co uld no t quit e t e ll t he w o r d it s e lf. Fo r
e xam p le , w he n t r ying t o r e m e m be r s am p an ( a s m all C hine s e bo at ), t he y
t ho ught o f s uch w o r ds as Saipan, Siam, and sarong; t he y als o t ho ught o f
w o r ds s im ilar in m e aning, s uch as barge and junk. T he p he no m e no n has
als o be e n s t udie d in m e m o r y fo r p e o p le 's nam e s , fo r p o e t r y, and e v e n
fo r o do r s ( w he r e it w as calle d t he "t ip - o f- t he - no s e " p he no m e no n).
23
Ano t he r w ay t o s t udy t he p he no m e no n has be e n t o as k p e o p le
que s t io ns o f ge ne r al info r m at io n. S o m e p e o p le co uld no t r e call t he
ans w e r s , but s t ill fe lt t he y k ne w t he m . Lat e r r e co gnit io n t e s t s s ho w e d
t hat t he y w e r e r ight . O t he r r e s e ar ch has s t udie d nat ur ally o ccur r ing t ip -
o f- t he - t o ngue e xp e r ie nce s by hav ing p e o p le k e e p diar ie s r e co r ding s uch
e xp e r ie nce s . R e s e ar ch o n e lde r ly adult s has fo und t hat t he y do no t diffe r
fr o m yo ung adult s in t he ir fe e ling o f k no w ing e xp e r ie nce s o r in t he ir
accur acy o f e s t im at ing ho w w e ll t he y co uld r e m e m be r s o m e t hing t hat
w as o n t he t ip o f t he ir t o ngue . A r e ce nt diar y s t udy fo und t hat o v e r t he
p e r io d o f o ne m o nt h e lde r ly adult s r e p o r t e d abo ut t w ice as m any t ip - o f-
t he - t o ngue e xp e r ie nce s as yo ung adult s , but w e r e able t o r e s o lv e t he m
as w e ll as t he yo ung adult s did.
26
T he t ip - o f- t he - t o ngue p he no m e no n has at le as t fo ur im p licat io ns fo r
unde r s t anding w hat m e m o r y is :
1. Me m o r y is no t an all- o r - no ne p r o ce s s . Me m o r y is a m at t e r o f
de gr e e ; it is a co nt inuum , no t a dicho t o m y. W e do no t ne ce s s ar ily
r e m e m be r s o m e t hing e it he r co m p le t e ly o r no t at all. R at he r , w e can
r e m e m be r a p ar t o f s o m e t hing w it ho ut r e m e m be r ing all o f it .
2. Mo s t m e m o r y is ge ne r at iv e , no t dup licat iv e . Me m o r y is no t an
aut o m at ic p ict ur e - t ak ing p r o ce s s . Mo s t m e m o r ie s do no t ap p e ar as full-
blo w n, e xact dup licat e s o f t he info r m at io n le ar ne d, but ar e ge ne r at e d
t hr o ugh a p r o ce s s o f r e co ns t r uct io n.
3. W o r ds m ay be s t o r e d in m e m o r y in m o r e t han o ne w ay. T he y
m ay be s t o r e d in audit o r y t e r m s ( ho w m any s yllable s and ho w t he y ar e
p r o no unce d), in v is ual t e r m s ( t he fir s t and las t le t t e r s o f t he w o r d), and
in t e r m s o f m e aning ( cr o s s - r e fe r e nce d w it h o t he r w o r ds o f s im ilar
m e aning).
4. T he r e is a diffe r e nce be t w e e n av ailabilit y and acce s s ibilit y o f
info r m at io n. T he av ailabilit y o f info r m at io n is s ho w n by t he fact t hat yo u
k no w w he n yo u k no w t he ans w e r t o a que s t io n, o r t hat yo u can p r o duce
p ar t o f t he w o r d yo u ar e t r ying t o r e call. But alt ho ugh t he info r m at io n is
av ailable , it is no t co m p le t e ly acce s s ible by unaide d r e call.
Meet Your Memory: How
Does I t Work?
PAT I E N T : "D O C , I ne e d he lp w it h a m e m o r y p r o ble m . I 'll be t alk ing
t o s o m e o ne , and r ight in t he m iddle o f t he co nv e r s at io n I 'll fo r ge t
w hat I am t alk ing abo ut ." PS Y C H I AT R I S T : "H o w lo ng hav e yo u had
t his p r o ble m ?" PAT IE N T : "W hat p r o ble m ?"
W IFE : "O h- o h, I fo r go t t o unp lug t he ir o n." H U S BAN D : "D o n't w o r r y,
t he ho us e w o n't bum do w n. I fo r go t t o t ur n o ff t he w at e r in t he
t ub."
T he r e ar e t hr e e s igns t hat yo u ar e ge t t ing s e nile . T he fir s t o ne is
t hat yo u be gin t o lo s e yo ur m e m o r y. . . and I can't r e m e m be r t he
o t he r t w o .
e s e ar e jus t a fe w e xam p le s o f m e m o r y jo k e s and car t o o ns w hich I
av e co lle ct e d. I t has be e n s aid t hat w e m ak e jo k e s abo ut t hings t hat
bo t he r o r co nce r n us t he m o s t t o he lp us de al w it h t ho s e t hings , and t hat
t his m ay be o ne r e as o n w hy t he r e ar e s o m any jo k e s de aling w it h s e x,
m o ne y, and w e ight . T his m ay als o be o ne r e as o n w hy t he r e ar e m any
jo k e s abo ut m e m o r y. Alt ho ugh m e m o r y jo k e s ar e no t ne ar ly as num e r o us
as ar e jo k e s abo ut t he o t he r t hr e e t o p ics , r e m e m be r ing and fo r ge t t ing is
s t ill t he t o p ic o f m uch hum o r . W e ar e co nce r ne d w it h ho w o ur m e m o r ie s
w o r k , e s p e cially w he n t he y do no t w o r k . H o w do w e r e m e m be r ? Mo r e
im p o r t ant , ho w and w hy do w e fo r ge t ? T his chap t e r co nt inue s t o w ar d
t he go al o f chap t e r 2 t o he lp yo u unde r s t and yo ur m e m o r y by ans w e r ing
a fe w que s t io ns t hat w ill he lp yo u be t t e r unde r s t and ho w yo ur m e m o r y
w o r k s .
32
Meet Your Memory : How Does It Work? 3 3
HOW AND WHY DO WE FORGET?
I n dis cus s ing s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y it w as no t e d t hat fo r ge t t ing is no t all
bad. I f yo u didn't fo r ge t , yo ur m ind w o uld be clut t e r e d w it h s o m any
t r iv ial t hings t hat it w o uld be im p o s s ible t o s e le ct t he us e ful and r e le v ant
it e m s yo u ne e d fo r de cis io ns . T hus , it is no t de s ir able t o clut t e r yo ur
m ind w it h unim p o r t ant t hings . Fo r ge t t ing t he unim p o r t ant m ay he lp yo u
t o r e m e m be r t he im p o r t ant . T he t r ick is , o f co ur s e , t o be able t o fo r ge t
t he unim p o r t ant , no t t he im p o r t ant .
Y o u p r o bably do no t hav e t o be t o ld t hat fo r ge t t ing is e as ie r t han
r e m e m be r ing. But w hy is it ? O ne w ay o f ans w e r ing t his que s t io n is t o
co ns ide r again t he "T hr e e R s o f R e m e m be r ing" in chap t e r 2. T o fo r ge t
s o m e t hing yo u o nly hav e t o fail at any o ne o f t he t hr e e s t age s r e co r ding,
r e t aining, o r r e t r ie v ingbut t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hing yo u hav e t o s uc-
ce e d at all t hr e e o f t he s e s t age s . I t is as if t he r e is o nly o ne chance t o
r e m e m be r v e r s us t hr e e chance s t o fo r ge t . Ps ycho lo gis t s hav e s ugge s t e d
s e v e r al t he o r ie s t o e xp lain w hy w e fo r ge t . Le t us co ns ide r br ie fly fiv e o f
t he m o s t co m m o n e xp lanat io ns ( s e e r e fe r e nce 3, chap t e r 2):
Decay. T his e xp lanat io n s ugge s t s t hat m e m o r ie s caus e s o m e k ind o f
a p hys ical "t r ace " in t he br ain t hat gr adually de cays o r fade s aw ay w it h
t im e , s uch as a p at hw ay acr o s s a m e ado w w ill be co m e o v e r gr o w n if no t
us e d. T he bas is o f fo r ge t t ing is dis us e . T his is o ne o f t he o lde s t and
m o s t w ide s p r e ad e xp lanat io ns o f fo r ge t t ing.
Repression. T his e xp lanat io n w as s ugge s t e d by t he w o r k o f S igm und
Fr e ud o n t he unco ns cio us m ind. Acco r ding t o Fr e ud, unp le as ant o r
unacce p t able m e m o r ie s m ay be fo r go t t e n int e nt io nally. T he y ar e p us he d
int o t he unco ns cio us o n p ur p o s e s o t hat t he p e r s o n w ill no t hav e t o liv e
w it h t he m . Alt ho ugh s o m e o f t he de t ails o f Fr e ud's e labo r at e t he o r ie s
ar e no t w ide ly acce p t e d, m o s t p s ycho lo gis t s do be lie v e t hat s uch m o t i-
v at e d fo r ge t t ing can o ccur .
Distortion. Me m o r ie s m ay be affe ct e d by o ur v alue s and int e r e s t s ,
s o t hat w e r e m e m be r s o m e t hings t he w ay w e want t o r e m e m be r t he m .
T his e xp lanat io n s ugge s t s t hat w e change o ur m e m o r ie s t o fit w hat w e
w ant t he m t o be o r ho w w e fe e l t he y s ho uld be . T o de m o ns t r at e s uch
dis t o r t io n, r e ad t he fo llo w ing lis t o f w o r ds alo ud t o s o m e o ne : be d, r e s t ,
aw ak e , t ir e d, dr e am , w ak e , night , e at , co m fo r t , s o und, s lum be r , s no r e .
N o w as k t he p e r s o n t o lis t as m any o f t he w o r ds as he can r e m e m be r .
U s ually, at le as t half o f t he lis t s include t he w o r d sleep. W hy? Be caus e
m o s t o f t he w o r ds ar e r e lat e d t o s le e p , s o it s e e m s lik e "s le e p " should
be o n t he lis t .
1
D is t o r t io n has s o m e int e r e s t ing im p licat io ns fo r co ur t r o o m p r act ice s
and e ye w it ne s s inv e s t igat io ns . Fo r e xam p le , by as k ing le ading que s t io ns ,
a que s t io ne r can caus e a p e r s o n t o "r e m e m be r " an e v e nt t hat ne v e r
o ccur r e d: "W hat co lo r w as t he v ict im 's co at ?" m ay caus e a p e r s o n t o
r e m e m be r a co at t hat did no t e x is t S im ilar ly, s t at e m e nt s t hat o nly im p ly
a co nclus io n m ay caus e a p e r s o n t o r e m e m be r t he co nclus io n as if it had
hap p e ne d. S uch infe r e nce s ar e als o e xp lo it e d in adv e r t is ing. Fo r e xam p le ,
t he ad "Ge t t hr o ugh t his w int e r w it ho ut co lds . T ak e E r adico ld p ills " do e s
no t act ually s ay t hat E r adico ld p ills p r e v e nt w int e r co lds , but 85 p e r ce nt
o f p e o p le t e s t e d fo r m e m o r y o f s uch an ad r e m e m be r e d it t hat w ay.
2
Interference. Fo r ge t t ing m ay no t be affe ct e d s o m uch by ho w m uch
t im e p as s e s ( as is s ugge s t e d by t he de lay e xp lanat io n) as it is by w hat
hap p e ns dur ing t hat t im e . Much fo r ge t t ing is lik e ly due t o int e r fe r e nce
by o t he r le ar ning. I nt e r fe r e nce do e s no t im p ly a lim it e d m e m o r y cap ac-
it y, w he r e ne w info r m at io n t hat is s t uffe d int o o ur he ads p us he s t he o ld
info r m at io n o ut I t is no t s o m uch t he amount w e le ar n as it is what w e
le ar n t hat de t e r m ine s fo r ge t t ing by int e r fe r e nce .
I nfo r m at io n yo u hav e le ar ne d in t he p as t m ay int e r fe r e w it h yo ur
m e m o r y fo r s o m e t hing yo u hav e le ar ne d r e ce nt ly. Ps ycho lo gis t s r e fe r t o
t his as proactive inhibition. I t is "p r o act iv e " be caus e t he int e r fe r e nce is
in a fo r w ar d dir e ct io n; le ar ne d m at e r ial affe ct s m e m o r y fo r m at e r ial
le ar ne d lat e r . I t is "inhibit io n" be caus e t he e ffe ct is t o inhibit o r hinde r
m e m o r y fo r t he lat e r m at e r ial. Lik e w is e , info r m at io n yo u hav e le ar ne d
r e ce nt ly m ay int e r fe r e w it h yo ur m e m o r y fo r s o m e t hing yo u le ar ne d in
t he p as t . T his is calle d retroactive inhibition, be caus e t he int e r fe r e nce is
in a back w ar d dir e ct io n. S up p o s e t hat yo u m e t a num be r o f p e o p le at a
bus ine s s m e e t ing las t w e e k and t he n m e t s o m e m o r e p e o p le at a p ar t y
las t night . I f yo u t r y t o r e call t he nam e s o f t he p e o p le at t he p ar t y, yo u
m ight find t hat t he nam e s fr o m t he bus ine s s m e e t ing ge t in t he w ay.
T his is p r o act iv e inhibit io n. I f yo u t r y t o r e call t he nam e s o f t he p e o p le
at t he bus ine s s m e e t ing, yo u m ay find t hat t he nam e s o f t he p ar t y- go e r s
ge t in t he w ay. T his is r e t r o act iv e inhibit io n.
Cue dependency. A fift h e xp lanat io n o f fo r ge t t ing is m o r e r e ce nt t han
t he fir s t fo ur t hat hav e be e n dis cus s e d. I t at t r ibut e s fo r ge t t ing t o Mur e
in r e t r ie v al ( v e r s us r e co r ding o r r e t aining). T he m e m o r y do e s no t fade
aw ay; it is no t int e r fe r e d w it h by o t he r info r m at io n; r at he r , it is m e r e ly
de p e nde nt o n yo ur finding t he r ight cue t o ge t i t T his e xp lanat io n is t hus
r e fe r r e d t o as "cue - de p e nde nt fo r ge t t ing." I f yo u can find t he r ight cue ,
yo u can r e t r ie v e a de s ir e d it e m fr o m m e m o r y; if yo u "fo r ge t " t he it e m it
is be caus e yo u hav e no t fo und t he r ight cue . Y o u hav e p r o bably fo und
Meet Your Memory : How Does It Work? 35
yo ur s e lf unable t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hing, and t he n r e calle d it lat e r w he n
yo u s aw o r he ar d s o m e t hing t hat "jo gge d" yo ur m e m o r y.
Your Memory Attic
T o illus t r at e t he s e fiv e e xp lanat io ns o f fo r ge t t ing, le t 's co m p ar e yo ur
m e m o r y t o t he at t ic o f a ho us e .
3
Y o u s t o r e t hings in yo ur m e m o r y and in
yo ur at t ic. S up p o s e yo u go t o t he at t ic t o find a s p e cific it e m . T he de cay
e xp lanat io n o f fo r ge t t ing w o uld be lik e a "de t e r io r at ing r o o m "; yo u canno t
find yo ur it e m be caus e it has be e n le ft in t he at t ic s o lo ng t hat it has
de t e r io r at e d and dis ap p e ar e d. T he r e p r e s s io n e xp lanat io n w o uld be lik e
a "w alle d- up r o o m "; p ar t o f t he at t ic is blo ck e d o ff, s o yo u canno t ge t
int o it t o find t he it e m . T he dis t o r t io n e xp lanat io n w o uld be s o m e w hat
lik e a "r e ar r ange d r o o m "; o bje ct s in t he at t ic ar e all m ixe d up s o yo u
canno t find yo ur it e m be caus e t hings ar e no t ar r ange d as yo u t ho ught
yo u le ft t he m . T he int e r fe r e nce e xp lanat io n w o uld be lik e a "clut t e r e d
r o o m "; t he r o o m has be co m e clut t e r e d w it h o t he r t hings t hat ge t in t he
w ay w he n yo u t r y t o find yo ur it e m . T he cue - de p e nde ncy e xp lanat io n
w o uld be lik e a "lo ck e d r o o m " w he r e t he it e m s in t he r o o m ar e lo ck e d in
che s t s , dr aw e r s , and t r e as ur e bo xe s ; yo u m us t find t he r ight k e y
( r e t r ie v al cue ) t o unlo ck t he o ne t hat co nt ains yo ur it e m .
N o s ingle e xp lanat io n is ade quat e t o acco unt fo r all fo r ge t t ing, s o
e ach o f t he s e fiv e e xp lanat io ns has it s p lace . H o w e v e r , t his bo o k do e s
no t de al m uch w it h t he fir s t t hr e e e xp lanat io ns o f fo r ge t t ing. D e cay is ,
no t w e ll s ubs t ant iat e d by r e s e ar ch. I t m ay ap p ly t o s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y
but p r o bably no t t o lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y. R e p r e s s io n, alt ho ugh fair ly w e ll
s ubs t ant iat e d by clinical e xp e r ie nce s , inv o lv e s p r im ar ily m e m o r ie s o f
t r aum at ic, unp le as ant , p e r s o nal e xp e r ie nce s . T he s e k inds o f m e m o r ie s
ar e no t o f ce nt r al co nce r n in t his bo o k . D is t o r t io n is s ubs t ant iat e d by
s o m e r e s e ar ch e v ide nce , but t he r e is no t a lo t w e can do abo ut it e xce p t
p e r hap s t o be aw ar e o f it and guar d agains t it . R e s e ar ch e v ide nce
indicat e s t hat int e r fe r e nce is r e s p o ns ible fo r m uch o f o ur fo r ge t t ing, and
t he r e is e v e n m o r e r e s e ar ch s up p o r t fo r cue - de p e nde nt fo r ge t t ing.
S ubs e que nt chap t e r s dis cus s w ays in w hich yo u can r e duce int e r fe r e nce
and cue yo ur s e lf in s e ar ching yo ur m e m o r y fo r info r m at io n.
HOW FAST DO WE FORGET?
R e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y indicat e s t hat w e do no t fo r ge t at a co ns t ant r at e
but t hat m o s t fo r ge t t ing o ccur s s o o n aft e r le ar ning; t he r at e o f fo r ge t t ing
t he n s lo w s do w n and le v e ls o ff as t im e p as s e s . T hus , m o s t o f w hat w e
fo r ge t abo ut s o m e t hing w ill o ccur s ho r t ly aft e r w e hav e le ar ne d it . Fo r
e xam p le , aft e r le ar ning a lis t o f no ns e ns e s yllable s yo u w o uld p r o bably
fo r ge t alm o s t half o f t he m w it hin 20 m inut e s , and m o r e t han t w o - t hir ds
aft e r t w o days ; a m o nt h lat e r yo ur m e m o r y w o uld no t be m uch lo w e r
t han it w as at t w o days . S im ilar ly, p e o p le w ho s t udie d S p anis h in high
s cho o l o r co lle ge fo r go t m o s t o f w hat t he y had le ar ne d ( abo ut 60 p e r ce nt )
w it hin 3 ye ar s , but v e r y lit t le m o r e ( abo ut 5 p e r ce nt ) t hr o ugh 50 ye ar s .
T he de cr e as ing r at e o f fo r ge t t ing as t im e p as s e s he lp s us unde r s t and
w hy dr ugs t hat can affe ct m e m o r y ar e m o s t e ffe ct iv e w he n giv e n s ho r t ly
aft e r le ar ning, and w hy in r e t r o gr ade am ne s ia r e ce nt m e m o r ie s ar e m o r e
s us ce p t ible t o int e r r up t io n t han o lde r m e m o r ie s .
4
O f co ur s e , no t all le ar ning fo llo w s t his p at t e r n o f a de cr e as ing
fo r ge t t ing r at e w it h t im e . Mat e r ial t hat is le ar ne d v e r y t ho r o ughly o r t hat
is v e r y im p o r t ant t o us m ay be r e t aine d all o ur liv e s . Als o , w e r e m e m be r
t he gis t , o r ge ne r al ide a, o f w hat w e le ar n m uch lo nge r t han w e
r e m e m be r s p e cific de t ails .
5
I s t he r e a diffe r e nce be t w e e n s lo w le ar ne r s and fas t e r le ar ne r s in
t he ir fo r ge t t ing r at e s ? W ill a s lo w le ar ne r fo r ge t m o r e r ap idly t han a fas t
le ar ne r ? C o nt r ar y t o t he be lie f o f m any p e o p le , t he ans w e r t o t his
que s t io n ap p e ar s t o be no . An analo gy illus t r at e s w hy t his is s o .
6
Le t 's
co m p ar e t he le ar ning p r o ce s s t o t he p um p ing o f w at e r int o a p yr am id-
s hap e d be ak e r ( s e e t he diagr am ). Le ar ning is r e p r e s e nt e d by t he le v e l
o f w at e r . Fo r ge t t ing is r e p r e s e nt e d by e v ap o r at io n. As t he le v e l o f w at e r
r is e s , t he s ur face ar e a de cr e as e s , s o t he r e is le s s e v ap o r at io n. Fas t inp ut
( be ak e r A) r e p r e s e nt s t he fas t le ar ne r ; his be ak e r fills up fas t e r .
H o w e v e r , in t im e t he s lo w inp ut ( be ak e r B) w ill fill t he be ak e r jus t as full.
I f w e r un w at e r int o e ach be ak e r t he s am e am o unt o f t im e , le s s
e v ap o r at io n w ill o ccur fr o m be ak e r A be caus e it w ill be fulle r and t hus
hav e le s s s ur face ar e a. But if w e le t t he w at e r co nt inue t o r un int o B unt il
it r e ache s t he s am e le v e l as A, t he n t he r e w ill be no diffe r e nce be t w e e n
t he t w o in t he r at e o f e v ap o r at io n.
S im ilar ly, if a s lo w le ar ne r is allo w e d e no ugh t im e t o s t udy s o m e t hing
s o t hat he can r e p r o duce it as r e adily as a fas t le ar ne r , he w ill s co r e jus t
as high as t he fas t le ar ne r in lat e r t e s t s o f r e m e m be r ing. T he ult im at e
degree o f le ar ning ( ho w w e ll yo u le ar n it ) r at he r t han t he rate o f le ar ning
( ho w fas t yo u le ar n it ) is t he cr it ical fact o r in t he r at e o f fo r ge t t ing; t his
has be e n fo und fo r p o e t r y as w e ll as fo r w o r d lis t s and in N ige r ia as w e ll
as in t he U nit e d S t at e s . R e s e ar ch has als o fo und t hat alt ho ugh yo ung
adult s ge ne r ally le ar n fas t e r t han e lde r ly adult s , w he n t he o r iginal
le ar ning le v e ls ar e e quat e d t he r e ar e no age diffe r e nce s in fo r ge t t ing
r at e s .
7
T he be ak e r analo gy has im p licat io ns fo r s t ude nt s in s cho o l. A br ight
s t ude nt m ay do be t t e r o n an e xam inat io n t han a dull o ne be caus e he has
le ar ne d t he m at e r ial m o r e e ffe ct iv e ly, no t be caus e he has a be t t e r
m e m o r y. I f bo t h s t ude nt s s t udy a le s s o n fo r an ho ur , t he br ight s t ude nt
w ill m as t e r t he le s s o n m o r e fully: H e w ill hav e fille d his be ak e r t o a
highe r le v e l. But if t he dull s t ude nt fills his be ak e r t o t he s am e le v e l by
s t udying fo r 2 o r 3 ho ur s , t he n he is lik e ly t o do e qually w e ll o n t he
e xam inat io n. T hus , s t ude nt s o f av e r age le ar ning abilit y can do as w e ll in
s cho o l as s t ude nt s w it h gr e at e r le ar ning abilit y by s p e nding m o r e t im e
s t udying.
T he be ak e r analo gy can als o illus t r at e t he r at e o f fo r ge t t ing fo r
m e aningful v e r s us m e aningle s s m at e r ial. Le t be ak e r A r e p r e s e nt t he
m e aningful m at e r ial and be ak e r B r e p r e s e nt t he m e aningle s s m at e r ial.
T he m o r e m e aningful t he m at e r ial is , t he fas t e r it is le ar ne d. D o e s t his
m e an t hat it is r e m e m be r e d lo nge r ? N o t ne ce s s ar ily. I f t he le s s m e aning-
ful m at e r ial is s t udie d unt il it is le ar ne d as w e ll as t he m e aningful m at e r ial,
t he n t he r e w ill be no s ignificant diffe r e nce in ho w fas t t he t w o ar e
fo r go t t e n. Again, t he r at e o f fo r ge t t ing is de t e r m ine d m o r e by ho w w e ll
t he m at e r ial is le ar ne d t han by ho w fas t it is le ar ne d.
HOW DO WE REMEMBER PICTURES VERSUS WORDS?
I nfo r m at io n can be r e co r de d e it he r in v is ual fo r m ( p ict ur e s , s ce ne s ,
face s ) o r in v e r bal fo r m ( w o r ds , num be r s , nam e s ). Fo r e xam p le , yo u can
s e e in yo ur m ind's e ye a v is ual im age ( a m e nt al p ict ur e ) o f a chair , o r
yo u can t hink o f t he w o r d chair. T he s e t w o t yp e s o f r e co r ding p r o ce s s e s
m ay be r e fe r r e d t o , r e s p e ct iv e ly, as an imagery process and a verbal
process. R e s e ar ch s ho w s t hat t he r e ar e s e v e r al w ays in w hich v is ual
m at e r ial is r e m e m be r e d diffe r e nt ly fr o m v e r bal m at e r ial.
T he im age r y p r o ce s s ap p e ar s t o be be s t s uit e d fo r r e p r e s e nt ing
co ncr e t e e v e nt s , o bje ct s , and w o r ds , w he r e as t he v e r bal p r o ce s s m ay be
be s t s uit e d fo r r e p r e s e nt ing abs t r act v e r bal info r m at io n. O ne r e as o n fo r
t his is t hat co ncr e t e no uns ar e be t t e r able t o p r o duce m e nt al im age s t han
ar e abs t r act no uns . T he fo llo w ing fo ur w o r ds illus t r at e t he diffe r e nce
be t w e e n co ncr e t e and abs t r act no uns : Apple is m o r e co ncr e t e t han fruit,
fruit is m o r e co ncr e t e t han food, and food is m o r e co ncr e t e t han
nourishment. I t is e as ie r t o p ict ur e an ap p le in yo ur m ind t han it is t o
p ict ur e no ur is hm e nt .
T he r e is s o m e e v ide nce t hat co ncr e t e w o r ds ar e p r o ce s s e d in t he
m e m o r y diffe r e nt ly fr o m abs t r act w o r ds . C o ncr e t e w o r ds and t he ir
as s o ciat e d im age s m ay be p r o ce s s e d by t he v is ual s ys t e m , w he r e as
abs t r act w o r ds m ay be p r o ce s s e d by t he v e r bal s ys t e m . N o t o nly m ay
v is ual and v e r bal m e m o r ie s be diffe r e nt processes but t he y m ay als o o ccur
in diffe r e nt places. E v ide nce e xis t s t hat v is ual m e m o r y and v e r bal m e m -
o r y ar e lo cat e d in diffe r e nt p ar t s o f t he br ain. T he r ight half o f t he br ain
s e e m s t o p lay t he p r e do m inant r o le in t he v is ual im age r y p r o ce s s ; t he
le ft half s e e m s t o p r e do m inat e in t he v e r bal p r o ce s s .
8
( H o w e v e r , diffe r -
e nce s be t w e e n t he r ight br ain and t he le ft br ain ar e no t ne ar ly as gr e at
as ar e t he s im ilar it ie s , o r as t he p o p ular p r e s s w o uld hav e us be lie v e ; t he
r e ce nt fad in e ducat io n and bus ine s s o f t r aining p e o p le t o us e t he r ight
halv e s o f t he ir br ains go e s w ay be yo nd t he r e s e ar ch dat a.)
9
Fur t he r e v ide nce fo r a diffe r e nce be t w e e n v e r bal m e m o r y and v is ual
m e m o r y is s ugge s t e d by t he finding t hat v e r bal and v is ual m e m o r y
p r o ce s s e s m ay o p e r at e at diffe r e nt s p e e ds . T he av e r age p e r s o n can
ge ne r at e t he 26 le t t e r s o f t he alp habe t ( s p e ak ing t o him s e lf) in abo ut 4
s e co nds , but it t ak e s abo ut 13 s e co nds t o ge ne r at e v is ual im age s o f t he
26 le t t e r s . Als o , it t ak e s lo nge r t o nam e a p ict ur e o f an o bje ct t han t o
r e ad t he p r int e d nam e o f t he o bje ct .
10
T he cap acit y o f m e m o r y fo r p ict ur e s m ay be alm o s t unlim it e d. W e
s aw in chap t e r 2 t hat r e co gnit io n m e m o r y fo r 600 p ict ur e s w as v e r y high.
Ano t he r s t udy illus t r at e s t his fact e v e n m o r e s t r ik ingly. Pe o p le w e r e
s ho w n 2,560 diffe r e nt p ict ur e s o v e r a p e r io d o f s e v e r al days . T he y w e r e
lat e r s ho w n 280 p air s o f p ict ur e s . O ne o f e ach p air w as a p ict ur e t he
p e r s o n had s e e n be fo r e and t he o t he r w as no t . T he p e o p le w e r e as k e d
t o indicat e w hich o f t he t w o p ict ur e s t he y had s e e n be fo r e . I n t his
r e co gnit io n t as k t he y co r r e ct ly ide nt ifie d abo ut 90 p e r ce nt o f t he p ic-
t ur e s . O t he r r e s e ar ch has fo und e qually s t r ik ing r e s ult s w it h as m any as
10,000 p ict ur e s , and t hat p ict ur e m e m o r y e xce e ds w o r d m e m o r y w he n
m e as ur e d by r e call as w e ll as by r e co gnit io n. I n addit io n, p ict ur e s w e r e
Meet Your Memory : How Does It Work?
39
r e m e m be r e d w it h s ur p r is ing accur acy as lo ng as t hr e e m o nt hs aft e r
s e e ing t he m jus t o nce .
11
T he s aying t hat "o ne p ict ur e is w o r t h a t ho us and w o r ds " is us ually
ap p lie d t o t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f a p ict ur e in co m m unicat ing an ide a t hat
w o uld t ak e m any w o r ds t o e xp r e s s ; it m ay als o ap p ly t o t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s
o f a p ict ur e in r e m e m be r ing w hat w as co m m unicat e d. Fo r e xam p le ,
including p ict ur e s in a t e xt bo o k can he lp t he r e ade r r e m e m be r t he
w r it t e n t e xt ( s e e chap t e r 6). Als o , m any s t udie s hav e fo und t hat p ict ur e s
o f o bje ct s ar e r e m e m be r e d be t t e r t han v e r bal de s cr ip t io ns o f t he o bje ct s ,
and be t t e r t han t he nam e s o f t he o bje ct s , by yo ung childr e n, adult s , and
e lde r ly adult s .
12
S im ilar ly, o ne r e as o n w hy v is ual im age r y ( m e nt al p ic-
t ur e s ) m ay be . a p o w e r ful aid in r e calling v e r bal m at e r ial is be caus e im age s
ar e ap p ar e nt ly m o r e m e m o r able t han w o r ds alo ne .
13
Ano t he r r e as o n w hy im age r y m ay he lp in r e calling v e r bal m at e r ial is
t hat im age r y m ay be p r o ce s s e d in t w o diffe r e nt p ar t s o f t he br aina
no nv e r bal lo cat io n and a v e r bal lo cat io n.
14
T his m e ans t hat a w o r d t hat
can be v is ualize d m ay be p r o ce s s e d bo t h in a v e r bal lo cat io n and a v is ual
lo cat io n. C o ncr e t e w o r ds m ay be r e calle d be t t e r t han abs t r act t e r m s t hat
ar e o nly v e r bal be caus e o f t his dual r e p r e s e nt at io n ( v e r bal and v is ual);
any info r m at io n t hat is r e p r e s e nt e d in t w o w ays is m o r e lik e ly t o be
r e calle d t han if it is r e p r e s e nt e d in o nly o ne w ay. Y o u ar e m o r e lik e ly t o
r e m e m be r w o r ds p lus im age s be t t e r t han w o r ds alo ne fo r t he s am e
r e as o n t hat it is be t t e r t o le av e t w o no t e s fo r yo ur s e lf t han t o le av e o nly
o ne , o r t hat it is be t t e r t o cr o s s - r e fe r e nce a p ap e r unde r t w o he adings in
a file cabine t : Y o u ar e t w ice as lik e ly t o be able t o r e t r ie v e t he m e s s age s .
O f co ur s e , t he t w o e xp lanat io ns abo v e fo r w hy v is ual im age s m ay
he lp m e m o r y ar e no t m ut ually e xclus iv e . I t m ay be t hat p ict ur e s ar e
inhe r e nt ly m o r e m e m o r able t han w o r ds andt hat p ict ur e s ar e co de d bo t h
v is ually and v e r bally. H o w e v e r w e t r y t o e xp lain it , w e w ill s e e in chap t e r
4 t hat v is ual im age r y can inde e d im p r o v e r e call dr am at ically. W e w ill als o
s e e in lat e r chap t e r s t hat v is ual im age r y ( as w e ll as t he us e o f act ual
p ict ur e s ) p lays a ce nt r al r o le in m ne m o nic s ys t e m s .
HOW DO EXCEPTIONAL MEMORIES WORK?
S o m e p e o p le s e e m t o hav e t r uly e xce p t io nal m e m o r y abilit ie s , and do
no t s e e m t o fo r ge t ne ar ly as fas t o r as m uch as m o s t o f us do . D o t he ir
m e m o r ie s w o r k diffe r e nt ly fr o m o ur s ? I n chap t e r 1 it w as s ugge s t e d t hat
m e m o r y is a le ar ne d s k ill m o r e t han an innat e abilit y, and t hat m o s t o f
w hat p e o p le at t r ibut e t o a p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y is m e r e ly t he p o w e r ful
ap p licat io n o f le ar ne d m e m o r y t e chnique s . H o w e v e r , it w as als o no t e d
t hat t he r e is a v alid p he no m e no n t hat is s o m e w hat s im ilar t o t he p o p ular
no t io n o f p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y, w hich p s ycho lo gis t s call "e ide t ic im -
age r y."
15
T he w o r d eidetic m e ans "ide nt ical" o r "dup licat iv e ." E ide t ic
im age r y is a v e r y s t r o ng v is ual aft e r im age t hat e nable s a p e r s o n t o
dup licat e a p ict ur e m e nt ally and de s cr ibe it in de t ail s ho r t ly aft e r lo o k ing
at it . N o m o r e t han 5 t o 10 p e r ce nt o f childr e n p o s s e s s e ide t ic im age r y,
and it is e v e n r ar e r aft e r ado le s ce nce . E ide t ic im age r y has be e n v e r y
har d t o s t udy o bje ct iv e ly, but m o s t r e s e ar ch indicat e s t hat it diffe r s fr o m
no r m al im age r y in de gr e e m o r e t han in k ind: I t is m e r e ly a m o r e p o w e r ful
v e r s io n o f t he cap acit y fo r v is ual im age r y t hat w e all p o s s e s s ( s e e chap t e r
4).
E ide t ic im age r y is p r o bably t he s o ur ce o f t he no t io n o f p ho t o gr ap hic
m e m o r y, but it diffe r s fr o m t he p o p ular no t io n o f p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y
in s e v e r al w ays :
1. T he e ide t ic im age fade s aw ay s o o n aft e r v ie w ing t he s ce ne . I t do e s
no t s t ay w it h a p e r s o n o v e r a p r o lo nge d p e r io d o f t im e , but las t s fo r
a fe w s e co nds t o a fe w m inut e s .
2. T he e ide t ic im age is affe ct e d by t he s ubje ct iv e s t at e o f t he v ie w e r .
T he im age m ay co nt ain addit io ns , o m is s io ns , o r dis t o r t io ns , and t he
as p e ct s o f t he s ce ne t hat ar e o f m o s t int e r e s t t o t he p e r s o n t e nd t o
be r e p r o duce d in t he m o s t de t ail. T he im age is no t an o bje ct iv e
r e p r o duct io n lik e a cam e r a p ho t o gr ap h.
3. T he p e r s o n do e s no t t ak e a s p lit - s e co nd s nap s ho t but r e quir e s a
v ie w ing t im e o f s e v e r al s e co nds t o s can t he s ce ne .
4. I m age s can no t be br o ught back o nce t he y hav e fade d aw ay; t hus ,
p e o p le w it h e ide t ic im age r y do no t s e e m t o be able t o us e t he ir
e ide t ic im age s t o im p r o v e lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y.
Ps ycho lo gis t s hav e s t udie d s o m e p e o p le w ho s e e m t o hav e e xce p -
t io nal m e m o r ie s t hat ar e no t s ubje ct t o all t he lim it at io ns o f e ide t ic
im age r y. Fo r e xam p le , o ne t w e nt y- t hr e e - ye ar - o ld w o m an r e p o r t e dly
co uld lo o k at a p age o f p o e t r y in a fo r e ign language and ye ar s lat e r r e p e at
it v e r bat im , r e ading e it he r fo r w ar d o r back w ar d. S he co uld r e t ain a
p at t e r n o f 10,000 black - and- w hit e s quar e s in he r m ind fo r as lo ng as
t hr e e m o nt hs . H o w e v e r , s he did no t jus t t ak e a s nap s ho t lik e a cam e r a
w o uld but r e quir e d s o m e t im e t o s can t he p at t e r n.
16
Pr o bably t he be s t k no w n e xam p le o f a p e r s o n w ho s e e m e d t o hav e
a t r uly p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y is giv e n in t he acco unt by Ale xandr Lur ia
o f a R us s ian ne w s p ap e r r e p o r t e r nam e d S he r e s he v s k ii, w ho m Lur ia
r e fe r r e d t o s im p ly as "S ". S w as able t o r e call p e r fe ct ly as m any as 70
w o r ds o r num be r s p r e s e nt e d o nce , and co uld lat e r p r o duce t he m in
r e v e r s e o r de r ( yo u can ge t an ide a ho w difficult t his is by t r ying t o r e p e at
t he alp habe t back w ar d). H e inv ar iably p e r fo r m e d s ucce s s fully in e xp e r i-
m e nt s t o t e s t his r e t e nt io n ( w it ho ut be ing giv e n any w ar ning) 15 t o 16
ye ar s aft e r t he s e s s io n in w hich he had o r iginally r e calle d t he w o r ds !
Lur ia's de s cr ip t io n o f t he s e t e s t s e s s io ns is int e r e s t ing:
D ur ing t he t e s t s e s s io ns S w o uld s it w it h his e ye s clo s e d, p aus e , t he n co m m e nt :
"Y e s , ye s . . . . T his w as a s e r ie s yo u gav e m e o nce w he n w e w e r e in yo ur
ap ar t m e nt . . . . Y o u w e r e w e ar ing a gr ay s uit and yo u lo o k e d at m e lik e t his .
N o w , t he n, I can s e e yo u s ay ing..." And w it h t hat he w o uld r e e l o ff t he s e r ie s
p r e cis e ly as I had giv e n it t o him at t he e ar lie r s e s s io n. I f o ne t ak e s int o acco unt
t hat S had by t he n be co m e a w e ll-k no w n m ne m o nis t , w ho had t o r e m e m be r
hundr e ds and t ho us ands o f s e r ie s , t he fe at s e e m s e v e n m o r e r e m ar k able .
17
Lik e t he t w e nt y- t hr e e - ye ar - o ld w o m an de s cr ibe d abo v e , S did no t
m e r e ly t ak e a s nap s ho t o f t he info r m at io n but r e quir e d t im e t o s t udy it .
Fo r e xam p le , m e m o r izing a t able o f 20 digit s r e quir e d abo ut 40 s e co nds
o f s t udy, and m e m o r izing a t able o f 50 digit s r e quir e d 2 t o 3 m inut e s o f
s t udy. O ne o f t he m e t ho ds S us e d t o p e r fo r m s uch fe at s is s im ilar t o t he
Lo ci s ys t e m dis cus s e d in chap t e r 10.
A "p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y" is no t ne ce s s ar y t o p e r fo r m am azing
fe at s o f m e m o r y. Fo r e xam p le , a m an w ho co uld no t p as s a s t andar d t e s t
fo r e ide t ic im age r y and w ho r e p o r t e d t hat he do e s no t "s e e " t he
num be r s , co uld m e m o r ize a 16 x 16 m at r ix o f 256 r ando m digit s .
Ano t he r m an ( V. P.), w ho ap p ar e nt ly r e lie d o n v e r bal m e m o r y r at he r
t han v is ual m e m o r y, co uld lo o k at a 6 x 8 m at r ix o f 48 digit s fo r abo ut 4
m inut e s and r e call all 48 digit s in any o r de r t w o w e e k s lat e r . A nine -
t e e nt h- ce nt ur y m e m o r y p r o digy co uld m e m o r ize a 100- digit num be r in
12 m inut e s if t he digit s w e r e r e ad t o him , but he be cam e co nfus e d if t he
digit s w e r e s ho w n t o him in w r it ing; ano t he r p e r s o n co uld r e cit e t w o and
o ne - half p age s o f m at e r ial aft e r r e ading it o nly o nce , alt ho ugh he had
p o o r v is ual im age r y.
18
O t he r e xce p t io nal m e m o r ie s s t udie d by p s ycho lo gis t s include t he
fo llo w ing p e r fo r m ance s : a co lle ge s t ude nt w ho co uld r e p e at a num be r up
t o 73 digit s lo ng aft e r he ar ing it o nce ; ano t he r co lle ge s t ude nt w ho co uld
do 79 digit s ; a w ait e r w ho co uld r e m e m be r 19 co m p le t e dinne r o r de r s at
o nce ; a co lle ge s t ude nt w ho co uld p e r fo r m s uch fe at s as s quar ing 6- digit
num be r s in his he ad ( fo r e xam p le , 716,723
2
); and o ne m an ( T . E .) w ho
s ho w e d an e xce p t io nal m e m o r y fo r s uch v ar ie d m at e r ial as num be r s ,
p r o s e , and p e o p le 's nam e s and face s ( m o s t e xce p t io nal m e m o r ie s fo cus
o n o nly o ne k ind o f m at e r ial).
19
All o f t he s e p e r fo r m ance s hav e be e n
at t r ibut e d by t he r e s e ar che r s , and by t he p e r fo r m e r s t he m s e lv e s , t o t he
us e o f le ar ne d m ne m o nics , int e r e s t , and p r act ice m o r e t han t o innat e
abilit ie s . Ano t he r e xam p le o f t he r o le o f le ar ne d m ne m o nics is a s t udy I
did w it h s ix s t ude nt s w ho had le ar ne d t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m ( chap t e r 12).
T he y t r ie d t o dup licat e S 's fe at o f m e m o r izing a 4 x 5 m at r ix o f 20 digit s
in 40 s e co nds , s o t he y co uld r e call it by r o w s o r co lum ns , fo r w ar d and
back w ar ds . Fo ur o f t he s ix s t ude nt s did it in 1 m inut e o r le s s , including
o ne s t ude nt w ho did it in 41 s e co nds and o ne w ho did it in 36 s e co nds .
20
Alt ho ugh t he r e ar e p r o bably a fe w indiv iduals w it h e xce p t io nal
m e m o r ie s , s uch as Lur ia's S , w ho do p o s s e s s s o m e inbo r n abilit ie s t hat
m ak e t he m innat e ly diffe r e nt fr o m o t he r p e o p le ( o ne p s ycho lo gis t calle d
t he m "m e m o r is t s " t o dis t inguis h t he m fr o m t he m o r e co m m o n "m ne -
m o nis t s "),
21
t he be s t co nclus io n r e gar ding ho w m o s t e xce p t io nal m e m o -
r ie s w o r k s e e m s t o be co ns is t e nt w it h t he e ar lie r co nclus io ns r e gar ding
p ho t o gr ap hic and e ide t ic m e m o r ie s . E xce p t io nal m e m o r ie s s e e m t o diffe r
fr o m o r dinar y m e m o r ie s m o r e in degree t han in kind, and t o de p e nd m o r e
o n le ar ne d t han innat e abilit ie s . T his m e ans t hat w he n w e s e e s o m e o ne
p e r fo r m an am azing m e m o r y fe at , w e s ho uld p r o bably adm ir e he r
m o t iv at io n m o r e t han he r abilit y.
T he fo llo w ing e xce r p t fr o m a m e m o r y t e xt bo o k r e p r e s e nt s t he v ie w
o f m o s t p s ycho lo gis t s r e gar ding m o s t e xce p t io nal m e m o r ie s :
Many o f t he de v ice s t he e xp e r t s us e ar e abilit ie s w e hav e s t udie d in t he p r e ce ding
chap t e r s , car r ie d t o unus ual he ight s . . . . e xp e r t s m ay no t be s o diffe r e nt fr o m
no ne xp e r t s as w e o nce im agine d. T he y s e e m t o hav e fine ly ho ne d t ale nt s , but
t he y ar e t ale nt s t hat als o e xis t in t he "av e r age " info r m at io n p r o ce s s o r w e hav e
be e n s t udying, e v e n if t he y ap p e ar in le s s e r fo r m .
22
T he r e is ano t he r int e r e s t ing m e m o r y p he no m e no n t hat fit s unde r
t he he ading o f e xce p t io nal m e m o r ie s . S o m e p e o p le p o s s e s s o ne o ut -
s t anding m e nt al abilit y, s uch as a s o - calle d p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y, a
che s s - p laying abilit y, o r t he abilit y t o do co m p le x m at he m at ical calcula-
t io ns in t he ir he ads , but lack ge ne r al int e llige nce . S uch a p e r s o n is calle d
an idiot savant, a t e r m m e aning "w is e idio t ."
23
H av ing a s o - calle d p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y, o r any o t he r o ut s t anding
m e nt al s k ill, is no t ne ce s s ar ily a ble s s ing. I dio t s av ant s ar e ge ne r ally
inco m p e t e nt at anyt hing o t he r t han t he ir o ne fe at , be ing unable t o r e as o n
o r t o co m p r e he nd m e aning. I n s o m e cas e s , t he y m ay e v e n be r e t ar de d
in ar e as o t he r t han t hat o f t he ir fe at . S im ilar ly, t he p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y
o f Lur ia's S w as in m any w ays m o r e o f a bur de n t han a ble s s ing. W he n
he t r ie d t o r e ad, e v e r y w o r d br o ught fo r t h an im age ; t he s e im age s
clut t e r e d his m ind and p r e v e nt e d him fr o m unde r s t anding w hat he w as
r e ading. H e als o fo und it har d t o e r as e im age s t hat w e r e no lo nge r
us e ful. ( R e call t he dis cus s io n in chap t e r 2 o f ho w difficult it w o uld be t o
s e le ct r e le v ant info r m at io n if all t he info r m at io n w e r e co ns t ant ly at t he
fo r e o f o ur aw ar e ne s s .) I n addit io n, S co uld o nly unde r s t and w hat w as
co ncr e t e e no ugh t o v is ualize . Abs t r act ide as p r e s e nt e d p r o ble m s and
t o r m e nt s t o him , as did m e t ap ho r s and s yno nym s ( fo r e xam p le , w he n a
p e r s o n w as calle d a "baby" o n o ne p age and a "child" o n ano t he r , it w as
har d fo r S t o unde r s t and t hat t he w o r ds w e r e r e fe r r ing t o t he s am e
p e r s o n). T hus , it w as v e r y difficult fo r S t o unde r s t and t he o v e r all
m e aning o f m at e r ial he r e ad.
HOW WELL DOES SLEEP LEARNING WORK?
T hink abo ut ho w m uch t im e and e ffo r t yo u w o uld s av e in le ar ning if yo u
co uld jus t p lay a t ap e r e co r ding o f t he m at e r ial w hile yo u w e r e as le e p
and le ar n it . I s n't it a s ham e t o w as t e all t hat t im e s le e p ing w he n yo u
co uld be le ar ning s o m e t hing us e ful at t he s am e t im e ? T his is t he k ind o f
ar gum e nt o ffe r e d in adv e r t is e m e nt s fo r s le e p - le ar ning m achine s . S o m e
r adio s t at io ns hav e e v e n br o adcas t m e s s age s dur ing t he night t o he lp
s le e p ing p e o p le lo s e w e ight , quit s m o k ing, and r e duce t e ns io n. C an yo u
r e ally le ar n in yo ur s le e p ? D o ze ns o f s t udie s hav e be e n co nduct e d o n
s le e p le ar ning in t he U nit e d S t at e s and in t he U .S .S .R .
24
A ce nt r al is s ue in de t e r m ining w he t he r yo u can le ar n in yo ur s le e p
is w hat w e m e an by t he t e r m sleep. T he r e ar e s e v e r al s t age s o f s le e p ,
r anging fr o m v e r y light t o v e r y de e p s le e p . E ar ly s t udie s t hat s ho w e d
p o s it iv e e ffe ct s o f s le e p le ar ning did no t de t e r m ine w he t he r p e o p le w e r e
r e ally as le e p o r t ak e int o acco unt ho w de e p ly as le e p t he y w e r e . I n lat e r
co nt r o lle d s t udie s , t he le v e l o f s le e p w as m e as ur e d by o bs e r v ing t he
p e o p le 's br ain- w av e p at t e r ns o n an e le ct r o e nce p halo gr ap h. T he p e o p le
s ho w e d no e v ide nce o f r e m e m be r ing que s t io ns and ans w e r s o r w o r d lis t s
t hat had be e n r e ad t o t he m w hile t he y w e r e s o undly as le e p . I n 1970 t he
N e w Y o r k at t o r ne y ge ne r al banne d t he adv e r t is ing o f a language - le ar ning
m achine t hat claim e d t o t e ach a p e r s o n in his s le e p , o n t he gr o unds t hat
t he r e w as no e v ide nce t hat a language co uld be le ar ne d w hile a p e r s o n
s le p t .
25
W hat abo ut light s le e p ? I s it p o s s ible t o r e m e m be r m at e r ial t hat is
r e ad t o yo u w he n yo u ar e jus t bar e ly as le e p ? T he r e is s o m e e v ide nce
t hat p e o p le can le ar n w hile t he y ar e in s t at e s o f dr o w s ine s s o r o f v e r y
light s le e p . Mo s t r e s e ar ch o f t his k ind has be e n co nduct e d in t he
U .S .S .R . I n o ne s t udy t hat w as co nduct e d in t he U nit e d S t at e s , p e o p le
w e r e r e ad s t at e m e nt s s uch as A is fo r ap p le " dur ing t he diffe r e nt
s t age s o f s le e p . Aft e r t he y aw o k e , t he y w e r e as k e d t o che ck any fam iliar
w o r d ap p e ar ing o n a lis t o f 10 w o r ds be ginning w it h A. C o r r e ct w o r ds
w e r e r e co gnize d fr o m 28 p e r ce nt o f t he s t at e m e nt s p r e s e nt e d in t he
light e s t s t age o f s le e p , 10 p e r ce nt in t he ne xt light e s t s t age , and no ne in
de e p s le e p .
26
T he s ugge s t io n t hat it m ay be p o s s ible t o le ar n in v e r y light s le e p is
s ubje ct t o s e v e r al co ndit io ns .
1. T he m at e r ial m us t be p r e s e nt e d at jus t t he r ight le v e l o f dr o w s ine s s
o r light s le e p . I f t he p e r s o n is no t as le e p e no ugh t he m at e r ial w ill
w ak e him up . I f he is t o o de e p ly as le e p , he w ill no t r e m e m be r any o f
it .
2. N o co m p le x m at e r ial o r m at e r ial inv o lv ing r e as o ning o r unde r s t anding
can be le ar ne d. O nly m at e r ial s uch as no ns e ns e s yllable s , Mo r s e
co de , t e chnical e xp r e s s io ns , fact s , dat e s , fo r e ign language v o cabu-
lar y, and s im p le fo r m ulas co ns t it ut e p o t e nt ial m at e r ials fo r s le e p
le ar ning.
3. E v e n w he n co ndit io ns o ne and t w o ar e m e t , s le e p le ar ning is no t
s ufficie nt by it s e lf, but o nly as an aid t o dayt im e s t udie s .
T hus , alt ho ugh it m ay be p o s s ible t o le ar n s o m e k inds o f m at e r ial in
s o m e s t age s o f s le e p , it is an ine fficie nt w ay t o le ar n. Y o u ar e be t t e r o ff
s t aying aw ak e w hile yo u ar e s t udying o r lis t e ning t o a le ct ur e .
S o m e r e s e ar ch e v ide nce indicat e s t hat p e o p le can r e m e m be r m o r e
if t he y go t o s le e p im m e diat e ly aft e r le ar ning t han if t he y s t ay aw ak e
dur ing t he s am e p e r io d o f t im e , but t hat t he y r e m e m be r le s s if t he y
s le e p im m e diat e ly be fo r e le ar ning. I n bo t h o f t he s e s it uat io ns t he le ar ning
it s e lf t o o k p lace w he n t he p e o p le w e r e aw ak e .
27
Subliminal Learning
An ar e a o f r e s e ar ch t hat is r e lat e d t o s le e p le ar ning is s ublim inal le ar ning
and adv e r t is ing. T he t e r m subliminal m e ans be lo w t he le v e l o f co ns cio us
aw ar e ne s s and r e fe r s t o m e s s age s t hat ar e t o o fas t o r t o o w e ak fo r us t o
be aw ar e o f t he m . D ur ing t he 1950s "s ublim inal adv e r t is ing" be cam e
p ublicize d and p e o p le be cam e co nce r ne d abo ut it s im p licat io ns fo r m ind
co nt r o l. A fam o us cas e indicat e d t hat m e s s age s s aying "e at p o p co r n" and
"dr ink C o ca- C o la" w e r e flas he d o n a t he at e r m o v ie s cr e e n dur ing m o v ie s
o v e r a s ix- w e e k p e r io d. T he y w e r e flas he d s o fas t t hat no o ne w as
co ns cio us ly aw ar e o f t he m . Po p co r n s ale s r e p o r t e dly s ho t up 50 p e r ce nt
and C o k e s ale s w e nt up 18 p e r ce nt . Many p e o p le w e r e jus t ifiably
co nce r ne d at t he im p licat io ns o f t his r e p o r t . I n t he 1980s t his co nce r n
has ar is e n again, and no w include s r o ck m us ic w it h "S at anic m e s s age s "
t hat ar e s aid t o be co ns cio us ly dis ce r nible w he n t he r e co r ding is p laye d
back w ar d and unco ns cio us ly p e r s uas iv e w he n t he r e co r ding is p laye d
no r m ally.
D ur ing t he 1980s t he r e has be e n incr e as ing r e s e ar ch int e r e s t in
unco ns cio us p r o ce s s ing, and t he r e is s o m e r e s e ar ch e v ide nce t hat p e o p le
can p r o ce s s lim it e d s e ns o r y info r m at io n w it ho ut co ns cio us aw ar e ne s s in
t he ar t ificial dis t r act io n- fr e e s e t t ing o f a r e s e ar ch labo r at o r y, w he r e t he ir
at t e nt io n is fine ly fo cus e d o n t he t as k .
28
H o w e v e r , no o ne has be e n able
t o dup licat e t he r e p o r t e d "s ublim inal adv e r t is ing^' e ffe ct o f t he 1950s ,
and w e ll- co nt r o lle d r e s e ar ch s t udie s hav e fo und no e v ide nce t hat s ublim -
inal m e s s age s in ads o r m us ic hav e s ignificant e ffe ct s o n e it he r le ar ning
o r be hav io r .
29
T hus , yo u ar e no t lik e ly t o le ar n and r e m e m be r m at e r ial, w he t he r
yo u ar e as le e p o r aw ak e , if yo u ar e no t co ns cio us ly aw ar e t hat it is be ing
p r e s e nt e d t o yo u.
41
j _c
How to Remember Al most
Anythi ng: Basi c Pri nci pl es
C
e r t ain bas ic p r incip le s o f le ar ning and m e m o r y unde r lie alm o s t all
m e m o r y t as k s . T he s e p r incip le s ar e ge ne r al e no ugh s o t hat o ne o r
m o r e o f t he m can be ap p lie d t o he lp r e m e m be r alm o s t anyt hing. S o m e
o f t he bas ic p r incip le s o n w hich v ir t ually all le ar ning and m e m o r y ar e
bas e d ar e m e aningfulne s s , o r ganizat io n, as s o ciat io n, v is ualizat io n, and
at t e nt io n. E ach o f t he s e p r incip le s is dis cus s e d in t his chap t e r , and
addit io nal bas ic p r incip le s ar e dis cus s e d in chap t e r 5. T he m ne m o nic
s ys t e m s dis cus s e d in lat e r chap t e r s us e t he s e p r incip le s .
MEANINGFULNESS: "THAT DOESN'T MAKE SENSE"
O ne o f t he m ain de t e r m inant s o f ho w e as y s o m e t hing is t o le ar n is ho w
m e aningful it is t o t he le ar ne r . I f it do e s n't m ak e s e ns e , it w ill be har d t o
le ar n; t he m o r e m e aningful it is , t he e as ie r it w ill be t o le ar n. T he
alt e r nat iv e t o m e aningful le ar ning is le ar ning by "r o t e ." R o t e m e m o r y
r e fe r s t o t r ying t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hing by r e p e at ing it o v e r and o v e r
w it ho ut do ing anyt hing t o m ak e it m e aningful.
W o r ds ar e e as ie r t o r e m e m be r t han no ns e ns e s yllable s . C o ncr e t e
w o r ds ar e e as ie r t o r e m e m be r t han abs t r act w o r ds . W o r ds gr o up e d int o
m e aningful cat e go r ie s ar e e as ie r t o r e m e m be r t han w o r ds giv e n in
m e aningle s s o r de r . S e nt e nce s ar e e as ie r t o r e m e m be r t han w o r ds in
46
How to Remember Almost Anything: Basic Principles 47
ungr am m at ical o r de r . And w e ll- o r ganize d p ar agr ap hs and s t o r ie s ar e
e as ie r t o r e m e m be r t han dis o r ganize d o ne s . At all le v e ls , m e aningfulne s s
affe ct s m e m o r y. I n o ne s t udy t hat s ho w s t he e ffe ct o f m e aning o n
le ar ning, p e o p le m e m o r ize d a lis t o f 200 no ns e ns e s yllable s , a 200- w o r d
p r o s e p as s age , and 200 w o r ds o f p o e t r y. T he no ns e ns e s yllable s t o o k
abo ut IV2 ho ur s t o m e m o r ize ; t he p r o s e t o o k le s s t han Vz ho ur , and t he
p o e t r y t o o k abo ut 10 m inut e s .
1
Bs o p le w ho p ar t icip at e in e xp e r im e nt s o n le ar ning s o m e t im e s t r y
v ar io us p e r s o nal s t r at e gie s t o giv e m e aning t o a lis t o f w o r ds , fo r e ign
w o r ds , no ns e ns e s yllable s , o r no ns e ns e dr aw ings , s o t hat t he y can le ar n
t he m m o r e e as ily. T he y m ay t r y co nv e r t ing a no ns e ns e s yllable int o a
m e aningful w o r d by us ing a s ubs t it ut e w o r d ( H AW K fo r H O K), adding a
le t t e r ( T AC K fo r T AC ), o r s ubs t it ut ing a le t t e r ( C U T fo r KU T ). O t he r s
t r y o r ganizing m at e r ial int o m e aningful unit s o r t r y lo o k ing fo r a p at t e r n.
T he s e p e o p le r e alize t hat yo u s ho uld t r y t o m ak e s o m e t hing m e aningful
in o r de r t o r e m e m be r it .
2
S o m e o f t he o t he r bas ic p r incip le s dis cus s e d in t his chap t e r can he lp
m ak e m at e r ial m e aningful; in fact , it is har d t o de fine m e aningful le ar ning
w it ho ut r e fe r r ing t o s uch p r incip le s as o r ganizat io n and as s o ciat io n.
3
I n
addit io n t o t he s e o t he r p r incip le s , fam iliar it y, r hym e s , and p at t e r ns als o
can he lp m ak e m at e r ial m e aningful.
Familiarity
Ge ne r ally, t he m o r e yo u k no w abo ut a p ar t icular s ubje ct t he e as ie r it is
t o le ar n ne w info r m at io n abo ut it , no t o nly in t e r m s o f r e m e m be r ing t he
info r m at io n but als o in t e r m s o f unde r s t anding it .
4
Le ar ning builds o n
le ar ning. I f yo u alr e ady k no w s o m e t hing abo ut a t o p ic, if yo u ar e alr e ady
fam iliar w it h it , t he n no t o nly w ill t he ne w info r m at io n be m o r e m e aningful
but yo u w ill als o hav e s o m e t hing w it h w hich t o as s o ciat e it ( as s o ciat io n is
dis cus s e d lat e r ). Fo r e xam p le , if a lis t o f co o k ing t e r m s and s p o r t s t e r m s
is giv e n t o a gr o up o f m e n and w o m e n, m o r e w o m e n m ay m e m o r ize t he
co o k ing t e r m s fas t e r and m o r e m e n t he s p o r t s t e r m s ; t he s e t e r m s ar e
m o r e fam iliar and t hus m o r e m e aningful t o t he m . W e s aw in chap t e r 2
t hat e xp e r ie nce d che s s p laye r s can r e m e m be r che s s p o s it io ns be t t e r
t han ine xp e r ie nce d p laye r s . Fam iliar it y p lays an im p o r t ant r o le in t his
e ffe ct . I n addit io n t o be ing fam iliar w it h m o r e p at t e r ns o f t he s e p ie ce s ,
e xp e r ie nce d p laye r s ar e be t t e r at int e gr at ing fam iliar co nfigur at io ns int o
a m e aningful w ho le .
5
T he s t udy de s cr ibe d in chap t e r 2 in w hich a t hr e e - ye ar - o ld child
w ho w as r e ad p as s age s o f Gr e e k s ho w e d s o m e m e m o r y o f t he Gr e e k at
age e ight s ugge s t s ano t he r adv ant age o f fam iliar it y. E xp o s ur e t o s o m e -
t hing m ay r e s ult in p ar t ial le ar ning o f it e v e n w it ho ut t he int e nt t o le ar n.
T hus , a child w ho s e p ar e nt s r e ad t o him m ay lat e r le ar n t o r e ad m o r e
e as ily, o r a child w it h m us ic in his ho us e m ay lat e r le ar n m us ic m o r e
e as ily.
S e v e r al r e ce nt r e s e ar ch findings als o illus t r at e t he im p o r t ance o f
fam iliar it y in r e m e m be r ing. C o lle ge s t ude nt s w ho he ar d a lis t o f 12
s ayings o r p r o v e r bs ( s uch as , "An ap p le a day k e e p s t he do ct o r aw ay")
r e m e m be r e d m o r e fam iliar s ayings t han unfam iliar s ayings . Fam iliar it y
w it h t he w o r ds o n a w o r d lis t r e duce d diffe r e nce s be t w e e n yo ung and
e lde r ly adult s in r e call ( in fact , w he n t he w o r ds us e d w e r e m o r e fam iliar
t o o lde r adult s , t he y act ually o ut p e r fo r m e d yo ung adult s ). I n a s e r ie s o f
s t udie s o n r e call and o r ganizat io n o f info r m at io n by black and w hit e
ado le s ce nt s , t he r e s e ar che r r e p o r t e d t hat t he m o s t no t e w o r t hy finding
w as t he p o s it iv e r e lat io ns hip be t w e e n t he ir p e r fo r m ance and t he ir fam il-
iar it y w it h t he info r m at io n.
6
Rhymes
D o yo u r e m e m be r w he n C o lum bus dis co v e r e d Am e r ica? W hat hap p e ne d
in fo ur t e e n hundr e d and nine t y- t w o ? Mo s t lik e ly yo u le ar ne d t his r hym e
at o ne t im e : "I n fo ur t e e n hundr e d and nine t y- t w o , C o lum bus s aile d t he
o ce an blue ." S im ilar ly t he r hym e , "i be fo r e e e xce p t aft e r c; o r w he n
s o unde d lik e a, as in ne ighbo r and w e igh," he lp s yo u t o r e m e m be r ho w
t o s p e ll w o r ds w it h ie in t he m . Many p e o p le r e ly o n a r hym e t o he lp
t he m r e m e m be r ho w m any days ar e in e ach m o nt h: "T hir t y days has
S e p t e m be r , Ap r il, June , and N o v e m be r . . . " R hyt hm and r hym e ar e
us e d by childr e n in le ar ning t he alp habe t w it h t he fo llo w ing s o ng ( w hich
als o us e s chunk ing):
AB- C D - E FG
ffi- J K- LMN O P
QR S - T U V
W X- Y andZ.
N o w I 'v e s aid m y ABC s ,
T e ll m e w hat yo u t hink o f m e .
T he s e ar e jus t a fe w e xam p le s o f ho w r hym e can be us e d t o im p o s e
m e aning o n m at e r ial t hat is no t inhe r e nt ly m e aningful. I f yo u can m ak e
up a r hym e inv o lv ing t he m at e r ial t o be le ar ne d, it w ill m ak e t he m at e r ial
m o r e m e aningful and t hus e as ie r t o r e m e m be r . Als o , r e s e ar ch has s ho w n
t hat w he n yo u ar e t r ying t o r e call a w o r d, o t he r w o r ds t hat r hym e w it h
it m ay be e ffe ct iv e cue s t o he lp r e call it , and t hat w he n a lis t o f w o r ds is
r e calle d, w o r ds t hat r hym e t e nd t o be r e calle d t o ge t he r , e v e n w he n t he y
w e r e no t t o ge t he r in t he o r iginal lis t .
7
Patterns
I f yo u can find a p at t e r n, r ule , o r unde r lying p r incip le in t he m at e r ial, yo u
w ill lik e ly be able t o le ar n it e as ie r . I t w as no t e d in chap t e r 2 t hat t he
num be r 376- 315- 374- 264 is e as ie r t o r e m e m be r if yo u ar r ange it in
fo ur gr o up s o f t hr e e . T he t as k is e v e n e as ie r if yo u can s e e s o m e p at t e r n
o r r e lat io ns hip s am o ng t he fo ur gr o up s . Fo r e xam p le , t he fir s t t hr e e
gr o up s all s t ar t w it h 3, and t he fir s t and t hir d gr o up s bo t h hav e a 7 ne xt ;
t he s e co nd digit s in t he las t t w o gr o up s ar e o nly o ne digit ap ar t ( 7 and
6), and t he las t digit is t he s am e ( 4). N o t icing s uch p at t e r ns he lp s m ak e
t he num be r m o r e m e aningful. S im ilar ly, lo o k ing fo r p at t e r ns in p ho ne
num be r s , addr e s s e s , dat e s , o r any o t he r num be r s w ill he lp yo u r e m e m -
be r t he m . Fo r e xam p le , t he p ho ne num be r 375- 2553 m ight be analyze d
as fo llo w s : 3 int o 75 giv e s 25, fo llo w e d by ano t he r 5 ( 2 fiv e s ), and e nding
w it h t he s am e num be r it s t ar t s w it h ( 3).
S o m e p e o p le t r ie d t o m e m o r ize t he fo llo w ing 24- digit num be r :
581215192226293336404347. T r y it yo ur s e lf be fo r e yo u r e ad any fur -
t he r . D o yo u s e e any p at t e r n in t he num be r ? S o m e o f t he p e o p le w e r e
as k e d t o le ar n t he num be r by r o t e r e p e t it io n. O t he r s le ar ne d a p at t e r n.
T hr e e w e e k s lat e r no ne o f t he p e o p le in t he fir s t gr o up co uld r e call t he
num be r , but 23 p e r ce nt o f t he p e o p le w ho le ar ne d t he p at t e r n co uld
r e call t he num be r . Y o u m ay hav e figur e d o ut by no w t hat t he p at t e r n is
t o s t ar t w it h 5, add 3 t o ge t 8, t he n add 4 t o ge t 12, t he n add 3, t he n
add 4, and s o o n. O nce yo u find t he p at t e r n, all yo u hav e t o do is
r e m e m be r t he p at t e r n and us e it t o ge ne r at e t he s e que nce .
8
T his las t e xam p le illus t r at e s chunk ing as w e ll as m e aning. I f yo u can
find a p at t e r n, yo u o nly hav e t o r e m e m be r o ne p ie ce o f info r m at io n ( 5
p lus 3 t he n 4, alt e r nat e ly) r at he r t han 24 p ie ce s o f info r m at io n. Finding a
p at t e r n is o ne w ay t o co de a num be r t o p ut it in lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y; yo u
no lo nge r hav e t o k e e p r e he ar s ing it t o r e m e m be r it . T hus , in addit io n t o
m ak ing m at e r ial m o r e m e aningful, p at t e r ns s e r v e t o chunk t he m at e r ial
s o t he r e is le s s t o r e m e m be r . I f yo u can s e e a p at t e r n, t he n all yo u hav e
t o r e m e m be r is t he p at t e r n, and yo u can ge ne r at e t he o r iginal m at e r ial.
T he us e o f p at t e r ns is no t lim it e d t o m e m o r y fo r num be r s . O ne
s t udy fo und t hat w he n a p air e d- as s o ciat e w o r d lis t had a p at t e r n unde r -
lying t he as s o ciat io ns , t he as s o ciat io ns w e r e r e m e m be r e d be t t e r a w e e k
lat e r t han w he n t he lis t w as t e s t e d w it ho ut an unde r lying p at t e r n. W e
hav e s e e n t hat a che s s m as t e r can m e m o r ize t he p o s it io ns o f p ie ce s in a
gam e at a glance be caus e t he y fo r m a p at t e r n, but if t he p ie ce s ar e
ar r ange d r ando m ly t he n he do e s no t do m uch be t t e r t han t he be ginne r ;
s im ilar findings hav e be e n r e p o r t e d in m e m o r y fo r br idge hands , fo r t he
gam e o f Go , fo r m ap s , and e v e n fo r m us ic. Le o n Fle is che r is an
int e r nat io nally fam o us p ianis t w ho has t o le ar n w ho le p iano co nce r t s o f
20,000 dis t inct no t e s ; he t r ie s t o no t ice unde r lying p at t e r ns in t he m us ic
s o t hat he co m e s aw ay fr o m s t udying a p ie ce no t o nly w it h a m e r e
s e que nce o f no t e s but w it h w hat he calls "p r o fo und unde r s t anding o f t he
s t r uct ur e o f t he m at e r ial."
9
ORGANIZATION: "GET IT ALL TOGETHER"
H o w us e ful w o uld a dict io nar y be if t he w o r ds w e r e lis t e d in r ando m
o r de r r at he r t han alp habe t ically? O ne o f t he r e as o ns yo u can find a
p ar t icular w o r d in a dict io nar y is be caus e t he w o r ds ar e o r ganize d in
alp habe t ical o r de r . S im ilar ly, o ne o f t he r e as o ns yo u can find a bo o k in a
libr ar y, o r a p ar t icular do cum e nt in a file cabine t , is be caus e t he
info r m at io n is o r ganize d. Y o u do no t hav e t o s e ar ch t hr o ugh all t he w o r ds
in t he dict io nar y, all t he bo o k s in t he libr ar y, o r all t he do cum e nt s in t he
file cabine t ; yo u m e r e ly go t o t he s e ct io n w he r e t he de s ir e d it e m is
s t o r e d. O f co ur s e , no t o nly m us t t he info r m at io n be o r ganize d but it
m us t be cat alo ge d if t he r e is a lar ge am o unt o f info r m at io n. Y o u co uld no t
find m uch in a libr ar y w it ho ut t he car d o r co m p ut e r cat alo g. T he cat alo g's
us e fulne s s is e xt e nde d e v e n fur t he r if t he m at e r ials in t he cat alo g ar e
cr o s s - r e fe r e nce d.
Mat e r ial is als o o r ganize d in lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y s o t hat yo u do n't
ne e d t o s e ar ch t hr o ugh e v e r yt hing in yo ur m e m o r y t o find s p e cific
info r m at io n.
10
A s im p le de m o ns t r at io n o f t his fact is t o t r y r e calling t he
nam e s o f all t he s t at e s in t he U nit e d S t at e s . Be fo r e yo u r e ad any fur t he r ,
t ak e 1 m inut e t o r e call as m any s t at e nam e s as yo u can. Y o u p r o bably do
no t r ando m ly s t ar t nam ing s t at e s , but m ak e a s ys t e m at ic s e ar ch o f
m e m o r y. Mo s t lik e ly yo u w ill nam e t he m ge o gr ap hically, s t ar t ing w it h
t he s t at e s in a ce r t ain p ar t o f t he co unt r y and w o r k ing acr o s s t he
co unt r y; o r yo u m ight s t ar t w it h t he o ne s yo u hav e v is it e d. Ano t he r
p o s s ibilit y is t hat yo u m ay nam e t he m alp habe t ically, s t ar t ing w it h t he
s t at e s t hat be gin w it h t he le t t e r A. T he im p o r t ant p o int is t hat yo ur
r e call w ill be o r ganize d, no t hap hazar d.
S im ilar ly, if yo u t r y t o m ak e a lis t o f m e n's nam e s t hat be gin w it h
t he le t t e r R, yo u do no t jus t s t ar t r e calling w o r ds r ando m ly ( nam e s and
no nnam e s , m e n's nam e s and w o m e n's nam e s , R nam e s and A nam e s ,
e t c.) but im m e diat e ly go r ight t o t he s e ct io n o f yo ur m e m o r y w he r e
"m e n's R nam e s " ar e s t o r e d. E v e n w it hin t his s e ct io n, yo ur r e call do e s
no t o ccur r ando m ly. Y o u m ay t r y t o t hink o f all yo ur fr ie nds w ho s e nam e s
be gin w it h R, o r yo u m ay p r o ce e d alp habe t ically (Ra, Re, e t c.), o r yo u
m ay t r y t o t hink o f fam o us p e o p le w ho s e nam e s be gin w it h R.
T he s e e xam p le s o f s t at e nam e s and R nam e s s ho w t hat info r m at io n
is o r ganize d in m e m o r y. T he m o r e yo u co ns cio us ly o r ganize m at e r ial at
t he t im e yo u ar e fir s t le ar ning it , t he e as ie r it is t o r e t r ie v e . I t w ill be
e as ie r t o find t his m at e r ial w he n yo u w ant it if yo u p ut it int o m e m o r y in
s o m e o r ganize d w ay. N o t e , ho w e v e r , t hat a p ar t icular w ay o f o r ganizing
m at e r ial m ay no t be e qually e ffe ct iv e fo r e v e r y r e call t as k . Fo r e xam p le ,
t he o r ganizat io n o f a dict io nar y is co nv e nie nt fo r lo o k ing up t he m e aning
o f a giv e n w o r d o r fo r finding o ut ho w m any w o r ds s t ar t w it h t he le t t e r s
cy but it is no t co nv e nie nt fo r finding a w o r d t hat r hym e s w it h a giv e n
w o r d o r finding o ut ho w m any w o r ds e nd in t he le t t e r s cy. S im ilar ly, if
yo u o r iginally le ar ne d t he s t at e nam e s o r ganize d in alp habe t ical o r de r
s o m e t im e in t he p as t , t he n us ing t he le t t e r s o f t he alp habe t t o r e t r ie v e
t he nam e s w o uld be m o r e e ffe ct iv e t han if yo u had no t p r e v io us ly le ar ne d
t he nam e s alp habe t ically. T he p o w e r o f s e que nt ial o r ganizat io n in r e call
can als o be illus t r at e d by t r ying t o r e cit e all t he le t t e r s in t he alp habe t .
T his is an e as y t as k fo r m o s t p e o p le . But no w t r y t o r e cit e all t he le t t e r s
in r ando m o r de r (W, C, A, M, e t c.). Y o u w ill s o o n find t hat yo u hav e a
har d t im e k e e p ing t r ack o f ho w m any le t t e r s yo u hav e nam e d and w hich
o ne s .
I n addit io n t o ar r anging t he o r de r o f m at e r ial in a m e aningful
s e que nce , ano t he r w ay t o o r ganize m at e r ial is t o gr o up it int o s im ilar
cat e go r ie s . R e s e ar ch s ho w s t hat p r e s e nt ing info r m at io n o r ganize d int o
cat e go r ie s he lp s in le ar ning t he info r m at io n. Le ar ning and m e m o r y ar e
he lp e d e v e n w he n it e m s ar e no t gr o up e d int o cat e go r ie s , but t he p e o p le
ar e t o ld t he cat e go r ie s int o w hich t he t e r m s could be o r ganize d, o r ar e
t o ld t o p ay at t e nt io n t o t he cat e go r ie s .
11
Ft e o p le m ay im p o s e t he ir o w n o r ganizat io n t o he lp le ar n a lis t o f
it e m s t hat is no t p r e s e nt e d in cat e go r ie s , and t he y s t ill t e nd t o r e call t he
m at e r ial by cat e go r ie s lat e r e v e n if t he y do no t le ar n it o r ganize d by
cat e go r ie s . Fo r e xam p le , if yo u gav e p e o p le t he fo llo w ing lis t o f w o r ds t o
le ar nm an, r o s e , do g, p ans y, w o m an, ho r s e , child, cat , car nat io n
t he y w o uld lik e ly r e call t he w o r ds gr o up e d in s im ilar cat e go r ie s : m an,
w o m an, child; do g, cat , ho r s e ; r o s e , p ans y, car nat io n. C hildr e n as yo ung
as s ix ye ar s o ld w e r e t aught t o us e t his o r ganizing s t r at e gy w e ll e no ugh
t o s ignificant ly im p r o v e t he ir m e m o r ie s fo r 18- it e m lis t s . I f t he it e m s t o
be r e m e m be r e d co uld no t be gr o up e d by cat e go r ie s , t he y w o uld lik e ly
be gr o up e d by o t he r cr it e r ia, s uch as t he s am e fir s t le t t e r .
12
I t has be e n fo und t hat p e o p le w ho ar e ins t r uct e d t o jus t o r ganize
m at e r ial r e m e m be r it as w e ll as p e o p le w ho ar e ins t r uct e d t o le ar n t he
m at e r ial. T he v alue o f o r ganizat io n is no t lim it e d t o w o r d lis t s . O r ganize d
p ar agr ap hs ar e als o r e calle d be t t e r t han uno r ganize d o ne s , and s t o r ie s
t hat ar e o r ganize d lo gically ( w it h o ne e v e nt le ading t o ano t he r ) ar e
r e m e m be r e d be t t e r t han s t o r ie s t hat jum p ar o und fr o m o ne p o int t o
ano t he r and do no t m ak e as m uch s e ns e . N o r is t he v alue o f o r ganizat io n
in m e m o r y lim it e d t o v e r bal m at e r ial. O bje ct s t hat ar e o r ganize d in a
m e aningful, co he r e nt p ict ur e ar e r e m e m be r e d be t t e r t han o bje ct s in a
jum ble d p ict ur e .
13
O ne v alue o f o r ganizat io n is t hat it can be us e d t o m ak e m at e r ial
m e aningful. C o ns ide r t he num be r 581215192226293336404347 dis -
cus s e d e ar lie r in t his chap t e r . I f t he num be r w e r e r e gr o up e d as fo llo w s
5 8 12 15 19 22 26 29 33 36 40 43 47t he n yo u w o uld be m uch m o r e
lik e ly t o s e e t he p at t e r n and t hus le ar n t he num be r fas t e r . S im ilar ly, t he
fo llo w ing s e t o f le t t e r s m ay no t be t o o e as y t o m e m o r ize : BU S H AW O R
T H I S T W O BI R D H AN D I N T H E I N T H E . But if w e r e o r ganize t he
le t t e r s ( no t t he o r de r , but jus t t he gr o up ing) w e ge t a m o r e m e aningful
s e t o f le t t e r s : BU S H A W O R T H I S T W O BI R D H AN D I N T H E I N T H E .
R e o r ganizing t he o r de r o f t he w o r ds giv e s A BI R D I N T H E H AN D I S
W O R T H T W O I N T H E BU S H . W hat m ak e s t his las t s e t o f le t t e r s s o
m uch e as ie r t o r e m e m be r ? I t co ns is t s o f t he s am e e le m e nt s , but t he y
ar e r e o r ganize d t o giv e t he m m o r e m e aning.
Ano t he r v alue o f o r ganizat io n is t hat it can inv o lv e chunk ing. T he
p r e v io us e xam p le o f t he 12- digit num be r div ide d int o 3- digit chunk ? ( 376-
315- 374- 264) inv o lv e d o r ganizing t he num be r s by gr o up ing t he m . Pe o p le
w ho ar e le ar ning t o t yp e o n a t yp e w r it e r o r co m p ut e r k e ybo ar d m ay
be gin by co ding e ach le t t e r as a s e p ar at e chunk . S o o n t he y ar e able t o
gr o up t he le t t e r s int o w o r ds ; e v e n p hr as e s m ay be p e r ce iv e d as chunk s .
T hus , m o r e e fficie nt o r ganizat io n r e duce s t he am o unt o f m at e r ial t o be
le ar ne d, w hich incr e as e s t he le ngt h o f t he m e s s age t hat can be r e m e m -
be r e d. A s o m e w hat s im ilar s it uat io n e xis t s fo r a child w ho k no w s t he
le t t e r s o f t he alp habe t but do e s no t k no w , fo r e xam p le , t he w o r d
automobile. T o r e m e m be r t his w o r d he has t o r e m e m be r 10 t hings ; t he
adult has t o r e m e m be r o nly o ne . Adult s can chunk , e v e n fur t he r and
r e m e m be r p hr as e s ( "I be g yo ur p ar do n") and e v e n lo nge r s e nt e nce s ( "A
bir d in t he hand is w o r t h t w o in t he bus h") as o ne chunk .
As a p r act ical e xam p le o f t he us e o f o r ganizat io n, s up p o s e yo u had
t he fo llo w ing it e m s t o r e m e m be r fo r a s ho p p ing lis t : co o k ie s , gr ap e s ,
che e s e , can o p e ne r , chick e n, p ie , but t e r , bananas , br e ad, p o r k , gum . I t
m ay he lp yo u t o r e o r ganize t he it e m s by cat e go r ie s : dair ybut t e r ,
che e s e ; bak e r y go o ds co o k ie s , p ie , br e ad; m e at chick e n, p o r k ;
fr uit gr ap e s , bananas ; and o t he r can o p e ne r , gum . Y o u no w hav e fiv e
chunk s o f 2 o r 3 it e m s e ach r at he r t han 11 s e p ar at e it e m s t o r e m e m be r .
Ano t he r p o s s ibilit y is t o gr o up t he it e m s by t he s am e fir s t le t t e r s : C
che e s e , co o k ie s , chick e n, can o p e ne r ; Bbut t e r , br e ad, bananas ; G
gr ap e s , gum ; and Pp ie , p o r k . T he n yo u co uld cue yo ur m e m o r y by
r e m e m be r ing ""fo ur C 's , t hr e e B's, t w o G's, and t w o P's ."
The Serial Position Effect
T he o r de r in w hich it e m s in a s e r ial le ar ning t as k ar e o r ganize d can affe ct
ho w e as y t he y ar e t o le ar n and r e m e m be r ; t his finding is calle d t he
"s e r ial p o s it io n e ffe ct ." I t e m s in t he m iddle p ar t o f a lis t w ill t ak e lo nge r
t o le ar n and w ill be har de r t o r e m e m be r t han w ill it e m s at t he be ginning
and e nd o f t he lis t . Fo r e xam p le , m o s t p e o p le w ho t r ie d t o r e m e m be r
t he nam e s o f t he p r e s ide nt s o f t he U nit e d S t at e s co uld r e call t he fir s t
half- do ze n and t he las t half- do ze n but co uld no t r e m e m be r v e r y m any in
be t w e e n.
14
T he s e r ial p o s it io n e ffe ct is affe ct e d by t he am o unt o f t im e be t w e e n
le ar ning and r e call. W he n r e call o ccur s im m e diat e ly aft e r le ar ning, t he
las t fe w it e m s in t he lis t t e nd t o be r e m e m be r e d be t t e r t han t he fir s t
fe w ; ho w e v e r , w he n t he r e is s o m e de lay be t w e e n le ar ning and r e call, t he
fir s t fe w it e m s t e nd t o be r e m e m be r e d be t t e r t han t he las t fe w .
R e gar dle s s o f t he t im e be t w e e n le ar ning and r e call, t he fir s t fe w it e m s
and t he las t fe w it e m s ar e e as ie r t o r e m e m be r t han t ho s e in be t w e e n.
T he s e r ial p o s it io n e ffe ct is w e ll s up p o r t e d by r e s e ar ch e v ide nce . I t
o ccur s in all s e r ial le ar ning t as k s and fo r all m o de s o f p r e s e nt at io n and
t yp e s o f m at e r ial ( including s p e lling w o r ds and m e m o r y fo r le ct ur e s ).
R e ce nt r e s e ar ch has be e n aim e d m o r e at t he o r e t ical e xp lanat io ns o f t he
e ffe ct t han at de m o ns t r at ing it s e xis t e nce .
15
T he r e ar e at le as t t w o w ays yo u can us e t he s e r ial p o s it io n e ffe ct t o
he lp yo u r e m e m be r be t t e r . Fir s t , if t he it e m s yo u ar e le ar ning do no t
hav e t o be in a ce r t ain o r de r , ar r ange t he m s o t hat t he m o r e co m p le x,
le s s m e aningful it e m s ar e at t he e nds o f t he lis t and t he s im p le r , m o r e
m e aningful it e m s ar e in t he m iddle . S e co nd, W he n yo u hav e a le ar ning
t as k w he r e yo u canno t change t he o r de r o f t he it e m s , s p e nd m o r e t im e
and e ffo r t s t udying t he m iddle p ar t o f t he lis t t han t he fir s t and las t p ar t s .
ASSOCIATION: "THAT REMINDS ME"
C an yo u dr aw a r o ugh o ut line o f I t aly? H o w abo ut D e nm ar k ? Mo s t lik e ly
yo u can do be t t e r w it h I t aly. W hy? O ne r e as o n is t hat at s o m e t im e it
w as p r o bably p o int e d o ut t o yo u t hat I t aly io o k s lik e a bo o t . T his
illus t r at e s t he us e o f as s o ciat io n. As s o ciat io n r e fe r s t o r e lat ing w hat yo u
w ant t o le ar n t o s o m e t hing yo u alr e ady k no w . T his can be do ne w it h
analo gie s ( w hich is w hy s e v e r al analo gie s hav e be e n us e d t hr o ugho ut t his
bo o k ), m e t ap ho r s , and e xam p le s , and by co m p ar ing, co nt r as t ing, o r
r e w o r ding.
16
O ne w ay t o r e m e m be r t he diffe r e nce in s p e lling be t w e e n t he k ind o f
"p r incip le " yo u le ar n in s cho o l and t he "p r incip al" o f t he s cho o l is t hat a
p r incip le is a r ule , and a p r incip al is a gal ( w he t he r o r no t t hat las t
s t at e m e nt is t r ue , at le as t it is m e aningful); t o r e m e m be r ho w t o s p e ll
"be lie v e ," ne v e r be lie v e a lie ; t o r e m e m be r t he diffe r e nce be t w e e n p o r t
and s t ar bo ar d, r e m e m be r t hat "p o r t " and "le ft " bo t h hav e fo ur le t t e r s ;
t o r e m e m be r t he diffe r e nce be t w e e n s t alact it e s and s t alagm it e s , r e m e m -
be r t hat s t alact it e s gr o w fr o m t he ce iling and s t alagm it e s gr o w fr o m t he
gr o und. All o f t he s e s im p le e xam p le s illus t r at e t he p r incip le o f as s o ciat ing
s o m e t hing yo u w ant t o r e m e m be r w it h s o m e t hing yo u alr e ady k no w . Y o u
alr e ady k no w ho w t o s p e ll "p al" and "lie ," ho w m any le t t e r s ar e in "le ft ,"
and w hat le t t e r s "ce iling" and "gr o und" s t ar t w it h.
A s im p le as s o ciat io n he lp e d m y t hr e e - ye ar - o ld s o n r e m e m be r t he
diffe r e nce be t w e e n ho t e ls and m o t e ls . W e w e r e o n a le ct ur e cir cuit in
w hich w e s t aye d o nly t w o o r t hr e e days in any o ne cit y. H e le ar ne d t hat
w e s o m e t im e s s t aye d in ho t e ls and s o m e t im e s in m o t e ls , but it w as har d
fo r him t o k e e p s t r aight w hich w as w hich. T he w ay I de fine d t he t e r m s
fo r him w as t hat in m o t e ls yo u e nt e r yo ur r o o m dir e ct ly fr o m t he o ut s ide ,
but in ho t e ls yo u e nt e r yo ur r o o m fr o m t he hallw ay. H e co uld r e m e m be r
t he s t at e m e nt t hat "ho t e ls hav e halls ," and us ing t his as s o ciat io n o f t he
t w o h w o r ds he w as p le as e d t hat he co uld co r r e ct ly ide nt ify t he p lace s
w he r e w e s t aye d fo r t he r e s t o f t he t r ip .
I n m e m o r izing a num be r , yo u m ight t r y t o as s o ciat e it w it h fam iliar
num be r s , dat e s , o r e v e nt s . Fo r e xam p le , t he p ho ne num be r 375- 2553
m ight as s o ciat e fo r o ne p e r s o n as fo llo w s : 3 is t he num be r o f digit s in
t he p r e fix, 75 w as t he m iddle o f t he 1970s de cade , 25 is m y age , and 53
r e p r e s e nt s m y p ar e nt s ' anniv e r s ar y ( May 3). Me r e ly e xp r e s s ing a num -
be r in t e r m s o f fam iliar unit s can giv e it s o m e m e aning. Fo r e xam p le , t he
num be r 1206 co uld be t ho ught o f as a p r ice ( $12.06), a t im e ( 12:06), o r
a dis t ance ( 1,206 m e t e r s ).
As s o ciat io n can e v e n o ccur at t he unco ns cio us le v e l. H av e yo u e v e r
s e e n o r he ar d s o m e t hing and s aid, "O h, t hat r e m inds m e . . . ? " T he
r e as o n fo r s uch an e xp e r ie nce is t hat s o m e ho w in t he p as t t ho s e t w o
t hings be cam e as s o ciat e d w it h e ach o t he r , s o t hat br inging o ne o f t he m
fr o m m e m o r y dr e w t he o t he r w it h it . I had an int e r e s t ing e xp e r ie nce in
co lle ge t hat illus t r at e s unco ns cio us as s o ciat io n. A fe llo w s t ude nt in o ne
o f m y clas s e s cam e up t o m e abo ut halfw ay t hr o ugh t he s e m e s t e r and
s aid, "I jus t figur e d o ut w hy I do n't lik e yo u." N at ur ally t hat caught m y
at t e nt io n, s o I as k e d him w hy. H e s aid, "E v e r y t im e I lo o k e d at yo u I fe lt
t hat I didn't lik e yo u, but I co uld ne v e r r e ally figur e o ut w hy. T o day it
s udde nly daw ne d o n m e . A fe w ye ar s ago in a he alt h clas s I s aw a m o v ie
o n v e ne r e al dis e as e , and yo u r e m ind m e o f t he bad guy in t he m o v ie ."
T his e xam p le s ho w s t hat w e can fo r m as s o ciat io ns and hav e t he m affe ct
us e v e n w it ho ut be ing co ns cio us ly aw ar e o f t he m ( incide nt ally, I w as no t
in t he m o v ie ).
As s o ciat ing info r m at io n w it h yo ur s e lf and w it h e v e nt s in yo ur life
can he lp yo u r e m e m be r it . Fo r e xam p le , yo u can r e m e m be r w he n ce r t ain
e v e nt s hap p e ne d by as s o ciat ing t he m w it h o t he r m o r e s ignificant e v e nt s
t hat yo u k no w yo u w ill ne v e r fo r ge t , lik e t he av id go lfe r w ho ne v e r go t in
t r o uble w it h his w ife fo r fo r ge t t ing t he ir anniv e r s ar y: H e jus t r e m e m -
be r e d t hat t he y w e r e m ar r ie d e xact ly o ne w e e k aft e r he go t a ho le in
o ne . Alt ho ugh t his e xam p le is fict io n, r e s e ar ch e v ide nce s ho w s t hat
p e o p le do r e m e m be r info r m at io n ( including p e r s o nal and p ublic e v e nt s )
be t t e r w he n t he y t r y t o r e lat e it t o t he m s e lv e s and t o e v e nt s in t he ir o w n
liv e s .
17
O ne w ay as s o ciat io n he lp s m e m o r y is t o m ak e m at e r ial m e aningful.
I n fact , in r e s e ar ch o n le ar ning, t he m e aningfulne s s o f a w o r d fr e que nt ly
has be e n de fine d in t e r m s o f t he num be r o f as s o ciat io ns it has .
18
I n
dis cus s ing fam iliar it y it w as no t e d t hat le ar ning builds o n le ar ning.
As s o ciat io n p lays an im p o r t ant r o le in t his p r o ce s s . T he m o r e yo u k no w
abo ut a t o p ic, t he m o r e yo u hav e t o as s o ciat e ne w fact s w it h, and t he
m o r e fact s a fact is as s o ciat e d w it h t he be t t e r yo u r e m e m be r it . T his
le ads us t o t he ne xt p o int .
Be s ide s giv ing m e aning, as s o ciat io n can he lp m e m o r y by giv ing us
cr o s s - r e fe r e ncing in o ur m e m o r ie s . Y o u w ill hav e a gr e at e r lik e liho o d o f
finding a le t t e r fr o m a bo o k s t o r e co nce r ning yo ur acco unt if co p ie s o f t he
le t t e r ar e file d unde r "co r r e s p o nde nce ," "bo o k s ," and "char ge acco unt s "
t han if yo u file o nly o ne co p y unde r a s ingle cat e go r y. S im ilar ly, t he m o r e
o t he r info r m at io n yo u can as s o ciat e a p ar t icular fact w it h in yo ur m e m o r y,
t he m o r e p at hw ays yo u can us e t o find it . I n fact , t he r e is e v ide nce t hat
info r m at io n is r e p r e s e nt e d in m e m o r y as a ne t w o r k o f as s o ciat io ns am o ng
co nce p t s , e v e n if w e do no t p ur p o s e ly m ak e s uch m ult ip le as s o ciat io ns .
19
T his s e ct io n o n as s o ciat io n is p r im ar ily o r ie nt e d t o w ar d t he us e o f
as s o ciat io n by t he p e r s o n do ing t he le ar ning. As s o ciat io n can als o be
us e d by a t e ache r t o he lp o t he r p e o p le le ar n. R e s e ar ch has fo und t hat
bo t h r e m e m be r ing and unde r s t anding ne w info r m at io n ar e im p r o v e d
w he n t e ache r s he lp s t ude nt s r e lat e t he info r m at io n t o w hat t he y alr e ady
k no w .
20
S o yo u can us e as s o ciat io n ( as w e ll as t he o t he r p r incip le s ) no t
o nly t o im p r o v e yo ur o w n m e m o r y but als o t o im p r o v e yo ur abilit y t o
t e ach o t he r s .
Think Around It
By a t e chnique t hat m ight be calle d "t hink ing ar o und it ," as s o ciat io n can
he lp yo u r e t r ie v e info r m at io n t hat yo u k no w is s t o r e d in yo ur m e m o r y
but t hat yo u canno t quit e ge t o ut . T his t e chnique co ns is t s o f t hink ing o f
e v e r yt hing yo u can t hat m ight be as s o ciat e d in any w ay w it h t he s p e cific
it e m yo u ar e t r ying t o r e t r ie v e , including t he co nt e xt in w hich yo u
5 6 Y O U R ME MO R Y
le ar ne d it ( s e e chap t e r 5). T hink ing ar o und it is o ne o f v e r y fe w m e m o r y
t e chnique s t hat can be ap p lie d at t he r e t r ie v al s t age o f m e m o r y r at he r
t han at t he r e co r ding s t age .
S up p o s e , fo r e xam p le , yo u ar e t r ying t o t hink o f t he nam e o f t hat
fav o r it e t e ache r yo u had in s cho o l m any ye ar s ago . Y o u m ight t r y t hink ing
o f t he clas s r o o m it s e lf, w he r e yo u s at , w hat he o r s he lo o k e d lik e , t he
nam e s o f o t he r s t ude nt s in t he clas s , o r t he nam e s o f o t he r t e ache r s yo u
had t hat ye ar . O ne o f t he s e o t he r it e m s m ight hav e be co m e as s o ciat e d
w it h yo ur fav o r it e t e ache r 's nam e e no ugh t o br ing it o ut . T his ap p r o ach
w as fo und t o be an e ffe ct iv e t e chnique fo r p e o p le t r ying t o r e m e m be r
t he nam e s o f high s cho o l clas s m at e s . T he y w o uld t hink o f a v ar ie t y o f
s e t t ings ( s uch as w ho w as o n t he fo o t ball t e am o r w ho dat e d w ho m ) t o
he lp t he m r e call nam e s , and t yp ically an im age o f a p e r s o n o r s o m e fact
abo ut t hat p e r s o n w o uld be r e t r ie v e d be fo r e t he nam e it s e lf.
21
T hink ing ar o und it has be e n us e d t o he lp cr im e and accide nt
w it ne s s e s r e call de t ails s uch as lice ns e p lat e num be r s . T he w it ne s s e s
w e r e as k e d t o m e nt ally p ut t he m s e lv e s back at t he s ce ne and r e p o r t
e v e r yt hing t he y co uld t hink o f, e v e n p ar t ial info r m at io n o r t hings t hat
s e e m e d o nly r e m o t e ly r e lat e d. S o m e t im e s s e e m ingly ir r e le v ant o r in-
co m p le t e info r m at io n w o uld he lp t he m r e m e m be r s o m e t hing e ls e m o r e
r e le v ant o r co m p le t e . Pe o p le v ie w ing a film e d s im ulat io n o f a cr im e w e r e
able t o r e m e m be r up t o 35 p e r ce nt m o r e us ing t his ap p r o ach t han w e r e
t ho s e giv e n a s t andar d p o lice int e r v ie w .
22
T his t e chnique o f s e ar ching yo ur m e m o r y fo r s o m e t hing t hat is lo s t
is s im ilar t o w hat yo u do in s e ar ching fo r a lo s t o bje ct in yo ur ho us e . Y o u
do no t k no w t he e xact s p o t t o lo o k in ( o r t he o bje ct w o uld no t be lo s t ) s o
yo u s e ar ch in t he ge ne r al ar e a w he r e yo u t hink it m ight be , s uch as in
t he r o o m w he r e yo u s aw it las t . As w it h m any m e m o r y t e chnique s ,
t hink ing ar o und it is no t a ne w ide a. T his ap p r o ach w as de s cr ibe d m o r e
t han 150 ye ar s ago by Jam e s Mill, an E nglis h p hilo s o p he r . Aft e r quo t ing
Mill's de s cr ip t io n, W illiam Jam e s e xp laine d t he p hilo s o p hy unde r lying t he
t e chnique :
I n s ho r t , w e m ak e a s e ar ch in o ur m e m o r y fo r a fo r go t t e n ide a, jus t as w e
r um m age o ur ho us e fo r a lo s t o bje ct . I n bo t h cas e s w e v is it w hat s e e m s t o us
t he p r o bable ne ighbo r ho o d o f t hat w hich w e m is s . W e t ur n o v e r t he t hings unde r
w hich, o r w it hin w hich, o r alo ngs ide o f w hich, it m ay p o s s ibly be ; and if it lie s
ne ar t he m , it s o o n co m e s t o v ie w ."
23
VISUALIZATION: "I CAN SEE IT ALL NOW"
H o w m any w indo w s ar e in yo ur ho us e ? Y o ur m e m o r y s e ar ch is m o r e
lik e ly v is ual t han v e r bal in ans w e r ing s uch a que s t io n. Y o u co njur e up a
v is ual im age o f e ach r o o m and co unt t he w indo w s , and t he n m o v e o n t o
t he ne xt r o o m . T his t as k , w hich is no t t o o har d fo r m o s t p e o p le ,
illus t r at e s t he us e o f v is ual im age s in m e m o r y.
T he r e is r e s e ar ch e v ide nce fr o m as lo ng ago as t he 1800s indicat ing
t hat v is ual im age r y can im p r o v e m e m o r y fo r v e r bal m at e r ial. H o w e v e r ,
im age r y w as no t co ns ide r e d an ap p r o p r iat e fie ld o f s t udy fo r m o s t
p s ycho lo gis t s fr o m t he e ar ly 1900s unt il t he 1960s ; it w as v ie w e d as
be ing s o m e t hing go ing o n ins ide t he p e r s o n t hat co uld no t be o bje ct iv e ly
s t udie d. I n fact , in an e xt e ns iv e s ur v e y o f t he fie ld o f hum an le ar ning
p ublis he d in 1952, m e nt al im age r y and v is ualizat io n w e r e no t e v e n
m e nt io ne d. R e s e ar ch o n co ns cio us p r o ce s s e s , including im age r y, has
be co m e m o r e acce p t able t he p as t t w o de cade s .
24
T he num be r o f ar t icle r e fe r e nce s ap p e ar ing unde r t he he ading o f
"I m age r y" m Psychological Abstracts ( a jo ur nal t hat p ublis he s s um m ar ie s
o f all o f t he r e s e ar ch ar t icle s p ublis he d in p s ycho lo gy) r e fle ct s t he
incr e as e d r e s e ar ch int e r e s t s ince t he 1960s : Fr o m 1960 t o 1964, t he r e
w as an av e r age o f 5 ar t icle s p ublis he d p e r ye ar ; fr o m 1965 t o 1969, 22
ar t icle s p e r ye ar ; fr o m 1970 t o 1974, abo ut 99 ar t icle s ; fr o m 1975 t o
1979, abo ut 165 ar t icle s ; fr o m 1980 t o 1984, abo ut 145 ar t icle s . ( T he
t o t al num be r o f r e fe r e nce s has als o incr e as e d s ince 1960, but no t as fas t
as t he "im age r y" r e fe r e nce s .) T he incr e as e d int e r e s t in im age r y is als o
r e fle ct e d in t he e s t ablis hm e nt o f an int e r nat io nal as s o ciat io n fo r im age r y
r e s e ar che r s ( I nt e r nat io nal I m age r y As s o ciat io n) and a jo ur nal fo r im age r y
r e s e ar ch (Journal of Mental Imagery) in t he lat e 1970s . Much o f t he
r e s e ar ch do ne s ince t he m id- 1960s o n im age r y and it s e ffe ct iv e ne s s in
m e m o r y has be e n s um m ar ize d in s e v e r al bo o k s p ublis he d in t he 1980s .
25
I n chap t e r 2 w e s aw t hat m e m o r y fo r p ict ur e s is v e r y p o w e r ful and
t hat im age r y is als o e ffe ct iv e fo r v e r bal m at e r ial. T w o p o s s ible r e as o ns
w e r e s ugge s t e d: Fir s t , im age s ar e inhe r e nt ly m o r e m e m o r able t han
w o r ds ; s e co nd, w o r ds t hat e v o k e im age s ar e co de d dually ( in bo t h v e r bal
and v is ual m e m o r y) s o t hat t he r e is t w ice as gr e at a lik e liho o d o f
r e m e m be r ing t he m . T he r e ar e o t he r t he o r ie s abo ut w hy im age r y is s uch
a p o w e r ful m e m o r y aid, but r e gar dle s s o f w hat t he r e as o n is , t he
im p o r t ant p o int fo r o ur p ur p o s e is t hat v is ual im age r y do e s he lp m e m o r y.
W e can t ak e adv ant age o f t his fact by v is ualizing m at e r ial w e w ant t o
r e m e m be r .
Vis ualizat io n o f v e r bal m at e r ial do e s no t m e an p ict ur ing t he w o r ds
t he m s e lv e s in yo ur m ind but p ict ur ing t he o bje ct s , e v e nt s , o r ide as t he
w o r ds s t and fo r . T he r e ar e s e v e r al line s o f e v ide nce t o indicat e t hat s uch
im age r y he lp s in le ar ning v e r bal m at e r ial:
26
1. C o ncr e t e ( high im age r y) w o r ds and s e nt e nce s ar e alm o s t alw ays
le ar ne d fas t e r and r e m e m be r e d be t t e r t han abs t r act w o r ds .
58
Y O U R ME MO R Y
2. Pe o p le r e p o r t s p o nt ane o us us e o f m e nt al p ict ur e s in le ar ning p ar t ic-
ular p air e d- as s o ciat e w o r d p air s , and t e nd t o le ar n t he s e p air s m o s t
quick ly.
3. I ns t r uct ing p e o p le t o us e m e nt al p ict ur e s r e lat ing t w o w o r ds o f a p air
gr e at ly he lp s p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning o f no uns .
4. Pe o p le w ho r e p o r t v iv id v is ual im age r y p e r fo r m be t t e r in t e s t s o f
r e call t han p e o p le w ho r e p o r t p o o r v is ual im age r y.
Many o f t he num e r o us s t udie s s ho w ing t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f v is ual
im age r y in r e m e m be r ing hav e us e d a p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning t as k ( s e e
chap t e r 2). T he ge ne r al ap p r o ach o f s t udie s o n im age r y in p air e d-
as s o ciat e le ar ning is t o ins t r uct s o m e p e o p le t o us e v e r bal t e chnique s t o
as s o ciat e t he w o r ds , and t o ins t r uct o t he r s t o fo r m im age s r e p r e s e nt ing
t he w o r ds and as s o ciat e t he im age s fo r e ach p air o f w o r ds . Fo r e xam p le ,
fo r "do g- br o o m " yo u m ight p ict ur e a do g s w e e p ing t he ho us e w it h a
br o o m , and fo r a "do o r - baby" yo u m ight p ict ur e a baby hanging o nt o a
do o r k no b. T he ge ne r al finding o f t he s e s t udie s is t hat t he im age r s le ar n
and r e m e m be r m uch m o r e e ffe ct iv e ly t han t he v e r balize r s . I n fact , in
m any o f t he s e s t udie s , t he e ffe ct o f us ing im age r y can be unde r e s t im at e d
be caus e p e o p le w ho ar e ins t r uct e d t o v e r balize s o m e t im e s r e p o r t us ing
im age r y s p o nt ane o us ly.
Many r e al- life le ar ning s it uat io ns inv o lv e p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning,
s uch as cap it als o f s t at e s , nam e s and face s , fir s t nam e s and las t nam e s ,
fo r e ign language s , v o cabular y w o r ds , and nam e s and s o unds o f le t t e r s .
S o m e m ne m o nic s ys t e m s in lat e r chap t e r s als o inv o lv e p air e d- as s o ciat e
le ar ning, s o t hat p air e d- as s o ciat e r e s e ar ch is r e le v ant t o t he ir us e als o .
T he r o le o f im age r y in m any o f t he s e ar e as is dis cus s e d in lat e r chap t e r s .
Mo s t o f t his s e ct io n has dis cus s e d t he us e o f im age r y t o le ar n
w o r ds , be caus e m o s t o f t he r e s e ar ch has be e n do ne w it h p air s o f no uns .
H o w e v e r , r e s e ar ch s ho w s t hat t he v alue o f im age r y is no t lim it e d t o
no uns ; im age r y has als o be e n fo und t o aid m e m o r y fo r v e r bs and adv e r bs .
N o r is t he v alue o f im age r y lim it e d t o m e m o r y fo r w o r d lis t s o r p air s o f
w o r ds . Vis ual im age r y has be e n fo und t o he lp in le ar ning s e nt e nce s ,
s t o r ie s and o t he r p r o s e m at e r ial, and e v e n co nce p t s .
27
W ays t o us e
im age r y e ffe ct iv e ly and s o m e o f it s s t r e ngt hs and lim it at io ns ar e dis -
cus s e d fur t he r in chap t e r s 7 and 8.
O f co ur s e , t he m ain adv ant age o f im age r y is t hat it can m ak e
le ar ning m o r e e ffe ct iv e . Ano t he r adv ant age is t hat it can m ak e le ar ning
m o r e fun. Mo s t p e o p le find it m o r e int e r e s t ing t o p ict ur e im age s and
as s o ciat e t he m t han t o m e r e ly r e p e at w o r ds o v e r and o v e r by r o t e
m e t ho ds t o m e m o r ize t he m . O ne o f t he co m m e nt s o f m y m e m o r y
s t ude nt s t hat w as include d in t he int r o duct io n t o t his bo o k r e fe r r e d t o
t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s bas e d o n v is ual im age r y t hat ar e dis cus s e d in
lat e r chap t e r s : "T he s ys t e m s m ak e le ar ning s e e m m o r e lik e a gam e t han
w o r k . I alm o s t fe e l guilt y, it 's s o fun."
ATTENTION: "I DON'T GET IT"
An im p o r t ant p r incip le o f m e m o r y is s ugge s t e d by a s t at e m e nt t hat has
be e n at t r ibut e d t o O liv e r W e nde ll H o lm e s : "A m an m us t get a t hing
be fo r e he can forget it ."
28
Fr e que nt ly w he n w e s ay w e fo r go t s o m e t hing,
w hat w e r e ally s ho uld s ay is t hat w e ne v e r act ually go t it in t he fir s t
p lace : w e w e r e ne v e r co ns cio us ly p aying at t e nt io n t o it . T he fo llo w ing
quiz m ay he lp yo u r e co gnize t his dis t inct io n be t w e e n fo r ge t t ing and no t
ge t t ing.
1. W hich co lo r is o n t o p o n a s t o p light ?
2. W ho s e im age is o n a p e nny? I s he w e ar ing a t ie ?
3. W hat fo ur w o r ds be s ide s "I n Go d W e T r us t " ap p e ar o n m o s t U .S .
co ins ?
4. W he n w at e r go e s do w n t he dr ain, do e s it s w ir l clo ck w is e o r co unt e r -
clo ck w is e ?
5. W hat le t t e r s , if any, ar e m is s ing o n a t e le p ho ne dial?
C an yo u ans w e r all o f t he s e que s t io ns ? I f no t , do n't fe e l t o o bad.
O ne s t udy o f 20 adult U .S . cit ize ns fo und t hat o nly 1 p e r s o n w as able t o
dr aw t he he ad s ide o f a p e nny accur at e ly fr o m m e m o r y ( t hat p e r s o n w as
an act iv e p e nny co lle ct o r ), and o nly 15 o ut o f 36 co uld r e co gnize t he
co r r e ct dr aw ing fr o m a s e t o f dr aw ings o f p e nnie s .
29
I f yo u w e r e no t able
t o ans w e r s o m e o f t he que s t io ns o n t he quiz, t he r e as o n is p r o bably no t
t hat yo u fo r go t . Alt ho ugh yo u hav e s e e n p e nnie s and us e d t he p ho ne
m any t im e s , yo u p r o bably hav e ne v e r co ns cio us ly p aid at t e nt io n t o t he s e
t hings ; t hus , yo u canno t accur at e ly s ay t hat yo u do no t r e m e m be r w hat
le t t e r s ar e m is s ing o n t he p ho ne dial. A m o r e accur at e ans w e r is t hat
yo u ne v e r r e ally k ne w in t he fir s t p lace . T he co r r e ct ans w e r s t o t he
que s t io ns ar e : ( 1) r e d; ( 2) Linco ln, ye s ( a bo w t ie ); ( 3) U nit e d S t at e s o f
Am e r ica; ( 4) co unt e r clo ck w is e ( in t he N o r t he r n H e m is p he r e ); ( 5) Q, Z.
S o m e o f t he difficult y p e o p le r e p o r t w it h "bad m e m o r ie s " is no t a
m at t e r o f fo r ge t t ing, but s im p ly o f no t le ar ning in t he fir s t p lace . Bs o p le
blam e t he ir m e m o r ie s fo r s o m e t hing t hat is no t t he ir m e m o r ie s ' fault . I f
. yo u w ant t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hing, yo u m us t p ay at t e nt io n t o it , co nce n-
t r at e o n it , and m ak e s ur e yo u ge t it in t he fir s t p lace . W e can t alk abo ut
fo r ge t t ing o nly if t he r e is s o m e e v ide nce o f le ar ning.
A p e r s o n can r e ally o nly p ay at t e nt io n t o o ne t hing at a t im e . Y o u
m ight be able t o r e ad a ne w s p ap e r w hile yo u ar e als o w at ching T V, o r
lis t e n t o t w o diffe r e nt p ar t y co nv e r s at io ns at t he s am e t im e ( t he o ne at
yo ur t able and t he m o r e int e r e s t ing o ne yo u ar e e av e s dr o p p ing o n at t he
ne xt t able ), but t hat is by s w it ching yo ur at t e nt io n back and fo r t h r at he r
t han by s im ult ane o us ly at t e nding t o bo t h t hings . O ne p s ycho lo gis t co m -
p ar e d t his char act e r is t ic o f at t e nt io n t o a T V r e m o t e channe l s e le ct o r .
30
Y o u can o nly w at ch o ne channe l at a t im e , s o yo u m is s w hat is o n ano t he r
channe l at t he s am e t im e , but by s w it ching back and fo r t h be t w e e n
channe ls yo u can s it back and "w at ch" t w o s ho w s s im ult ane o us ly. T his
w o r k s s at is fact o r ily fo r s im p le s ho w s , but if w e t r y it w it h co m p le x
s ho w s , w e ge t lo s t S im ilar ly, if w e t r y t o le ar n m at e r ial t hat is co m p le x
o r difficult , w e w ill no t ge t it v e r y w e ll if o ur at t e nt io n is div ide d o r
dis t r act e d.
S o m e t im e s w he n s t ude nt s co m p lain abo ut fo r ge t t ing t hings t he y
s t udie d, it m ay be t r ue t hat t he y do no t k no w w hat t he y s t udie d; ho w e v e r ,
it m ay als o be t r ue t hat t he y did no t r e ally s t udy t he m at e r ial e no ugh fo r
it t o be co ns ide r e d le ar ne d in t he fir s t p lace . T he y m ight no t hav e
r e m e m be r e d m uch m o r e im m e diat e ly aft e r s t udy t han t he y did lat e r .
Jus t be caus e p e o p le s at t hr o ugh a le ct ur e o r r an t he ir e ye s o v e r a
t e xt bo o k do e s no t ne ce s s ar ily m e an t hat t he y le ar ne d. I f t he y w e r e no t
p aying at t e nt io n, t he n t he lat e r r e call failur e ( s uch as a flunk e d t e s t ) is
due t o t he fact t hat t he y ne v e r le ar ne d t he m at e r ial in t he fir s t p lace .
T his is o ne p r o ble m w it h cr am m ing as a s t udy m e t ho d ( s e e chap t e r 6),
and is als o o ne r e as o n w hy s t ude nt s m ight no t be able t o "r e m e m be r "
w hat t he y s t udie d w he n t he y w e r e w at ching t e le v is io n, lis t e ning t o t he ir
s t e r e o he ads e t , o r in t he m ids t o f o t he r dis t r act io ns . R e s e ar ch has fo und
t hat at t e nt io n t o le ar ning t as k s co r r e lat e s m o r e highly w it h s cho o l
achie v e m e nt t han do e s am o unt o f t im e s p e nt o n t he t as k .
31
T he failur e t o p ay at t e nt io n m ay be t he m o s t co m m o n r e as o n fo r
"fo r ge t t ing" t he nam e s o f p e o p le w e m e e t . Fr e que nt ly w he n w e ar e
int r o duce d t o s o m e o ne w e ar e no t r e ally p aying at t e nt io n; w e ne v e r
r e ally ge t t he nam e in t he fir s t p lace . W e ar e w ait ing fo r o ur o w n nam e
t o be s aid o r t r ying t o t hink o f s o m e t hing t o s ay t o t he p e r s o n. T hus ,
o ne w ay t o r e duce t he p r o ble m o f fo r ge t t ing nam e s is t o m ak e a s p e cial
e ffo r t t o co nce nt r at e o n t he nam e .
T he failur e t o p ay at t e nt io n is als o a co m m o n r e as o n fo r abs e nt m ind-
e dne s s . U s ually w he n yo u fo r ge t w he r e yo u p ar k e d yo ur car o r le ft yo ur
um br e lla it is be caus e yo u w e r e no t co ns cio us ly p aying at t e nt io n t o w hat
yo u w e r e do ing w he n yo u p ar k e d t he car o r p ut yo ur um br e lla do w n.
Y o ur m ind w as o n s o m e t hing e ls e . T hus , o ne w ay t o r e duce abs e nt m ind-
e dne s s is t o p ay at t e nt io n t o w hat yo u ar e do ing. Y o u m ight e v e n t e ll
yo ur s e lf as yo u p ut t he um br e lla o n t he s t o r e co unt e r , "I am p ut t ing t he
um br e lla o n t he s t o r e co unt e r ." T his w ill fo cus yo ur at t e nt io n o n w hat
yo u ar e do ing and r e duce t he lik e liho o d t hat yo u w ill w alk o ff and fo r ge t
it . N am e s and abs e nt m inde dne s s ar e dis cus s e d fur t he r in chap t e r s 13
and 14.
At t e nt io n is t he las t o f t he bas ic p r incip le s dis cus s e d in t his chap t e r ,
but it is ce r t ainly no t t he le as t . I n fact , no ne o f t he o t he r p r incip le s can
be ap p lie d if at t e nt io n is no t . Y o u canno t m ak e m at e r ial m e aningful,
o r ganize it , as s o ciat e it , o r v is ualize it if yo u do no t ge t it in t he fir s t
p lace .
How to Remember Al most
Anythi ng El se:
More Basi c Pri nci pl es
C
hap t e r 4 dis cus s e d s o m e o f t he p r incip le s o f le ar ning and m e m o r y
t hat s e r v e as a fo undat io n fo r le ar ning alm o s t any k ind o f m at e r ial..
T his chap t e r co nt inue s w it h s o m e m o r e bas ic p r incip le s t hat can als o be
us e d t o he lp r e m e m be r alm o s t anyt hing: r e p e t it io n, r e laxat io n, co nt e xt ,
int e r e s t , and fe e dback .
REPETITION: "WHAT WAS THAT AGAIN?"
Alm o s t e v e r yo ne k no w s t he im p o r t ance o f r e p e t it io n. W e m ight be able
t o le ar n a fe w t hings t he fir s t t im e t hr o ugh ( if t he y ar e s ho r t and s im p le ),
but m o s t le ar ning r e quir e s r e p e at ing t he m at e r ial o v e r and o v e r . O f
co ur s e , r e p e t it io n do e s he lp le ar ning, but s o m e p e o p le do no t r e alize
t hat alt ho ugh r e p e t it io n is necessary fo r le ar ning it is no t sufficient fo r
m o s t le ar ning. T hat is , yo u m us t r e p e at m o s t m at e r ial t o le ar n it , but
jus t r e p e at ing it do e s no t guar ant e e t hat yo u w ill le ar n it ; r e p e t it io n
s ho uld be co m bine d w it h o t he r p r incip le s o f le ar ning t o be e ffe ct iv e .
1
T he e xam p le s illus t r at ing t he im p o r t ance o f at t e nt io n in chap t e r 4
s ho w t hat r e p e at e d e xp o s ur e t o s o m e t hing is no t s ufficie nt t o le ar n it .
T he ins ufficie ncy o f r e p e t it io n alo ne is als o illus t r at e d by t he s t o r y o f t he
yo ung bo y w ho us e d t he p hr as e "I hav e w e nt " in a p ap e r he w r o t e in
s cho o l. T he t e ache r m ade him s t ay aft e r s cho o l and w r it e o n t he bo ar d
62
How to Remember Almost Anything Else 63
100 t im e s , "I hav e go ne ." S he t o ld him t hat w he n he finis he d he co uld go
ho m e , and t he n s he w e nt t o a'facult y m e e t ing. W he n s he r e t ur ne d t o t he
clas s r o o m lat e r s he fo und "I hav e go ne " w r it t e n 100 t im e s o n t he bo ar d,
and s cr aw le d at t he e nd o f it w as "I hav e finis he d, s o I hav e w e nt ."
Ano t he r e xam p le o f t he inade quacy o f r e p e t it io n is t he e xp e r ie nce o f
Pr o fe s s o r E dm und S anfo r d, w ho had r e ad a m o r ning p r aye r at le as t
5,000 t im e s o v e r a p e r io d o f 25 ye ar s and co uld r e ad it alm o s t aut o m at i-
cally w it h a m inim um o f at t e nt io n, but s t ill co uld no t r e cit e it fr o m
m e m o r y.
2
W hat abo ut co nt inue d r e p e t it io n after yo u hav e le ar ne d s o m e t hing?
S up p o s e yo u r e ach t he p o int in yo ur s t udy w he r e yo u can s ay yo ur p o e m
o r yo ur s p e e ch o nce w it ho ut any m is t ak e s . Y o u m ay t hink t hat yo u hav e
le ar ne d it no w s o yo u m ight as w e ll s t o p s t udying; fur t he r s t udy w o uld
be ine fficie nt . T his is no t t r ue . Overlearning, w hich is co nt inue d le ar ning
be yo nd t he p o int o f bar e m as t e r y o r o f m e r e r e call, has be e n s ho w n t o
be e ffe ct iv e in s t r e ngt he ning le ar ning and im p r o v ing r e t r ie v al s p e e d.
3
T hr e e gr o up s o f p e o p le m e m o r ize d a lis t o f no uns . O ne gr o up quit
s t udying as s o o n as t he y co uld r e call t he lis t p e r fe ct ly o nce ( 0- p e r ce nt
o v e r le ar ning). T he s e co nd gr o up co nt inue d t o s t udy t he lis t fo r half as
m any t r ials as t he y had ne e de d t o r e ach o ne p e r fe ct r e call o f t he lis t ( 50-
p e r ce nt o v e r le ar ning). T he t hir d gr o up co nt inue d t o s t udy t he lis t fo r as
m any t r ials as t he y had ne e de d t o r e ach o ne p e r fe ct r e call ( 100- p e r ce nt
o v e r le ar ning). Fo r e xam p le , if it t o o k 10 r e p e t it io ns t o r e ach t he cr it e r io n,
t he s e co nd gr o up s t udie d t he lis t fo r 5 m o r e r e p e t it io ns , and t he t hir d
gr o up s t udie d t he lis t fo r 10 m o r e r e p e t it io ns . Me m o r y fo r t he lis t s w as
m e as ur e d by r e call and r e le ar ning at v ar io us int e r v als fr o m 1 t o 28 days
lat e r . T he gr e at e r t he de gr e e o f o v e r le ar ning, t he be t t e r t he m e m o r y at
all t im e int e r v als , alt ho ugh t he im p r o v e m e nt fr o m 0- p e r ce nt t o 50-
p e r ce nt o v e r le ar ning w as gr e at e r t han t he im p r o v e m e nt fr o m 50- p e r ce nt
t o 100- p e r ce nt o v e r le ar ning.
4
O v e r le ar ning s ho w s o ne r e as o n w hy cr am m ing fo r an e xam do e s
no t r e s ult in r e t e nt io n o f t he m at e r ial fo r v e r y lo ng aft e r t he e xam : Y o u
hav e bar e ly le ar ne d t he m at e r ial s o it is fo r go t t e n quick ly. Y o u hav e
p r o bably had t he e xp e r ie nce o f go ing in t o t ak e an e xam t hat yo u hav e
cr am m e d fo r w it h t he fe e ling t hat lo t s o f fact s ar e flo at ing ar o und in yo ur
he ad but no ne o f t he m is r e ally t ie d do w n o r fully le ar ne d. Y o u jus t ho p e
t he t e ache r as k s t he que s t io ns in t he r ight w ay. T he n t he t e ache r co m e s
in and has s o m e bus ine s s t o co nduct be fo r e handing o ut t he e xam s , and
yo u ar e w is hing he w o uld hur r y s o t hat yo u can s t ar t w r it ing do w n
ans w e r s im m e diat e ly be fo r e yo u fo r ge t t o o m uch. Y o u can alm o s t "fe e l"
yo ur k no w le dge r unning o ut yo ur e ar s and p iling up o n t he flo o r ar o und
yo u w he r e it w ill no t do yo u any go o d. T his fe e ling o f unde r le ar ning
acco m p anie s m o s t cr am m ing.
I n a s t udy o f p e o p le 's m e m o r y fo r nam e s and face s o f high s cho o l
co lle ague s , t he r e lat iv e ly high le v e l o f r e call ( 40 p e r ce nt e v e n aft e r 48
ye ar s ) w as at t r ibut e d by t he r e s e ar che r s in p ar t t o o v e r le ar ning: Pe o p le
le ar ne d m o s t o f t he ir co lle ague s ' nam e s v e r y t ho r o ughly.
5
O v e r le ar ning
als o acco unt s fo r t he fact t hat yo u can s t ill r e m e m be r s o m e t hings yo u
le ar ne d as a child ( t he m ult ip licat io n t able s , t he alp habe t , ho w t o r ide a
bicycle ), e v e n t ho ugh yo u m ay no t hav e us e d t he m fo r a lo ng t im e .
N o t o nly do e s o v e r le ar ning he lp yo u r e m e m be r m at e r ial be t t e r but
it can giv e yo u m o r e co nfide nce t hat yo u r e ally do k no w t he m at e r ial.
Pe o p le le ar ne d a lis t in w hich v ar io us it e m s w e r e acquir e d t o a cr it e r io n
o f e it he r o ne co r r e ct r e call, t w o co r r e ct r e calls , o r fo ur co r r e ct r e calls .
Fo ur w e e k s lat e r t he y had a r e call t e s t , and t he n r ank - o r de r e d t he
no nr e calle d it e m s in t e r m s o f ho w w e ll t he y fe lt t he y k ne w t he m . T he y
t he n had a r e co gnit io n t e s t o n t he no nr e calle d it e m s . Bo t h t he ir r e call
and t he ir co nfide nce in ho w w e ll t he y k ne w t he no nr e calle d it e m s
incr e as e d w it h ho w m uch t he y had o v e r le ar ne d t he m .
6
R e p e t it io n can r e s ult no t o nly in more le ar ning ( and m o r e co nfide nce )
but can r e s ult in different kinds o f le ar ning w he n s t udying t e chnical and
unfam iliar info r m at io n. I n o ne s t udy le ar ne r s ap p e ar e d t o no t ice t he m ain
co nce p t ual fr am e w o r k as t he y r e p e at e d unfam iliar t e chnical m at e r ial, s o
t hat r e p e t it io ns he lp e d t r ans fo r m t he m at e r ial int o m o r e m e aningful
ide as . Ve r bat im le ar ning act ually de cr e as e d o v e r r e p e t it io ns , w hile p r o b-
le m - s o lv ing s k ills and t he abilit y t o t r ans fe r le ar ning incr e as e d.
7
RELAXATION: "TAKE IT EASY"
H av e yo u e v e r t ak e n a t e s t w he r e yo u jus t co uld no t r e m e m be r t he
ans w e r s t o s o m e que s t io ns , but r ight aft e r yo u t ur ne d t he t e s t in and
r e laxe d t he ans w e r s cam e flo w ing int o yo ur m ind? H av e yo u e v e r
fo r go t t e n w hat yo u had p r e p ar e d t o s ay w he n yo u s t o o d up in fr o nt o f a
gr o up o f p e o p le t o giv e a s p e e ch o r r e p o r t ? ( As o ne s p e ak e r s aid,
"Fr ie nds , jus t be fo r e I s t o o d up t o s p e ak t o yo u, o nly Go d and I k ne w
w hat I w as go ing t o s ay; no w o nly Go d k no w s .") H av e yo u e v e r liv e d
t hr o ugh o r w it ne s s e d a dis as t e r , s uch as a fir e o r accide nt , and fo und
lat e r t hat yo u r e m e m be r e d v e r y lit t le abo ut it o r did no t r e m e m be r it
accur at e ly?
T he s e ar e e xam p le s o f t he k inds o f s it uat io ns t hat can caus e
s t r e s s s it uat io ns w he r e yo u ar e unde r t im e p r e s s ur e o r p r e s s ur e t o
p e r fo r m w e ll, w he r e lo t s o f p e o p le ar e w at ching yo u, o r w he r e p hys ical
dange r o r p ain is inv o lv e d. Any k ind o f s t r e s s ful s it uat io n t hat giv e s r is e
t o s t r o ng e m o t io nal ar o us al ( e s p e cially ne gat iv e e m o t io ns s uch as anxi-
e t y, fe ar , e m bar r as s m e nt , ne r v o us ne s s , and w o r r y) can int e r fe r e w it h
yo ur abilit y t o le ar n and r e m e m be r . T he ne gat iv e e m o t io n t hat has be e n
s t udie d m o s t o ft e n in co nne ct io n w it h m e m o r y is anxie t y.
8
E v e n s t r e s s ful s it uat io ns t hat ar e no t dir e ct ly r e lat e d t o t he m e m o r y
t as k it s e lf ( fo r e xam p le , div o r ce , de at h o f a clo s e fr ie nd, lo s s o f a jo b)
can hinde r le ar ning and m e m o r y. Y o ung adult s ( in t he ir t w e nt ie s ) r e -
p o r t e d t hat m o s t m e m o r y p r o ble m s o ccur r e d w he n t he y w e r e unde r
s t r e s s .
9
in fact , anxie t y can int e r fe r e "w it h m e m o r y e v e n w it ho ut a
s p e cific s t r e s s ful s it uat io n be ing inv o lv e d; p e o p le "w it h a high ge ne r al
anxie t y le v e l ( w ho ar e ge ne r ally anxio us abo ut life ) t e nd t o do ,w o r s e in
m e m o r y t e s t s t han p e o p le w it h a lo w ge ne r al anxie t y le v e l. O ne k ind o f
ge ne r al anxie t y le v e l inv o lv e s anxie t y as s o ciat e d w it h any s it uat io n w he r e
p e r fo r m ance is be ing e v aluat e d, s uch as t ak ing t e s t s in s cho o l. T his is
calle d "t e s t anxie t y." S e v e r al s cale s hav e be e n de v e lo p e d t o m e as ur e
t e s t anxie t y, and a lo t o f r e s e ar ch has be e n do ne o n it .
T he r e lat io ns hip be t w e e n m e m o r y and anxie t y, w he t he r s it uat io n-
s p e cific anxie t y o r m o r e ge ne r al anxie t y, is no t a s im p le o ne . A lit t le
anxie t y can he lp m e m o r y, but be yo nd a ce r t ain le v e l, co nt inue d incr e as -
ing anxie t y hinde r s m e m o r y. Fo r e xam p le , t he p e r s o n w ho do e s no t car e
at all abo ut his ne xt e xam o r an up co m ing s p e e ch is no t lik e ly t o do t o o
w e ll o n it ; t he p e r s o n w ho is m o de r at e ly anxio us abo ut his p e r fo r m ance
w ill p r o bably do be t t e r ; but t he p e r s o n w ho fe e ls e xce s s iv e am o unt s o f
anxie t y w ill p r o bably no t be as able t o p r e p ar e e ffe ct iv e ly o r t o r e call
dur ing t he e xam o r s p e e ch.
Alt ho ugh it is w e ll do cum e nt e d t hat high anxie t y o ft e n int e r fe r e s
w it h p e r fo r m ance , e xact ly w hy o r ho w it do e s s o is no t ye t cle ar . S o m e
p r o ble m s m ay be caus e d by nar r o w ing t he fo cus o f at t e nt io n; high s t r e s s
and anxie t y m ay caus e a p e r s o n t o no t p ay ade quat e at t e nt io n t o t hings
o ut s ide o f him s e lf, and t hus m is s info r m at io n ne ce s s ar y fo r accur at e
m e m o r y. T he r e is als o s o m e e v ide nce t hat anxie t y can caus e p r o ble m s
in e nco ding ( r e ading) m at e r ial, in o r ganizing it ( w he n s t udying o r r e v ie w -
ing), and in r e t r ie v ing it dur ing an e xam . S o m e r e s e ar ch o n t e s t anxie t y
has s ugge s t e d t hat it caus e s t hr e e s o ur ce s o f int e r fe r e nce in r e call: ( 1)
w o r r yco gnit iv e co nce r n abo ut o ne 's p e r fo r m ance ( s uch as p e r fo r m ance
co ns e que nce s and co m p ar is o n t o o t he r s ); ( 2). e m o t io nalit ys e lf- p e r -
ce iv e d ar o us al o f ne gat iv e fe e lings ( p hys io lo gical ar o us al); and ( 3) t as k
int e r fe r e nce t e nde ncy t o be dis t r act e d by t as k ir r e le v ancie s ( fo r e xam -
p le , inabilit y t o le av e uns o lv e d p r o ble m s and p r e o ccup at io n w it h t im e
lim it s ). T he s o ur ce o f int e r fe r e nce t hat ap p e ar s t o be t he m o s t im p o r t ant
in influe ncing m e m o r y is w o r r y.
10
W hat e v e r t he r e as o ns ar e fo r w hy o r ho w anxie t y affe ct s m e m o r y,
an im p o r t ant p r act ical que s t io n is , w hat can w e do abo ut it ? T he r e ar e
t w o ap p r o ache s yo u can t ak e t o he lp yo u de al w it h anxie t ycur e it o r
p r e v e nt it . A cur e fo r anxie t y is t o le ar n and us e r e laxat io n t e chnique s
lik e m e dit at io n t o calm yo ur m ind, and m us cle r e laxat io n t e chnique s t o
calm yo ur bo dy. E lde r ly p e o p le w ho w e r e t aught a m ne m o nic t e chnique
fo r r e m e m be r ing nam e s and face s w e r e able t o us e t he m ne m o nic m o r e
e ffe ct iv e ly aft e r t he y had r e laxat io n t r aining. I n at hle t ic p e r fo r m ance ,
r e laxat io n e nhance s abilit y t o fo cus at t e nt io n o n cr it ical as p e ct s o f a
s it uat io nt o dis cr im inat e t he im p o r t ant fe at ur e s o f t he p e r fo r m ance and
ge ne r at e us e ful im age s t o m e nt ally p r act ice t he m .
11
T he r e ar e s t e p s yo u can t ak e t o p r e v e nt anxie t y fr o m ar is ing in
addit io n t o at t ack ing t he anxie t y dir e ct ly w it h r e laxat io n t e chnique s .
Ge ne r ally, t he be t t e r p r e p ar e d yo u ar e fo r t he e xam o r t he p e r fo r m ance ,
t he le s s anxio us yo u w ill fe e l. T his m e ans e xt e ns iv e p r act ice fo r *a s k ill
p e r fo r m ance , and o v e r le ar ning fo r a r e call p e fo r m ance . W e hav e s e e n
t hat o v e r le ar ning incr e as e s yo ur co nfide nce in yo ur abilit y t o r e m e m be r ,
and incr e as e d co nfide nce he lp s r e duce anxie t y.
12
Anxie t y is m o r e lik e ly
t o int e r fe r e w it h yo ur m e m o r y fo r m at e r ial t hat yo u hav e jus t bar e ly
le ar ne d t han w it h m at e r ial t hat is w e ll le ar ne d.
I n addit io n t o o v e r le ar ning, im p r o v ing yo ur le ar ning and r e call s k ills
can als o incr e as e yo ur co nfide nce and r e duce anxie t y. O f co ur s e , im -
p r o v e d s k ills in le ar ning and r e call ar e no t r e le v ant jus t t o fo r m al s cho o l
s e t t ings , but t hat is t he ar e a in w hich m o s t r e s e ar ch has be e n do ne , in
t he fo r m o f s t udy s k ills and t e s t - t ak ing s k ills . Fo r e xam p le , r e s e ar ch has
fo und t hat le ar ning e ffe ct iv e s t udy s k ills can r e duce t e s t anxie t y, and t hat
s t ude nt s w ho e xp e r ie nce high t e s t anxie t y be ne fit m o s t fr o m a co ur s e
o n le ar ning s t r at e gie s .
13
I n ano t he r s t udy s t ude nt s w e r e t aught t e s t -
t ak ing s t r at e gie s , s uch as co nce nt r at ing o n o nly o ne t e s t it e m at a t im e ,
m ar k ing har de r it e m s t o r e t ur n t o lat e r , and giv ing t he m s e lv e s ins t r uc-
t io ns t hat ar e us e d by e ffe ct iv e t e s t t ak e r s ( fo r e xam p le , "I hav e p le nt y
o f t im e r e ad t he que s t io ns car e fully")- T he s e s t ude nt s p e r fo r m e d
be t t e r o n a lat e r t e s t t han did o t he r s t ude nt s w ho had p r act ice d t ak ing
s im ilar t e s t s o r w ho w e r e t aught r e laxat io n t e chnique s . T he s t ude nt s
w ho le ar ne d t e s t - t ak ing s k ills als o r e p o r t e d t hat t he y t ho ught le s s o ft e n
dur ing t he t e s t abo ut t he ir le v e l o f abilit y, abo ut ho w har d e ach it e m w as ,
and abo ut ho w p o o r ly t he y w e r e do ing. T he y als o had be t t e r cum ulat iv e
gr ade s t he ne xt t e r m . T he r e s e ar che r s s ugge s t e d t hat s o - calle d t e s t
anxie t y m ay no t e v e n be an anxie t y- bas e d p r o ble m as m uch as a p r o ble m
in ine ffe ct iv e t e s t t ak ing as a r e s ult o f de ficie nt t e s t - t ak ing s k ills .
14
S o m e t im e s yo u canno t r e m e m be r s o m e t hing r ight at t he t im e yo u
ne e d it , e v e n t ho ugh yo u k no w t hat yo u k no w it . S o m e t hing e ls e k e e p s
int r uding. T his is a "m e nt al blo ck ." Y o u m ay t e m p o r ar ily blo ck o n t he
nam e o f a go o d fr ie nd w he n yo u s t ar t t o int r o duce he r , o r o n t he ans w e r
t o a t e s t que s t io n t hat yo u s t udie d t ho r o ughly. S t r e s s is a fr e que nt caus e
o f m e nt al blo ck s ; yo u ar e m o r e lik e ly t o blo ck w he n yo u ar e unde r
p r e s s ur e . I n addit io n t o t he abo v e t e chnique s fo r o v e r co m ing anxie t y,
abando ning t he s e ar ch fo r a w hile has be e n fo und t o he lp o v e r co m e
m e nt al blo ck s ; quit t r ying t o r e call t hat it e m . O ft e n o ne o f t w o t hings w ill
hap p e n. Fir s t , w he n yo u co m e back t o t he it e m lat e r it m ay co m e r ight
t o yo ur m e m o r y im m e diat e ly, be caus e yo u ar e m o r e r e laxe d and no t
t r ying s o har d. S e co nd, t he it e m m ay jus t p o p int o yo ur m ind w he n yo u
ar e t hink ing abo ut s o m e t hing e ls e .
15
CONTEXT: "WHERE AM I? "
Alt ho ugh m o s t o f t he bas ic p r incip le s de al w it h what yo u le ar n o r how
yo u le ar n, co nt e xt de als w it h where yo u le ar n. C o nt e xt r e fe r s t o t he
s it uat io n, s ur r o undings , e nv ir o nm e nt , o r s e t t ing in w hich le ar ning and
r e call o ccur . T he e s s e nce o f t he co nt e xt e ffe ct is t hat if yo u le ar n
s o m e t hing in a p ar t icular co nt e xt , yo u can r e call it be t t e r in t he s am e
co nt e xt t han in a diffe r e nt co nt e xt . Pr e s um ably, co nt e xt ual fe at ur e s
be co m e as s o ciat e d w it h m at e r ial be ing le ar ne d, and can s e r v e as cue s
lat e r fo r r e call. S t udie s hav e fo und t he co nt e xt e ffe ct in div e r s e e xam p le s
r anging fr o m t he finding t hat m at e r ial le ar ne d unde r w at e r in a div e r 's
s uit is lat e r r e calle d be t t e r in t he div e r 's s uit unde r w at e r t han o n t he
be ach, t o t he finding t hat m at e r ial le ar ne d s t anding up o r lying do w n is
r e m e m be r e d be t t e r in t he s am e p o s t ur e in w hich it w as le ar ne d t han in
t he o t he r p o s t ur e .
16
T he int e r e s t o f m o s t p e o p le in co nt e xt e ffe ct s is in le s s e xo t ic,
m o r e e v e r yday s e t t ings t han le ar ning unde r w at e r in a div e r 's s uit . Fo r
s t ude nt s , be ing t e s t e d in t he s am e r o o m as t he s t udy r o o m has be e n
fo und t o aid r e call, as co m p ar e d w it h be ing t e s t e d in a diffe r e nt r o o m .
E v e n im agining t he s t udy r o o m w he n be ing t e s t e d in a diffe r e nt r o o m
r e s t o r e d s o m e o f t he co nt e xt ual cue s and he lp e d r e call. T he e ffe ct s o f
co nt e xt ar e e nhance d by p ur p o s e ly as s o ciat ing t he le ar ne d m at e r ial t o a
fe at ur e o f t he r o o m ; in fact , o ne s t udy fo und t hat t he s am e co nt e xt
r e s ult e d in be t t e r r e call o nly w he n s uch an as s o ciat io n w as m ade . I t has
be e n hyp o t he s ize d t hat t he co nt e xt s e r v e s as a m e m o r y landm ar k w he n
it be co m e s as s o ciat e d w it h t he le ar ne d m at e r ial, and t hat s uch landm ar k s
can lat e r be ge ne r at e d fr o m m e m o r y and us e d t o guide r e t r ie v al o f t he
m at e r ial.
17
R e s e ar ch has als o fo und t hat le ar ning diffe r e nt w o r d lis t s in s e v e r al
diffe r e nt r o o m s p r o duce d be t t e r r e call o n a co m p r e he ns iv e t e s t o f all t he
lis t s t han did le ar ning t he m all in t he s am e r o o m , w he n t he t e s t w as in a
ne w r o o m . I t w as hyp o t he s ize d t hat s t udying in diffe r e nt r o o m s giv e s
v ar iabilit y in co nt e xt ual cue s and allo w s fo r m o r e fle x ibilit y in r e t r ie v al,
s o t hat t he le ar ne r s ar e no t s o co nt e xt bo und.
18
H o w can yo u us e t he r e s e ar ch o n co nt e xt e ffe ct s ? T he r e ar e at
le as t fo ur p o s s ibilit ie s :
1. Pr act ice in t he s am e p lace w he r e yo u w ill p e r fo r m , s o t hat all
t he co nt e xt ual cue s t hat w e r e p r e s e nt in p r act ice w ill be t he r e dur ing
p e r fo r m ance . Fo r s t ude nt s t his m e ans s t udying e ach s ubje ct in t he
clas s r o o m w he r e t he e xam w ill be giv e n. Fo r o t he r le ar ning t as k s , s uch
as a s p e e ch, de liv e r ing line s fo r a p lay, o r a m us ical p e r fo r m ance , it
m e ans p r act icing- in t he hall o r o n t he s t age w he r e yo u w ill be p e r fo r m ing.
2. W he n t he fir s t s t r at e gy is no t p o s s ible , p r act ice in s e t t ings t hat
ar e as s im ilar as p o s s ible t o t he s e t t ing w he r e yo u w ill p e r fo r m . Fo r
e xam p le , s t udying in a s im ilar clas s r o o m , o r e v e n in t he libr ar y, w o uld
be be t t e r t han s t udying o ut o n t he law n. S im ilar ly, p r act icing yo ur s p e e ch
s t anding be hind t he k it che n t able w o uld p r o bably s im ulat e t he final s e t t ing
be t t e r t han p r act icing w hile lying in be d.
3. U s e t he co nt e xt e ffe ct w hile yo u ar e t ak ing t he e xam . W he n yo u
canno t r e m e m be r an ans w e r , t r y t o r e call t he co ndit io ns in w hich yo u
s t udie d t hat m at e r ial. Fo r e xam p le , if yo u w e r e in a libr ar y s t udy r o o m
w he n yo u r e ad a chap t e r , im agine yo ur s e lf t he r e and s o m e m e nt al
co nt e xt cue s m ight he lp . W e s aw in chap t e r 4 t hat p e o p le w ho t r y t o
r e m e m be r t he nam e s o f s cho o l clas s m at e s aft e r m any ye ar s o ft e n find
t his im agining ap p r o ach he lp ful as t he y t r y t o m e nt ally r e co ns t r uct s ce ne s
fr o m s cho o l days and t he n nam e t he p e o p le p r e s e nt . Be s ide s im agining
t he le ar ning co nt e xt dur ing r e call, yo u can als o be ne fit by im agining t he
r e call co nt e xt dur ing le ar ning. Me nt al r e he ar s al o f s p e e che s , r e p o r t s , o r .
m us ical p e r fo r m ance s can inv o lv e im agining t he co nt e xt in w hich yo u w ill
be p e r fo r m ing as yo u ar e p r act icing. Much r e s e ar ch o n p e r fo r m ance in
s p o r t s has fo und t hat s uch m e nt al p r act ice he lp s .
19
4. "I m m unize " agains t co nt e xt ual change s be fo r e hand. T his ap -
p r o ach ap p lie s w he n yo u k no w t hat yo u w ill be t e s t e d in a diffe r e nt
co nt e xt o r w he n yo u do no t k no w w hat t he co nt e xt w ill be fo r t he t e s t .
S t udy t he m at e r ial o r p r act ice t he p e r fo r m ance in s e v e r al diffe r e nt
co nt e xt s t o av o id be ing de p e nde nt o n o ne co nt e xt fo r r e call. T his s ho uld
giv e yo u m o r e fle x ibilit y in any r e t r ie v al t hat is affe ct e d by co nt e xt ual
cue s . O ne s t udy fo und t hat v ar ying t he le ar ning co nt e xt s he lp e d m e m o r y
fo r info r m at io n s t ude nt s le ar ne d in a m inico ur s e in s t at is t ics . T his
s t r at e gy als o he lp s br ain- dam age d p at ie nt s r e le ar n act iv it ie s s o t hat t he y
can t r ans fe r t o ho m e and e v e r yday life o ut s ide t he ho s p it als . T he p at ie nt s
p r act ice t he ne w s k ills in as m any diffe r e nt e nv ir o nm e nt s as p o s s ible .
I de ally, t he e nv ir o nm e nt s s ho uld r e s e m ble t he e v e nt ual e nv ir o nm e nt in
w hich t he y w ill be liv ing, but if t hat is no t p o s s ible t he n p r act ice in a w ide
r ange o f ho s p it al co nt e xt s is be t t e r t han in a s ingle s it uat io n.
20
T he s e fo ur w ays t o us e t he co nt e xt e ffe ct all de al w it h im p r o v ing
m e m o r y fo r w hat yo u s t udie d. I f yo ur p r o ble m lie s m o r e in m ak ing
yo ur s e lf s t udy t han in r e m e m be r ing w hat yo u s t udy, yo u m ight us e
co nt e xt in ano t he r w ay. H av e at le as t o ne p lace w he r e yo u do no t hing
but s t udy ( no fo o d, r adio s , gam e s , t e le v is io n, fr ie nds , e t c.). S t udying
w ill be co m e as s o ciat e d w it h t hat p lace , and w he n yo u go t o t hat s t udy
ar e a it w ill be e as ie r t o ge t s o m e t hing do ne .
T his s e ct io n o n co nt e xt has fo cus e d s o far o n e ffe ct s o f t he p hys ical
e nv ir o nm e nt . I n addit io n t o p hys ical co nt e xt , le ar ning and m e m o r y can
als o be affe ct e d by "p s ycho lo gical" co nt e xt and "m at e r ial" co nt e xt .
Ps ycho lo gical co nt e xt is an int e r nal r at he r t han e xt e r nal co nt e xt ; r e -
s e ar ch has fo und t hat p e o p le can r e m e m be r info r m at io n be t t e r w he n
t he y ar e in t he s am e dr ug s t at e o r s am e m o o d as w he n t he y le ar ne d it .
( T his ap p lie s e v e n t o t he e ffe ct s o f alcho ho l, caffe ine , and nico t ine .)
Mat e r ial co nt e xt r e fe r s t o t he k ind o f m at e r ial t hat s ur r o unds t he m at e r ial
t o be le ar ne d. W o r ds o r p ict ur e s le ar ne d in t he co nt e xt o f o t he r w o r ds
( as in a s e nt e nce o r lis t ) o r o t he r p ict ur e s ar e r e calle d be t t e r if t he o t he r
co nt e xt w o r ds o r p ict ur e s ar e p r e s e nt dur ing r e call.
21
Le ar ne r s can be co m e t o o co nt e xt bo und in t e r m s o f m at e r ial co nt e xt
jus t as t he y can fo r p hys ical co nt e xt . S t ude nt s o ft e n co m p lain t hat t he y
k ne w t he ir no t e s and t he bo o k by he ar t , but did no t do w e ll o n t he t e s t
be caus e t he y w e r e unable t o r e lat e t he que s t io ns t o t he ir no t e s . I f
allo w e d t o r e p r o duce t he ir no t e s ins t e ad, t he y co uld do s o , e v e n t e lling
w he r e o n t he p age t he ans w e r t o a que s t io n is lo cat e d. Bs r hap s t he y
k no w t he m at e r ial too w e ll: I t is o v e r ly t ie d t o a p ar t icular co nt e xt . T his
m ay be o ne r e as o n w hy w o r d p r o ble m s in m at h ar e difficult fo r m any
p e o p le .
22
Fo r e xam p le , m any childr e n w ho can e as ily handle a p r o ble m
lik e "9 - 3 = 6" m ay hav e t r o uble w he n t he p r o ble m is e m be dde d in a
co nt e xt lik e "I f Jo hn has nine m ar ble s , and giv e s t hr e e t o his fr ie nd Jo e ,
ho w m any m ar ble s w ill he hav e le ft ?"
I t s ho uld be no t e d t hat co nt e xt e ffe ct s can v ar y w it h t he w ay
m e m o r y is m e as ur e d, and t hat no ne o f t he co nt e xt e ffe ct s ( p hys ical,
p s ycho lo gical, o r m at e r ial) is as s t r o ng as t he e ffe ct s o f us ing go o d s t udy
s k ills o r m ne m o nic t e chnique s .
23
T hus , any at t e m p t t o us e co nt e xt
e ffe ct s t o aid r e call s ho uld no t be do ne instead of us ing s uch s k ills and
t e chnique s , but s ho uld be us e d in addition to t he m .
INTEREST: "WHAT'S IT TO YA?"
W e s aw ho w im p o r t ant at t e nt io n is in chap t e r 4. At t e nt io n is influe nce d
by int e r e s t . Y o u p ay at t e nt io n t o t he t hings yo u ar e m o s t int e r e s t e d in;
t hus , yo u ar e m o s t lik e ly t o r e m e m be r t ho s e t hings . I f s o m e t hing is no t
im p o r t ant t o yo u, yo u ar e no t v e r y lik e ly t o r e m e m be r it . Any t w o p e o p le
w ho w alk t hr o ugh a de p ar t m e nt s t o r e , r e ad a r e s t aur ant m e nu, o r r e ad
a bo o k ar e lik e ly t o r e m e m be r diffe r e nt t hings be caus e o f t he ir diffe r e nt
int e r e s t s . T he influe nce o f int e r e s t o n at t e nt io n and m e m o r y is illus t r at e d
by t he s t o r y o f t he r e t ur ning s e r v ice m an w ho w as gr e e t e d at t he air p o r t
by his gir lfr ie nd. H e cas ually m e nt io ne d as t he at t r act iv e s t e w ar de s s
w alk e d by, "T hat 's Laur a N e ls o n." H is gir lfr ie nd as k e d him ho w he
hap p e ne d t o k no w he r nam e . "O h," he s aid, "t he nam e s o f all t he cr e w
m e m be r s w e r e p o s t e d at t he fr o nt o f t he p lane ." S he s t um p e d him w it h
t he ne xt que s t io n: "W hat w as t he p ilo t 's nam e ?"
24
T he v alue o f int e r e s t in m e m o r y m ay be illus t r at e d by co m p ar ing
t w o p e o p le w ho ar e s t udying Fr e nch. S up p o s e t hat o ne o f t he m is
p lanning t o t ak e a t r ip t o Fr ance in a fe w m o nt hs . O t he r t hings be ing
e qual, w hich o ne w o uld be m o r e lik e ly t o le ar n and r e m e m be r t he
Fr e nch? S im ilar ly, s up p o s e yo u ar e int r o duce d t o t w o p e o p le , and o ne o f
t he m bo r r o w s $5 fr o m yo u. W hich p e r s o n's nam e ar e yo u m o r e lik e ly t o
r e m e m be r ? O r s up p o s e yo u hav e be e n t o ld t hat p e r icho le cys t it is is an
inflam m at io n o f t is s ue ar o und t he gall bladde r . Y o u m ay no t r e m e m be r
t his fact . But s up p o s e t hat yo u w e r e t o ld by yo ur do ct o r t hat youhav e
p e r icho le cys t it is . N o w w o uldn't yo u be m uch m o r e lik e ly t o r e m e m be r
it ? T he s e s im p le e xam p le s s ho w t hat yo u t e nd t o r e m e m be r t he t hings
t hat int e r e s t yo u.
S o m e p e o p le co m p lain t hat t he y ar e "jus t no go o d" at s uch s ubje ct s
as m at h o r m e chanics . Fr e que nt ly t he r e as o n fo r t his is t hat t he y hav e
no int e r e s t in t ho s e s ubje ct s ; t he y s e e no v alue in t he m and t hus hav e
no t , and do no t w ant t o , p ut fo r t h e ffo r t t o le ar n t he m .
25
W o m e n w ho
claim t o hav e bad m e m o r ie s m ay be able t o r e m e m be r t he bir t hdays and
anniv e r s ar ie s t hat t he ir hus bands hav e a har d t im e k e e p ing t r ack o f, o r
m ay be able t o de s cr ibe in de t ail w hat o t he r w o m e n at a p ar t y w e r e
w e ar ing. Bo ys w ho canno t s e e m t o le ar n in s cho o l m ay be able t o t e ll
yo u e v e r yt hing yo u w ant t o k no w ( and m o r e ) abo ut s p o r t s o r car s . T he
r e as o n is s im p ly int e r e s t .
I nt e r e s t is o ne p o s s ible r e as o n w hy s o m e adult s , e s p e cially t he
e lde r ly, m ay find it har d t o le ar n and r e m e m be r ne w info r m at io n. Many
e lde r ly p e o p le ar e m o r e int e r e s t e d in t he p as t t han t he y ar e in t he
p r e s e nt o r fut ur e , and s p e nd m o r e t im e t hinlcing abo ut t he p as t . W he n
yo u go t o v is it yo ur p ar e nt s o r gr andp ar e nt s , anyo ne in t he ir s e v e nt ie s
o r o lde r , w hat do t he y t alk abo ut ? D o t he y t alk abo ut cur r e nt e v e nt s o r
fut ur e p lans ? N o t us ually. Mo s t o f t he t im e t he y t alk m o r e abo ut p as t
e xp e r ie nce s and fam ily his t o r y. T hat is w hat t he y ar e m o r e int e r e s t e d
in, s o t he y m ay hav e a har d t im e r e m e m be r ing ne w t hings t he y le ar n.
I t w as s ugge s t e d in chap t e r 4 t hat o ne r e as o n s o m e p e o p le fail t o
r e m e m be r nam e s is t hat t he y do no t p ay at t e nt io n t o t he m . W e m ay t ak e
t his o ne s t e p fur t he r and s ugge s t t hat o ne r e as o n t he y p ay lit t le at t e nt io n
t o nam e s is t hat m o s t p e o p le ar e no t as int e r e s t e d in o t he r p e o p le as
t he y ar e in t he m s e lv e s . ( W he n yo u lo o k at a p ict ur e o f a gr o up o f p e o p le
t hat include s yo u, w ho do yo u lo o k at fir s t ?) Mo s t p e o p le ar e m o r e
int e r e s t e d in w hat t he y ar e go ing t o s ay, o r in w hat t he o t he r p e r s o n w ill
t hink o f t he m , t han t he y ar e in t he o t he r p e r s o n.
T w o w ays in w hich int e r e s t he lp s in m e m o r y hav e be e n s ugge s t e d
s o far : I t he lp s us p ay at t e nt io n and it m o t iv at e s us t o t r y t o r e m e m be r .
Ano t he r w ay int e r e s t he lp s m e m o r y is t hat - p e o p le s p e nd m o r e t im e
t hink ing abo ut t hings t hat int e r e s t t he m t han t he y do t hink ing abo ut
t hings t hat do no t int e r e s t t he m , and w e hav e s e e n t hat r e p e t it io n aids
le ar ning.
T he im p o r t ance o f int e r e s t can be illus t r at e d by r e fe r r ing again t o
t he 12- digit num be r t hat has be e n us e d t o illus t r at e s e v e r al p o int s : 376-
315- 374- 264. Y o u m ay no t hav e le ar ne d t his num be r by no w . I t is no t
e s p e cially e as y t o le ar n, but m o r e im p o r t ant yo u s e e no r e as o n fo r do ing
s o . T he r e fo r e , yo u ar e no t m o t iv at e d t o le ar n it . But I did no t m ak e up
t hat num be r fr o m no w he r e ; I hav e be e n us ing t hat p ar t icular num be r o n
p ur p o s e . I f yo u m e m o r ize t hat num be r yo u w ill in e ffe ct hav e t he cale ndar
fo r all o f 1988 m e m o r ize d ( yo u can do t he s am e fo r any o t he r ye ar w it h
t he ap p r o p r iat e 12- digit num be r ). Y o u w ill be able t o ans w e r que s t io ns
lik e "W hat day o f t he w e e k is June 18?" "H o w m any Mo ndays ar e in
N o v e m be r ?" o r "W hat dat e is t he s e co nd S unday in Ap r il?" N o w ar e yo u
int e r e s t e d? D o yo u t hink yo u co uld le ar n t he num be r ? H av ing a r e as o n
fo r le ar ning it m ay hav e incr e as e d int e r e s t , w hich w ill m ak e it e as ie r t o
le ar n. C hap t e r 7 de s cr ibe s ho w t he num be r can be us e d.
T he p r incip le o f int e r e s t s ugge s t s t hat yo u s ho uld incr e as e yo ur
int e r e s t in ce r t ain t hings if yo u hav ing t r o uble le ar ning and r e m e m be r ing
t he m . A nat ur al que s t io n is , ho w ? I f yo u ar e no t int e r e s t e d in s o m e t hing
it p r o bably w ill no t w o r k jus t t o s ay t o yo ur s e lf, "Fr o m no w o n I am go ing
t o be int e r e s t e d in t hat ." O ne w ay t o de v e lo p an int e r e s t in s o m e t hing
yo u ne e d t o le ar n is t o t r y t o find w ays t o r e lat e it t o yo ur p r e s e nt
m o t iv e s and int e r e s t s . T r y t o find s o m e us e fo r t he m at e r ial. H o m e m ak -
e r s w ho hav e a difficult t im e in m at h m ay be able t o le ar n it be t t e r if t he y
can s e e s o m e w ays t o us e t he info r m at io n t o m ak e m e as ur e m e nt s in
co o k ing and s e w ing. C ar p e nt e r s w ho hav e a har d t im e le ar ning m at h m ay
im p r o v e if t he y can s e e ho w it w ill he lp t he m be fas t e r and m o r e accur at e
in t he ir car p e nt r y w o r k . S ale s p e o p le w ho hav e a har d t im e r e m e m be r ing
nam e s m ay be able t o im p r o v e if t he y can r e alize ho w im p o r t ant p e o p le 's
nam e s ar e t o t he m , and ho w r e m e m be r ing cus t o m e r s ' nam e s can he lp
s ale s .
72
Y O U R ME MO R Y
I t m ight he lp t o r e alize t hat v ir t ually e v e r y s ubje ct is int e r e s t ing t o
s o m e o ne . T r y t o figur e o ut w hat it is t hat s o m e o ne m ay find int e r e s t ing
abo ut t he m at e r ial yo u ar e le ar ning. D o no t de p e nd o n aut ho r s , s p e ak e r s ,
o r t e ache r s t o m ak e bo o k s , le ct ur e s , o r co ur s e s int e r e s t ing. I f yo u
act iv e ly s e e k fo r s o m e t hing o f int e r e s t and br ing an inquir ing m ind t o
yo ur le ar ning, yo u w ill find m o s t le ar ning m o r e int e r e s t ing t han if yo u
jus t p as s iv e ly de p e nd o n t he p r o v ide r o f t he m at e r ial t o e nt e r t ain yo u.
I n addit io n t o de v e lo p ing int e r e s t int e r nally, yo u m ight als o be able
t o s t im ulat e int e r e s t e xt e r nally o r ar t ificially. E xt e r nal m o t iv at io ns , s uch
as r e w ar ds o r p unis hm e nt s , m ay he lp cr e at e int e r e s t . Fo r e xam p le , yo u
m ight p ut o ff a p le as ant t as k unt il a ce r t ain le ar ning go al is achie v e d.
FEEDBACK: "HOW ARE YOU DOING? "
S up p o s e yo u ar e s ho o t ing w it h a r ifle at a t ar ge t t hat is t o o far aw ay fo r
yo u t o s e e w he r e yo u hit . Y o u t ak e a t o t al o f 50 s ho t s w it ho ut e v e r
lo o k ing at t he t ar ge t t o s e e w he r e t he y ar e hit t ing, s o t hat yo u hav e no
ide a ho w yo u ar e do ing. H o w int e r e s t ing w o uld t his k ind o f t ar ge t p r act ice
be ? H o w m uch do yo u t hink yo u w o uld im p r o v e ? O n t he o t he r hand,
lo o k ing t hr o ugh a s p o t t ing s co p e aft e r e v e r y fe w s ho t s w o uld no t o nly
he lp m aint ain yo ur int e r e s t in w hat yo u ar e do ing but w o uld als o giv e yo u
info r m at io n abo ut ho w yo u ar e do ing s o t hat yo u co uld m ak e adjus t m e nt s
t o im p r o v e .
Fe e dback in le ar ning s e r v e s t he s am e t w o funct io ns . Fir s t , k no w ing
ho w yo u ar e p r o gr e s s ing in le ar ning s o m e t hing he lp s s us t ain yo ur
int e r e s t in t he t as k . Y o u w ill s o o n gr o w bo r e d and lo s e int e r e s t if yo u
co ns t ant ly s t udy and ne v e r k no w w he t he r yo u ar e r e m e m be r ing any o f
t he m at e r ial. Fir s t - gr ade childr e n w e r e t aught t o r e he ar s e m at e r ial t o
he lp t he m r e m e m be r it . S o m e o f t he m w e r e giv e n fe e dback o n ho w w e ll
it w o r k e d and o t he r s w e r e no t . W he n lat e r giv e n t he o p t io n o f r e he ar s ing,
o nly t ho s e w ho had r e ce iv e d fe e dback o n it s v alue p e r s is t e d in us ing it .
S e co nd, yo u w ill be able t o m ak e adjus t m e nt s t o im p r o v e if yo u ge t
fe e dback o n ho w m uch yo u can r e m e m be r . Y o u can co r r e ct yo ur r e call
e r r o r s and p ut m o r e e ffo r t int o t he p ar t s yo u canno t r e m e m be r .
26
Fe e dback can he lp yo u le ar n and r e m e m be r m at e r ial be t t e r . S o m e
p e o p le w e r e t e s t e d o n w r it t e n m at e r ial r ight aft e r t he y finis he d r e ading
it . H alf o f t he m r e ce iv e d fe e dback as t o ho w t he y did o n t he t e s t , and
t he o t he r half r e ce iv e d no fe e dback . T he p e o p le w ho r e ce iv e d fe e dback
r e m e m be r e d t he m at e r ial be t t e r a w e e k lat e r t han did t he p e o p le w ho
did no t r e ce iv e fe e dback .
27
R e s e ar ch s ho w s t hat s t ude nt s in s cho o l le ar n
m o r e e fficie nt ly w he n t e ache r s p r o v ide co r r e ct iv e fe e dback dur ing p r ac-
t ice and ap p licat io n, and a w ho le p r o gr am o f ins t r uct io n has be e n bas e d
o n fe e dback fr o m t e ache r s t o s t ude nt s .
28
I n addit io n t o he lp ing yo u le ar n m at e r ial be t t e r , fe e dback can
incr e as e yo ur accur acy in as s e s s ing ho w w e ll yo u k no w t he m at e r ial.
S o m e p e o p le s t udie d a lis t o f p air e d as s o ciat e s fo r s e v e r al t r ials , alt e r nat -
ing s t udy t r ials w it h t e s t t r ials ( w hich gav e t he m fe e dback o n ho w w e ll
t he y w e r e le ar ning t he m at e r ials ). O t he r s had t he s t udy t r ials o nly,
w it ho ut t he p r act ice t e s t s . T he fir s t gr o up w as m o r e accur at e in p r e dict -
ing ho w w e ll t he y w o uld do o n a final r e call t e s t .
29
Y o u can ap p ly t he p r incip le o f fe e dback by us ing any t e chnique t hat
giv e s yo u info r m at io n abo ut ho w yo u ar e do ing. O ne m e t ho d is t o s t udy
w it h a fr ie nd and quiz e ach o t he r . Ano t he r m e t ho d is r e cit at io n ( s e e
chap t e r 6). R e cit at io n in e ffe ct inv o lv e s t e s t ing yo ur s e lf. I f yo u ar e
m e m o r izing a p o e m o r le ar ning a s p e e ch, t he n t r y s aying it t o yo ur s e lf
aft e r a fe w r e adings and lo o k at it o nly w he n yo u ge t s t uck . I f yo u ar e
s t udying a chap t e r , t he n glance at t he he adings and w o r ds in it alics and
t r y t o e xp lain t o yo ur s e lf w hat t he y m e an. Y o u m ight e v e n m ak e up t e s t
que s t io ns . T his giv e s yo u fe e dback o n ho w yo u ar e do ing. I t w ill he lp
yo u t o s us t ain yo ur int e r e s t and m ak e adjus t m e nt s t o im p r o v e yo ur
le ar ning.
Strategi es for Effecti ve
Learni ng: Study Ski l l s
A
num be r o f s t r at e gie s can he lp yo u le ar n and r e m e m be r m o r e
e ffe ct iv e ly: T ak e s t e p s t o r e duce int e r fe r e nce ; s p ace yo ur le ar ning
s e s s io ns o ut o v e r t im e ; us e w ho le le ar ning and p ar t le ar ning in ap p r o p r i-
at e cir cum s t ance s ; r e cit e t he m at e r ial; and us e a s t udy s ys t e m . E ach o f
t he s e le ar ning s t r at e gie s is dis cus s e d in t his chap t e r . T he s e s t r at e gie s
ar e t he k inds o f s k ills t hat ar e t yp ically co v e r e d in bo o k s o r co ur s e s o n
s t udy s k ills in s cho o l. Mo s t s uch bo o k s and co ur s e s als o co v e r s o m e o f
t he p r incip le s in chap t e r s 4 and 5, as w e ll as s cho o l s k ills t hat ar e no t
co v e r e d in t his bo o k ( fo r e xam p le , go al s e t t ing, m anaging t im e , t ak ing
e xam s , w r it ing p ap e r s ).
1
T he s t r at e gie s in t his chap t e r ar e dis cus s e d fr o m t he v ie w p o int o f
s t ude nt s in s cho o l, and can he lp s t ude nt s de v e lo p be t t e r s t udy s k ills .
( T he quality o f a s t ude nt 's s t udy is m o r e im p o r t ant t han t he quantity o f
s t udy, go o d s t ude nt s do no t ne ce s s ar ily s t udy m o r e t han p o o r s t ude nt s ,
but t he y us e t he ir s t udy t im e m o r e e ffe ct iv e ly.) Po o r s t ude nt s ar e no t
t he o nly o ne s w ho can be ne fit fr o m im p r o v e d s t udy s k ills . R e s e ar ch has
fo und t hat m o s t s t ude nt s in high s cho o l and co lle ge us e a nar r o w r ange
o f le ar ning s t r at e gie s o v e r a w ide r ange o f le ar ning m at e r ials and
o bje ct iv e s , and t hat go o d s t ude nt s k no w v e r y lit t le abo ut e ffe ct iv e
s t r at e gie s t o be t t e r le ar n and r e m e m be r e v e n t ho ugh t he y us e m o r e
s t r at e gie s t han p o o r s t ude nt s .
2
74
Strategies for Effective Learning: Study Skills 75
Alt ho ugh t his chap t e r fo cus e s o n s t ude nt s in s cho o l, t he s co p e o f
t he chap t e r is br o ade r t han jus t t he s cho o l s e t t ing. I n r e s e ar ch o n
le ar ning s t r at e gie s , a "le ar ne r " include s any p e r s o n w ho is t r ying t o
acquir e ne w k no w le dge o r s k ills in fo r m al s cho o l s e t t ings , o n- t he - jo b
t r aining, o r info r m al le ar ning.
3
Le ar ning s t r at e gie s w ill he lp no t o nly in
r e m e m be r ing m at e r ial fo r e xam s but als o in m any o t he r t as k s , s uch as
r e m e m be r ing nam e s o f p e o p le yo u m e e t ,, le ar ning a fo r e ign language ,
le ar ning a s p e e ch o r r e p o r t , o r m e m o r izing s cr ip t ur e s , p o e m s , s o ngs , o r
line s fo r a p lay. T hus , e v e n if yo u ar e no t cur r e nt ly in s cho o l yo u w ill s t ill
find t hat yo u can us e t he s e le ar ning s t r at e gie s . O ne o f t he s t ude nt s '
co m m e nt s include d in t he int r o duct io n t o t his bo o k w as w r it t e n by a
m iddle - age d w o m an in m y m e m o r y co ur s e : "I ho ne s t ly did no t t hink any
o f t his m e m o r y bus ine s s w o uld be o f he lp t o m e no w t hat I am o ut o f
s cho o l, but it r e ally has ."
REDUCE INTERFERENCE
I n chap t e r 3 w e s aw t hat int e r fe r e nce fr o m o t he r le ar ning is o ne o f t he
m ain caus e s o f fo r ge t t ing. W hat fact o r s affe ct int e r fe r e nce and w hat can
yo u do abo ut t he m ?
How Well the Material Is Learned
T he m o r e t ho r o ughly s o m e t hing is le ar ne d, t he le s s it w ill be affe ct e d by
int e r fe r e nce .
4
Mat e r ial t hat is jus t bar e ly le ar ne d is m o r e s ubje ct t o
int e r fe r e nce t han is m at e r ial t hat is le ar ne d v e r y w e ll; t hus , if yo u w ant
t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hing, o v e r le ar n it ( s e e chap t e r 5).
Meaningfulness of the Material
T he m o r e m e aningful t he m at e r ial is , t he le s s s ubje ct it is t o int e r fe r e nce .
T his do e s no t m e an t hat int e r fe r e nce o ccur s o nly w it h m e aningle s s
m at e r ial lik e no ns e ns e s yllable s ( w hich hav e be e n us e d in m uch o f t he
r e s e ar ch o n int e r fe r e nce ). I nt e r fe r e nce can als o o ccur w it h m e aningful
p r o s e ,
5
but t he e ffe ct s o f int e r fe r e nce ar e ge ne r ally no t as gr e at fo r
m e aningful m at e r ial as fo r le s s m e aningful m at e r ial. Any o f t he p r incip le s
yo u can us e fr o m chap t e r 4 t o m ak e t he m at e r ial m e aningful w ill he lp
r e duce int e r fe r e nce .
Amount of Intervening Activity
H o w m uch yo u do , e s p e cially in t e r m s o f m e nt al act iv it y, dur ing t he
p e r io d be t w e e n t he t im e o f le ar ning and t he t im e o f r e call can affe ct
int e r fe r e nce . Ge ne r ally, t he m o r e yo u do , t he m o r e o p p o r t unit y t he r e is
fo r int e r fe r e nce t o o ccur . S up p o s e o ne s t ude nt s t udie d fo r an e xam , and
t he n w e nt t o a m o v ie , r e ad t he ne w s p ap e r , r e ad a m agazine , and s t udie d
ano t he r s ubje ct be fo r e t he e xam . S up p o s e a s e co nd s t ude nt s t udie d fo r
t he e xam , and t he n s le p t o r r e s t e d unt il t he e xam . O t he r t hings be ing
e qual, t he r e w o uld be m o r e int e r fe r e nce fo r t he fir s t s t ude nt t han fo r t he
s e co nd. Minim um int e r fe r e nce s ho uld o ccur if yo u s le e p be t w e e n s t udy-
ing and t e s t ing ( as s um ing yo u s t udie d w e ll and ar e no t s le e p ing instead
o f s t udying). As w e s aw in chap t e r 3, t he r e is r e s e ar ch e v ide nce t hat a
p e r s o n w ho go e s t o s le e p r ight aft e r le ar ning w ill r e m e m be r m o r e t han a
p e r s o n w ho s t ays aw ak e . O ne s t udy fo und t hat e v e n t hr e e - m o nt h- o ld
infant s s ho w e d a p o s it iv e co r r e lat io n be t w e e n ho w w e ll t he y r e m e m be r e d
a s im p le m o t o r t as k ( m o v ing an o v e r he ad cr ib m o bile by k ick ing) and
ho w m uch t he y s le p t dur ing t he 8 ho ur s aft e r le ar ning; t he r e s e ar che r s
at t r ibut e d t he co r r e lat io n t o t he am o unt o f int e r v e ning act iv it y.
6
Similarity of Intervening Activity
T he p r e v io us it e m r e fe r r e d t o how muchyo u do be t w e e n le ar ning and
r e call. What yo u do can als o affe ct int e r fe r e nce . T w o k inds o f info r m at io n
t hat ar e s im ilar w ill int e r fe r e w it h e ach o t he r m o r e t han t w o t hat ar e
dis s im ilar .
7
T he r e fo r e , if yo u canno t s le e p all t he t im e aft e r s t udy ( t o
r e duce t he am o unt o f int e r v e ning act iv it y), t he n yo u s ho uld do s o m e t hing
t hat is diffe r e nt fr o m w hat yo u hav e s t udie d ( t o r e duce t he s im ilar it y o f
int e r v e ning act iv it y). I t is be s t no t t o s t udy t w o s im ilar s ubje ct s clo s e
t o ge t he r w he n yo u can he lp it . Fo r e xam p le , if yo u had t o s t udy Fr e nch,
S p anis h, and bio lo gy in t he ne xt fe w days , it w o uld be be t t e r t o s t udy
bio lo gy in be t w e e n Fr e nch and S p anis h. Fr e nch and S p anis h ar e m o r e
s im ilar , and t hus m o r e lik e ly t o int e r fe r e w it h e ach o t he r . ( O f co ur s e , a
s t ude nt w ho has t e s t s in Fr e nch and S p anis h o n Fr iday and has no t
s t udie d e it he r o ne by T hur s day night m ay no t hav e m uch cho ice .)
Similarity of Learning Contexts
T he co nt e xt in w hich yo u le ar n s o m e t hing affe ct s yo ur abilit y t o r e m e m -
be r it . Fo r e xam p le , yo u ar e m o r e lik e ly t o r e co gnize a p e r s o n yo u hav e
m e t o nly o nce , and t o r e m e m be r he r nam e , if yo u s e e he r in t he o ffice
w he r e yo u fir s t m e t he r r at he r t han if yo u s e e he r w alk ing do w n t he
s t r e e t . S im ilar ly, o t he r r e call w ill be he lp e d if it o ccur s in t he s am e
co nt e xt in w hich t he m at e r ial w as le ar ne d ( s e e chap t e r 5). T he co nt e xt s
in w hich yo u s t udy diffe r e nt s ubje ct s can als o m ak e a diffe r e nce in ho w
m uch t he y int e r fe r e w it h e ach o t he r . Fo r e xam p le , s t udying t w o diffe r e nt
s ubje ct s in t w o diffe r e nt r o o m s ins t e ad o f in t he s am e r o o m can r e duce
t he int e r fe r e nce be t w e e n t he s ubje ct s by as m uch as half. I t has e v e n
be e n fo und t hat it is e as ie r t o k e e p s t r aight w hich o f t w o s p e ak e r s s aid
w hat if t he s p e ak e r s ar e o bs e r v e d in diffe r e nt p lace s .
8
T he p r act ical im p licat io n o f t he co nt e xt e ffe ct is t hat if yo u ne e d t o
s t udy s ubje ct s t hat ar e lik e ly t o int e r fe r e w it h e ach o t he r , yo u s ho uld
s t udy t he m in diffe r e nt p lace s . Fo r e xam p le , hav ing o ne p lace t o s t udy
yo ur Fr e nch and ano t he r p lace t o s t udy yo ur S p anis h w ill he lp yo u k e e p
t he t w o s ubje ct s s e p ar at e w he n yo u r e call t he m . W he n t e ache r s t e ach
t w o diffe r e nt s e ct io ns o f t he s am e clas s co v e r ing t he s am e s ubje ct m at t e r
dur ing o ne s e m e s t e r , a co m m o n p r o ble m is t hat t he y canno t r e m e m be r
w hat t he y t alk e d abo ut in o ne s e ct io n and w hat t he y t alk e d abo ut in t he
o t he r s e ct io n. I find t hat it he lp s m e t o t e ach t he s e ct io ns in diffe r e nt
r o o m s r at he r t han in t he s am e r o o m .
I n addit io n t o diffe r e nt p lace s o f s t udy, yo u can als o cr e at e diffe r e nt
co nt e xt s fo r t he m at e r ials t o be le ar ne d. Fo r e xam p le , yo u co uld w r it e
yo ur Fr e nch no t e s in blue ink and yo ur S p anis h no t e s in black ink , o r
w r it e yo ur Fr e nch v o cabular y w o r ds o n t he t o p half o f e ach p age and
yo ur S p anis h w o r ds o n t he bo t t o m half. W he n yo u t r y t o r e call t he m
lat e r , t he co lo r o f t he ink o r t he lo cat io n o n t he p age w ill he lp yo u k e e p
s t r aight w hich language is w hich.
Time Between Learning Sessions
I f yo u hav e m o r e t han o ne s ubje ct t o s t udy, yo u m ay hav e le s s int e r fe r -
e nce if yo u s t udy e ach o ne in a s e p ar at e s t udy s e s s io n r at he r , t han
s t udying all s ubje ct s in o ne s e s s io n. S o m e p e o p le le ar ne d t w o p air e d-
as s o ciat e lis t s o n T hur s day and w e r e t e s t e d o n t he s e co nd o ne o n Fr iday.
O t he r s le ar ne d t he fir s t lis t o n Mo nday and t he s e co nd o ne o n T hur s day,
and w e r e als o t e s t e d o n t he s e co nd o ne o n Fr iday. T he fir s t gr o up
r e calle d 38 p e r ce nt ; t he s e co nd gr o up r e calle d 65 p e r ce nt . I n a s im ilar
s t udy, p e o p le le ar ne d fo ur diffe r e nt s e t s o f w o r ds p air e d t o t he s am e cue
w o r ds and t he n r e calle d t he fo ur t h s e t lat e r . T his s it uat io n is als o v e r y
s us ce p t ible t o int e r fe r e nce . S o m e o f t he p e o p le s t udie d all fo ur s e t s in
o ne s e s s io n; o t he r s s t udie d t he m o n a s p ace d- o ut bas is o v e r a p e r io d o f
t hr e e days . T ho s e w ho did all t he ir s t udying in o ne s e s s io n co uld r e call
o nly 31 p e r ce nt o f t he fo ur t h s e t o f w o r ds aft e r o ne day, and 7 p e r ce nt
aft e r a w e e k . T ho s e w ho had le ar ne d t he fo ur lis t s s e p ar at e ly in t he
s p ace d s che dule r e calle d 89 p e r ce nt aft e r o ne day, 72 p e r ce nt aft e r a
w e e k , and 34 p e r ce nt aft e r a m o nt h.
9
W hat if yo u do no t hav e s e v e r al days ? S up p o s e yo u hav e t o k no w t he
m at e r ial t o m o r r o w . I t w ill s t ill he lp t o t ak e a br e ak . T he t im e be t w e e n
s t udy s e s s io ns do e s no t hav e t o be v e r y lo ng. Me r e ly go ing t o ge t a dr ink
o f w at e r be t w e e n t w o le ar ning s e s s io ns has be e n fo und t o r e duce
int e r fe r e nce . ( I n fact , t ak ing s uch a br e ak and co m ing back t o t he s am e
r o o m r e duce d int e r fe r e nce as m uch as go ing t o a diffe r e nt r o o m fo r t he
s e co nd s e s s io n.)
10
S up p o s e , fo r e xam p le , t hat yo u ne e d t o s t udy t w o
s im ilar s ubje ct s , s uch as Fr e nch and S p anis h, fo r 2 ho ur s in o ne night .
Y o u co uld s t udy Fr e nch and S p anis h int e r m it t e nt ly fo r 20 t o 30 m inut e s
at a t im e dur ing t he 2 ho ur s ; o r yo u co uld s t udy Fr e nch fo r 1 ho ur , t ak e
a s ho r t br e ak , and t he n s t udy S p anis h fo r 1 ho ur . T he s e co nd s t r at e gy is
p r e fe r able .
SPACE IT OUT
S up p o s e yo u hav e allo t t e d a ce r t ain am o unt o f t im e t o s t udying s o m e
m at e r ial. S ho uld yo u do all o f yo ur s t udying in o ne s e s s io n, o r s ho uld yo u
dis t r ibut e yo ur s t udy t im e acr o s s s ho r t e r t im e p e r io ds ? Fo r e xam p le , if
yo u can allo t 3 ho ur s t o s t udy t he m at e r ial, yo u co uld e it he r s p e nd o ne
3- ho ur s e s s io n s t udying it o r yo u co uld s p ace it o ut o v e r t hr e e 1- ho ur
s e s s io ns .
T he fir s t s t r at e gy w ill be e as ily ide nt ifie d as "cr am m ing" by alm o s t
anyo ne w ho has be e n a s t ude nt . C r am m ing co ns is t s o f t r ying t o le ar n a
lar ge am o unt o f m at e r ial in a r e lat iv e ly s ho r t p e r io d o f int e ns e s t udy,
us ually jus t be fo r e t he e xam . Ps ycho lo gis t s call it "m as s e d le ar ning."
T he y call t he s e co nd s t r at e gy "dis t r ibut e d le ar ning." D is t r ibut e d le ar ning
is w hat m o s t t e ache r s t e ll s t ude nt s t o do but w hat fe w s t ude nt s act ually
do p r o bably be caus e t he y do no t s t ar t s t udying fo r a t e s t far e no ugh
ahe ad t o be able t o s p ace t he ir s t udy. T he y s t udy by t he "br us h- fir e "
m e t ho d, s t am p ing t he fir e o ut w he r e v e r it flam e s up , w it h lit t le p lanning
ahe ad. T his is o ne r e as o n w hy m o s t bo o k s o n ho w t o s t udy in s cho o l
include a chap t e r o n budge t ing yo ur t im e .
I n t he p r e v io us s e ct io n o n t im e be t w e e n le ar ning s e s s io ns , w e s aw
t hat s p acing o f s t udy s e s s io ns he lp s r e duce int e r fe r e nce am o ng diffe r e nt
s e t s o f m at e r ial. H o w e ffe ct iv e is s p acing in t e r m s o f e fficie ncy in le ar ning
o ne s e t o f m at e r ial? Quo t at io ns fr o m t hr e e s o ur ce s t hat s um m ar ize t he
r e le v ant r e s e ar ch can ans w e r t his que s t io n. T he fir s t quo t e is fr o m a
r e v ie w o f r e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y. "S p ace d r e p e t it io ns alm o s t alw ays be ne fit
m e m o r y m o r e t han m as s e d r e p e t it io ns ... . [T he r e is ] a be ne ficial e ffe ct
o f gr e at e r s p acing be t w e e n le ar ning t r ials unde r m any cir cum s t ance s ."
T he s e co nd quo t e is fr o m a t e xt bo o k o n m e m o r y: "O ne o f t he m o s t
p o t e nt v ar iable s influe ncing fo r ge t t ing is s p ace d p r act ice . "
u
T he t hir d quo t e is fr o m a bo o k le t t it le d What Works: Research About
Teaching and Learning, w hich w as p ublis he d by t he U .S . D e p ar t m e nt o f
E ducat io n in 1986. I t s um m ar ize s 41 "findings " o f e ducat io nal r e s e ar ch
fo r p ar e nt s and t e ache r s . E ach o f t he 41 findings is a s t r at e gy o r act iv it y
t hat has s ubs t ant ial r e s e ar ch s up p o r t and t hat co uld be fo llo w e d by a
ho m e o r s cho o l e ducat o r t o e nhance s t ude nt le ar ning. T he bo o k le t has
be e n w e ll r e ce iv e d by m o s t e ducat o r s , and s e v e r al o f it s - findings ar e
no t e d in t his bo o k . O ne o f t he "e xam p le s o f s o und s t udy p r act ice s " lis t e d
in What Works is , "Go o d s t ude nt s s p ace le ar ning s e s s io ns o n a t o p ic o v e r
t im e and do no t cr am o r s t udy t he s am e t o p ic co nt inuo us ly."
12
As t he abo v e quo t e s s ugge s t , r e s e ar ch e v ide nce indicat e s t hat
s p ace d le ar ning is ge ne r ally m o r e e ffe ct iv e t han m as s e d le ar ning fo r a
num be r o f diffe r e nt k inds o f le ar ning t as k s , and fo r int e r v als be t w e e n
s t udy and r e call fr o m a fe w s e co nds t o m uch lo nge r . T hr e e s t udie s
illus t r at e t he v ar ie t y o f t he r e s e ar ch. I n t he fir s t s t udy, high s cho o l
s t ude nt s s t udie d Fr e nch v o cabular y w o r ds 10 m inut e s e ach day fo r t hr e e
days . O t he r s t ude nt s s t udie d t he w o r ds dur ing o ne 30- m inut e p e r io d.
T he ir p e r fo r m ance o n a t e s t im m e diat e ly aft e r s t udying w as t he s am e ,
but t he dis t r ibut e d s t udy gr o up did be t t e r fo ur days lat e r . I n t he s e co nd
s t udy, p o s t m e n in Br it ain w e r e t aught t o t yp e o n a ne w p o s t al- co de
k e ybo ar d. S o m e p r act ice d t w o 2- ho ur s e s s io ns p e r day; s o m e p r act ice d
o ne 2- ho ur s e s s io n o r t w o 1- ho ur s e s s io ns p e r day, and s o m e p r act ice d
o ne 1- ho ur s e s s io n p e r day. T he m o r e s p ace d t he ir t r aining w as , t he
le s s p r act ice t im e it t o o k t o le ar n t he k e ybo ar d and t he gr e at e r t he
s ubs e que nt r at e o f im p r o v e m e nt . I n t he t hir d s t udy, p e o p le w ho had
s t udie d S p anis h fo r t hr e e ye ar s by bo t h s p ace d and m as s e d s t udy w he n
t he y w e r e in s cho o l r e t aine d abo ut 72 p e r ce nt o f t he v o cabular y up t o 50
ye ar s lat e r ; t ho s e w ho r e lie d o nly o n cr am m ing t yp ically r e t aine d le s s
t han 10 p e r ce nt .
13
I n addit io n t o be ne fit ing s t udy, r e s e ar ch e v ide nce s ho w s t hat s p acing
m ay als o be ne fit r e v ie w ing, im p r o v e t e aching, and aid m e m o r y fo r nam e s .
W he n r e v ie w ing m at e r ial t hat w as p r e v io us ly le ar ne d, it has be e n fo und
t hat s p ace d r e v ie w s ar e m o r e e ffe ct iv e t han co nt inuo us r e v ie w s in he lp ing
r e t e nt io n. Alo ng w it h s p ace d s t udy, s p ace d t e s t s and s p ace d p r e s e nt a-
t io ns o f m at e r ial by t he t e ache r s e e m t o m ak e t he m o s t e fficie nt us e o f
clas s r o o m t im e . W e s aw in chap t e r 5 t hat in a s t udy o f p e o p le 's m e m o r y
fo r nam e s and face s o f fo r m e r high s cho o l co lle ague s , t he r e lat iv e ly high
le v e l o f r e call w as at t r ibut e d in p ar t t o t he e ffe ct s o f o v e r le ar ning. T he
o t he r co nt r ibut ing fact o r s ugge s t e d by t he r e s e ar che r w as dis t r ibut e d
le ar ning: W e le ar n t he o t he r s t ude nt s ' nam e s o v e r a p e r io d o f fo ur ye ar s .
Y o u m ight hav e a har d t im e r e m e m be r ing t he nam e s o f 10 p e o p le yo u
m e t in o ne e v e ning, but yo u w o uld do be t t e r if yo u m e t o ne o f t ho s e
p e o p le e ach day fo r 10 days . S im ilar ly, p e o p le w ho s aw face s fo r t hr e e 5-
s e co nd v ie w ings s e p ar at e d by s e v e r al m inut e s t o 2 ho ur s r e m e m be r e d
t he face s be t t e r t han did p e o p le w ho s aw t he face s fo r o ne 15- s e co nd
v ie w ing.
14
T he r e ar e at le as t t hr e e p o s s ible r e as o ns w hy s p ace d le ar ning is
ge ne r ally be t t e r t han m as s e d le ar ning.
15
1. Y o u can co nce nt r at e o nly s o lo ng be fo r e yo ur at t e nt io n w ande r s ;
t hus , if yo u t r y t o do all yo ur s t udying in o ne s e s s io n, yo u m ay no t be
able t o p ay at t e nt io n fo r t he w ho le t im e .
2. T he r e is e v ide nce t hat w hat yo u hav e le ar ne d dur ing a s t udy
s e s s io n m ay co ns o lidat e in yo ur m ind dur ing a br e ak . Y o u can he lp t he
p r o ce s s alo ng by co ns cio us ly r e v ie w ing t he m at e r ial in yo ur m ind be -
t w e e n s t udy s e s s io ns . S t ude nt s r e m e m be r e d m o r e fr o m a 21- m inut e
le ct ur e w he n t he le ct ur e w as br o k e n up by t hr e e 2- m inut e p aus e s t o
allo w co ns o lidat io n.
3. Y o u ar e m o r e lik e ly t o s t udy t he m at e r ial in diffe r e nt co nt e xt s
and m o o ds in s e v e r al s t udy s e s s io ns . C hance s ar e be t t e r t hat t he m o o d
and s e t t ing o f t he e xam w ill be s im ilar t o at le as t o ne o f t he s t udy
s e s s io ns . E v e n if it is no t , yo u s t ill hav e t he adv ant age o f be ing le s s
bo und by co nt e xt t han if yo u had do ne all yo ur s t udying in o nly o ne
co nt e xt ( s e e chap t e r 5).
S p ace d le ar ning r e duce s t he am o unt o f act ual s t udy t im e it t ak e s t o
le ar n t he m at e r ial. O f co ur s e , t he t o t al am o unt o f t im e be t w e e n t he
be ginning o f s t udy and final m as t e r y incr e as e s w it h s p ace d le ar ning,
be caus e t he t o t al t im e co ns is t s bo t h o f act ual s t udy t im e and t im e
be t w e e n s t udy s e s s io ns . T hus , t he s t ude nt w ho s t ar t s s t udying fo r
Fr iday's e xam o n W e dne s day w ill find it e as ie r t o s p ace his s t udy t han
w ill t he s t ude nt w ho s t ar t s o n T hur s day night .
T he r e is a lim it t o t he im p r o v e m e nt s in p e r fo r m ance w it h s p acing.
As t he le ngt h o f t he s t udy s e s s io n is de cr e as e d and t he int e r v al be t w e e n
t he m is incr e as e d, p e r fo r m ance im p r o v e s t o a p o int , and t he n de cline s .
Fo r e xam p le , dis t r ibut ing yo ur 3 ho ur s o f s t udy int o e ight e e n 10- m inut e
p e r io ds m ay be w o r s e t han cr am m ing fo r o ne 3- ho ur p e r io d. A p r act ical
p r o ble m is de ciding w hat le ngt h is be s t fo r t he s t udy p e r io ds and fo r t he
int e r v als be t w e e n p e r io ds . I t has be e n r e co m m e nde d t hat t he s t udy
p e r io d s ho uld be s ho r t e r fo r difficult t as k s , yo ung, ine xp e r ie nce d le ar n-
e r s , and e ar ly s t age s o f le ar ning, t han fo r e as ie r t as k s , m o r e m at ur e
le ar ne r s , and t as k s t hat ar e in an adv ance d s t age o f le ar ning.
16
Mas s e d le ar ning m ay be be t t e r fo r t as k s t hat r e quir e a lo t o f
p r e p ar at io n o r fo r ce r t ain p r o ble m - s o lv ing t as k s . Fo r e xam p le , if it t ak e s
yo u 15 m inut e s o f e ach s t udy s e s s io n t o s e t t le do w n, ge t yo ur s up p lie s
t o ge t he r , and ge t "w ar m e d up " be fo r e yo u can act ually s t ar t s t udying,
t he n it m ay no t m ak e m uch s e ns e t o div ide yo ur s t udy t im e int o 30-
m inut e s e s s io ns . Mas s e d le ar ning m ay als o be m o r e e fficie nt if r e call is
go ing t o be r e quir e d r ight aft e r le ar ning; dis t r ibut e d le ar ning is us ually
m o r e e fficie nt w he n t he r e is a de lay be t w e e n le ar ning and r e call.
17
( T his
s ugge s t s o ne r e as o n w hy m any s t ude nt s ar e no t able t o r e call m at e r ial
fo r v e r y lo ng aft e r an e xam : T he y hav e le ar ne d it by cr am m ing t he night
be fo r e t he e xam .)
BREAK IT UP?
Ano t he r cho ice t hat yo u ar e face d w it h in le ar ning m at e r ial is w he t he r
yo u s ho uld s t udy it by t he p ar t m e t ho d o r by t he w ho le m e t ho d. I n t he
p ar t m e t ho d yo u br e ak up t he m at e r ial int o s m alle r p ar t s , and s t udy e ach
p ar t ( s e ct io n, v e r s e , p ar agr ap h, s t anza, e t c.) s e p ar at e ly: S t udy t he fir s t
p ar t unt il yo u hav e le ar ne d it , and t he n s t udy t he s e co nd p ar t unt il yo u
hav e le ar ne d it , and t he n t he t hir d p ar t , and s o o n. I n t he w ho le m e t ho d
yo u s t udy t he w ho le t hing fr o m be ginning t o e nd, all t he p ar t s t o ge t he r ,
o v e r and o v e r unt il yo u hav e le ar ne d it .
T he fo llo w ing s e v e n co ndit io ns can de t e r m ine w he t he r w ho le le ar n-
ing o r p ar t le ar ning is m o r e e fficie nt .
18
1. O ne o f t he m ain adv ant age s o f t he w ho le m e t ho d is t hat it giv e s
a co nt e xt o f m e aning t o e ach p ar t and p r o m p t s r e call o f t he ne xt p ar t .
T his ho lds e s p e cially fo r m at e r ial in w hich t he r e is a de v e lo p ing t he m e
( fo r e xam p le , a p o e m o r s p e e ch). W ho le le ar ning giv e s yo u an o v e r all
p ict ur e o f ho w t he p ar t s fit t o ge t he r , and t his o v e r v ie w o f t he co nt e xt
he lp s yo u t o r e m e m be r t he m at e r ial. Le ar ning t he p ar t s w it ho ut hav ing
an o v e r all p ict ur e o f ho w t he y go t o ge t he r is s o m e w hat lik e p ut t ing a
jigs aw p uzzle t o ge t he r w it ho ut lo o k ing at t he p ict ur e o n t he bo x t o s e e
w hat t he co m p le t e d p uzzle is s up p o s e d t o lo o k lik e . I n t he p ar t m e t ho d,
p ut t ing t he p ar t s t o ge t he r w ill t ak e up as m uch as half o f t he t o t al le ar ning
t im e and w ill be t he s o ur ce o f m o s t e r r o r s . T hus , t he difficult y in t he
p ar t m e t ho d is no t le ar ning t he p ar t s but p ut t ing t he m t o ge t he r .
19
2. O ne o f t he m ain adv ant age s o f t he p ar t m e t ho d is t hat p e o p le
ge t fe e dback o n ho w m uch t he y ar e le ar ning s o o ne r t han t he y do us ing
t he w ho le m e t ho d. Y o u m ay no t r e alize t hat yo u ar e le ar ning anyt hing if
yo u k e e p s t udying t he w ho le t hing o v e r and o v e r . H o w e v e r , t he p e r s o n
w ho is s t udying t he s e p ar at e p ar t s m ay be able t o r e cit e e ach p ar t as he
finis he s it . H e ge t s im m e diat e fe e dback . I f t he w ho le le ar ne r k e e p s
s t udying, he w ill s o o n find t hat he can r e cit e m o s t o f t he m at e r ial, but he
m ay giv e up be fo r e he r e ache s t his p o int w it ho ut fe e dback o n p r o gr e s s
alo ng t he w ay. As w e s aw in chap t e r 5, fe e dback he lp s s us t ain int e r e s t .
Fo r e xam p le , s up p o s e t hat it t ak e s a p e r s o n an ho ur t o m e m o r ize a
p as s age o f 500 w o r ds , and t hat a 100- w o r d p o r t io n o f t his p as s age
r e quir e s o nly 9 m inut e s t o m e m o r ize . Aft e r 9 m inut e s o f s t udy, p ar t
le ar ne r s hav e s o m e t hing t o s ho w fo r t he ir e ffo r t s , w he r e as w ho le
le ar ne r s m ay no t be able t o r e call e v e n a s ingle s e nt e nce co r r e ct ly. T his
m ay dis co ur age t he w ho le le ar ne r s and t he y m ay giv e up . Fo r t his
r e as o n, t he p ar t m e t ho d m ay be be t t e r fo r adult s w ho ar e no t us e d t o
t he w ho le m e t ho d, and fo r childr e n w ho ne e d fe e dback t o k e e p t he m
go ing.
3. C o nt inue d p r act ice us ing t he w ho le m e t ho d w ill im p r o v e it s
e fficie ncy, w he r e as co nt inue d p r act ice w it h t he p ar t m e t ho d w ill no t . Le t
us co ns ide r fur t he r t he abo v e e xam p le o f m e m o r izing a 500- w o r d p as -
s age . T he fir s t 9 m inut e s s p e nt by t he w ho le le ar ne r is no t w as t e d, but
it is le ading t o w ar d m as t e r y. T he p ar t le ar ne r s t ill has fo ur p ar t s le ft t o
m e m o r ize and m ay fo r ge t s o m e o f e ach p ar t w hile m e m o r izing t he
o t he r s . I n addit io n, he s t ill has t o w o r k o n p ut t ing t he p ar t s t o ge t he r
( s e e num be r 1 abo v e ). Pe o p le w ho hav e had p r act ice us ing t he w ho le
m e t ho d r e alize t he s e t hings , and t hat t he y ar e le ar ning e v e n t ho ugh it
do e s no t s ho w ye t . Be caus e o f p as t e xp e r ie nce t he y k no w t hat e v e n
t ho ugh t he y m ay no t be ge t t ing fe e dback fo r s o m e t im e , t he final r e s ult s
w ill p r o bably jus t ify t he ir p at ie nce and e ndur ance .
4. T he m o r e m at e r ial t he r e is t o be le ar ne d, t he m o r e e fficie nt t he
p ar t m e t ho d w ill be . I ncide nt ally, it m ay be he lp ful t o no t e t hat r e gar dle s s
o f w he t he r yo u us e t he w ho le o r p ar t m e t ho d, a p as s age t hat is t w ice as
lo ng as ano t he r r e quir e s m o r e t han t w ice as lo ng t o le ar n. Fo r e xam p le ,
in o ne s t udy, a p as s age o f 100 w o r ds r e quir e d a t o t al le ar ning t im e o f 9
m inut e s ; 200 w o r ds r e quir e d 24 m inut e s ; 500 w o r ds r e quir e d 65 m in-
ut e s ; and 1,000 w o r ds r e quir e d 165 m inut e s .
20
T hus , if it t ak e s yo u 1
ho ur t o m as t e r a 20- p age chap t e r , it w ill p r o bably t ak e yo u m o r e t han 2
ho ur s t o m as t e r a 40- p age chap t e r .
5. T he m o r e dis t inct iv e t he p ar t s ar e , t he m o r e e fficie nt t he p ar t
m e t ho d w ill be . Fo r e xam p le , t he p ar t m e t ho d m ay be m o r e ap p r o p r iat e
fo r le ar ning t he co ns t it ut io nal am e ndm e nt s t han fo r le ar ning t he Ge t t ys -
bur g Addr e s s .
6. T he adv ant age s o f t he w ho le m e t ho d ar e gr e at e r fo r dis t r ibut e d
le ar ning t han fo r m as s e d le ar ning.
7. T he m o r e m at ur e and int e llige nt t he le ar ne r is , t he m o r e
e fficie nt t he w ho le m e t ho d w ill be fo r him .
Fo r m uch o f yo ur le ar ning yo u w o uld p r o bably w ant t o us e a
co m binat io n o f w ho le and p ar t le ar ning. Fo r e xam p le , yo u m ight s t udy by
t he w ho le m e t ho d, but s e le ct ce r t ain p ar t s fo r e xt r a s t udy. O r yo u m ight
t r y us ing a co m p r o m is e be t w e e n t he w ho le and p ar t m e t ho ds t hat has
be e n calle d t he "w ho le - p ar t - w ho le " m e t ho d: Y o u fir s t go t hr o ugh t he
w ho le t hing o nce o r t w ice , t he n br e ak it up int o lo gical p ar t s and le ar n
t he m , and finally r e v ie w t he m at e r ial as a w ho le . T his m e t ho d can be
v e r y e ffe ct iv e fo r lo ng, difficult m at e r ial.
21
Ano t he r co m binat io n m e t ho d is t he "p r o gr e s s iv e p ar t " m e t ho d: Y o u
le ar n t he fir s t p ar t and t he n t he s e co nd p ar t , and t he n s t udy t he fir s t t w o
p ar t s t o ge t he r . Aft e r yo u k no w t he fir s t t w o p ar t s , yo u le ar n t he t hir d
p ar t and t he n s t udy all t hr e e p ar t s t o ge t he r , and s o o n. T he p r o gr e s s iv e
p ar t m e t ho d has an adv ant age o v e r t he p ar t m e t ho d in t hat yo u co nne ct
t he p ar t s t o ge t he r as yo u le ar n t he m , r at he r t han le ar ning t he m as
dis co nne ct e d p ar t s . I t has an adv ant age o v e r t he w ho le m e t ho d in t hat
yo u ge t fe e dback t o r e alize t hat yo u ar e r e ally le ar ning s o m e t hing. T he
p r o gr e s s iv e p ar t m e t ho d m ay be p ar t icular ly he lp ful fo r o lde r adult s ;
fo r ge t t ing t ak e s p lace dur ing le ar ning, and be caus e m any e lde r ly p e o p le
ne e d m o r e t r ials t han yo ung adult s do t o le ar n s o m e t hing, t he y ar e lik e ly
t o fo r ge t m o r e w hile t he y ar e le ar ning lar ge am o unt s o f m at e r ial. T he
p r o gr e s s iv e p ar t m e t ho d m ay r e duce t his e ffe ct .
22
RECITE IT
R e cit ing m e ans r e p e at ing t o yo ur s e lf w hat yo u hav e s t udie d w it ho ut
lo o k ing at it . I n r e cit at io n yo u r e call as m uch o f w hat yo u ar e t r ying t o
m e m o r ize as yo u can, lo o k ing at t he m at e r ial o nly w he n ne ce s s ar y, aft e r
yo u hav e r e ad it o nce o r t w ice . Fo r e xam p le , if yo u ar e s t udying a bo o k
chap t e r , yo u m ight lo o k at t he he adings and t r y t o t e ll yo ur s e lf w hat t he y
ar e abo ut ; if yo u ar e s t udying a p o e m , yo u m ight lo o k at t he fir s t fe w
w o r ds o f e ach line o r s t anza and t r y t o r e call t he r e s t ; if yo u ar e s t udying
a fo r e ign language , yo u m ight lo o k at e ach E nglis h w o r d and t r y t o r e call
t he fo r e ign w o r d. T alk ing t o yo ur s e lf o ut lo ud is no t ne ce s s ar y, but it
m ay be be t t e r t han jus t r e p e at ing m at e r ial in yo ur m ind be caus e it fo r ce s
yo u t o p ay m o r e at t e nt io n.
S up p o s e yo u hav e 2 ho ur s t o s t udy a t e xt bo o k chap t e r t hat t ak e s a
half- ho ur t o r e ad. W o uld it be m o r e e ffe ct iv e t o r e ad it 4 t im e s o r t o r e ad
it o nce o r t w ice and s p e nd t he r e s t o f t he t im e r e cit ing, t e s t ing yo ur s e lf,
and r e r e ading t o cle ar up t he p o int s yo u co uld no t r e call? T he findings o f
s e v e r al s t udie s s ugge s t t hat it w o uld be m o r e e ffe ct iv e t o s p e nd as m uch
o f t he t im e as p o s s ible r e cit ing.
Fo r e xam p le , in o ne s t udy s t ude nt s r e ad an 800- w o r d p as s age
co nt aining 10 p ar agr ap hs . S t ude nt s w ho r e cit e d aft e r e ach p ar agr ap h
p e r fo r m e d be t t e r o n a r e call t e s t t han s t ude nt s w ho r e r e ad t he w ho le
p as s age again ( ho w e v e r , t he r e cit ing t o o k abo ut t w ice as lo ng as r e r e ad-
ing). I n a s e co nd s t udy p e o p le lis t e ne d t o e ight lis t s o f 5 w o r ds e ach.
S o m e o f t he m t he n lis t e ne d t o e ach lis t 3 m o r e t im e s and o t he r s r e calle d
( r e cit e d) e ach lis t 3 t im e s , fo r t he s am e t o t al am o unt o f s t udy t im e . T he y
w e r e t he n t e s t e d by r e co gnizing t he w o r ds fr o m a lar ge r lis t o f 160
w o r ds . T he r e w as no s ignificant diffe r e nce be t w e e n t he t w o gr o up s aft e r
10 m inut e s , but aft e r 48 ho ur s t he r e cit at io n gr o up p e r fo r m e d be t t e r .
R e cit at io n can als o giv e yo u fe e dback o n ho w w e ll yo u k no w t he m at e r ial
s o t hat yo u can fo cus yo ur s t udy t im e o n w hat yo u do no t k no w as w e ll.
23
O ne r e as o n r e cit at io n is s o e ffe ct iv e is t hat it fo r ce s yo u t o us e
m any o f t he o t he r p r incip le s and s t r at e gie s dis cus s e d in chap t e r s 4, 5,
and 6. Fo r e xam p le , r e cit at io n fo r ce s act iv e le ar ning, it giv e s yo u
fe e dback o n ho w yo u ar e do ing, it inv o lv e s r e p e t it io n, and it fo r ce s yo u
t o p ay at t e nt io n t o w hat yo u ar e do ing.
Als o , in r e cit ing yo u ar e p r act icing t he v e r y t hing t hat w ill be
r e quir e d o f yo u lat e r r e call. Y o u ar e act ually r e he ar s ing r e t r ie v al o r
t e s t ing yo ur s e lf. I n s e v e r al s t udie s , p e o p le w ho w e r e giv e n a t e s t o n
m at e r ial r ight aft e r r e ading it r e m e m be r e d it be t t e r a w e e k o r t w o lat e r
t han did p e o p le w ho w e r e no t giv e n t he t e s t , and be t t e r e v e n t han p e o p le
w ho s p e nt t he s am e am o unt o f t im e r e v ie w ing t he m at e r ial. T he s e
r e s ult s ar e due in p ar t t o t he fact t hat t he t e s t gr o up s had p r act ice d
r e t r ie v ing t he m at e r ial. E v e n yo ung childr e n can be ne fit by an im m e diat e
t e s t as a r e v ie w .
24
T he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f s o m e o f t he s t r at e gie s in t his chap t e r is affe ct e d
by v ar io us co ndit io ns , s uch as t he k ind o f m at e r ial le ar ne d o r w ho is
do ing t he le ar ning. T he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f r e cit at io n do e s no t de p e nd o n
w he t he r t he le ar ne r s ar e dull o r br ight , w he t he r t he m at e r ial is lo ng o r
s ho r t , o r w he t he r t he m at e r ial is m e aningful o r no t ; in v ir t ually e v e r y
cas e it is m o r e e fficie nt t o r e ad and t o r e cit e t han t o jus t r e ad. O ne
r e ce nt bo o k o n s t udy s k ills s aid, "N o p r incip le is m o r e im p o r t ant t han
r e cit at io n fo r t r ans fe r r ing m at e r ial fr o m t he s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y t o t he
lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y," and a m e m o r y t e xt bo o k s aid, "T he im p o r t ance o f
p r act icing r e t r ie v al act iv it ie s canno t be o v e r e m p has ize d. "
25
I f r e cit at io n is s o he lp ful, w hy do n't m o r e p e o p le do it ? W hy do
s o m e p e o p le s p e nd all o f t he ir s t udy t im e r e ading t he m at e r ial o v e r and
o v e r ? T he r e ar e at le as t t w o p o s s ible r e as o ns . Fir s t , s o m e p e o p le
p r o bably do no t r e alize t he v alue o f r e cit at io n. S e co nd, r e cit at io n t ak e s
m o r e w o r k t han r e ading. I t is e as ie r t o le t yo ur e ye s w ande r do w n t he
p age ( w hile yo ur m ind m ay be w ande r ing s o m e w he r e e ls e ) t han t o
co nce nt r at e o n t r ying t o r e call w hat yo u hav e r e ad.
O f co ur s e , r e cit at io n can be do ne by yo ur s e lf, but yo u can als o us e
r e cit at io n by s t udying w it h ano t he r p e r s o n. Y o u as k t he o t he r p e r s o n
que s t io ns abo ut t he m at e r ial t o giv e he r a chance t o r e he ar s e r e t r ie v al,
and t he n s he do e s t he s am e fo r yo u: N o t o nly do yo u be ne fit by
ans w e r ing que s t io ns but yo ur r e call w ill als o be ne fit fr o m m ak ing up
que s t io ns t o as k t he o t he r p e r s o n.
26
USE A STUDY SYSTEM
An e ffe ct iv e s t udy m e t ho d s ho uld:
1. Be bas e d o n t he s t r at e gie s fo r e ffe ct iv e le ar ning
2. H e lp yo u ide nt ify and unde r s t and t he im p o r t ant p ar t s o f t he m at e r ial
3. H e lp yo u r e m e m be r t he im p o r t ant p ar t s o f t he m at e r ial
4. Be m o r e e fficie nt t han m e r e ly r e ading t he m at e r ial o v e r and o v e r
5. Be e as y t o le ar n
Many s t udy s ys t e m s hav e be e n de v e lo p e d t o m e e t t he s e cr it e r ia.
T he nam e s o f t he s ys t e m s ar e acr o nym s in w hich t he fir s t le t t e r s
r e p r e s e nt t he s t e p s in e ach s ys t e m . T he fo llo w ing is a r e p r e s e nt at iv e ,
but no t e xhaus t iv e , lis t o f s ys t e m s : S Q3R , O K4R , PQR S T , O AR W E T ,
PAN O R AMA, PQ4R , R E AP, S Q5R , MU R D E R . I hav e s e le ct e d S Q3R t o
dis cus s as a t yp ical s t udy s ys t e m fo r t w o r e as o ns . Fir s t , it is t he
gr anddaddy o f s t udy s ys t e m s , dat ing fr o m 1946.
27
All o f t he o t he r s hav e
be e n de v e lo p e d s ince t he 1960s ( t he ne xt o lde s t be ing O K4R , w hich
dat e s fr o m 1962). S e co nd, m o s t o f t he o t he r s ys t e m s ar e m o dificat io ns
o f S Q3R , co nt aining e s s e nt ially t he s am e s t e p s but div iding t he m up
diffe r e nt ly and/o r us ing diffe r e nt nam e s fo r t he m .
S Q3R co ns is t s o f fiv e s t e p s : S ur v e y, Que s t io n, R e ad, R e cit e , R e -
v ie w . I t is a ge ne r al- p ur p o s e s ys t e m t hat co m bine s s e v e r al s p e cific
le ar ning s t r at e gie s . I t is us e d w it h lar ge bo die s o f m at e r ial ( fo r e xam p le ,
t e xt bo o k chap t e r s ), and can be us e d in a w ide r ange o f t as k s and co nt e nt
ar e as . O ne t e xt bo o k fo r t e aching r e ading t o high s cho o l s t ude nt s illus -
t r at e s ho w S Q3R can be ap p lie d t o co nt e nt ar e as s uch as , E nglis h, s o cial
s t udie s ( his t o r y), s cie nce , and m at h. T he fo llo w ing is a br ie f de s cr ip t io n
o f t he S Q3R s ys t e m bas e d o n m o r e e xt e ns iv e dis cus s io ns in bo o k s o n
s t udy s k ills .
28
Survey
T o s ur v e y a bo o k , r e ad t he p r e face , t able o f co nt e nt s , and chap t e r
s um m ar ie s . T o s ur v e y a chap t e r , s t udy t he o ut line and s k im t he chap t e r ,
e s p e cially t he he adings , p ict ur e s , and gr ap hs . S ur v e ying co ns is t s o f
ge t t ing an o v e r v ie w o f w hat t he bo o k o r chap t e r is abo ut , and s ho uld no t
t ak e m o r e t han a fe w m inut e s . Many bo o k s hav e a s um m ar y at t he e nd
o f e ach chap t e r ; r e ading t his s um m ar y be fo r e yo u r e ad t he chap t e r m ay
he lp yo u ge t an o v e r v ie w . ( I n fact , r e ading a s um m ar y has e v e n be e n
fo und t o yie ld be t t e r m e m o r y fo r t he m ain p o int s o f a chap t e r t han
r e ading t he chap t e r it s e lf and s im ilar r e s ult s hav e be e n fo und in m e m o r y
fo r le ct ur e s .)
29
T he o v e r v ie w is s o m e w hat lik e lo o k ing at a m ap be fo r e
t ak ing a t r ip , o r at a p ict ur e o f t he finis he d p r o duct be fo r e s t ar t ing t o p ut
t o ge t he r a jigs aw p uzzle . S ur v e ying giv e s a fr am e w o r k w it hin w hich t o
p lace t he p ar t s as yo u le ar n t he m , w hich no t o nly can m ak e t he p ar t s
e as ie r t o r e m e m be r but als o can s p e e d up yo ur r e ading t im e by allo w ing
yo u t o co m p r e he nd t he p ar t s m o r e r ap idly.
Me m o r y fo r r e ading m at e r ial can be incr e as e d s ignificant ly m e r e ly
by giv ing t he r e ade r a s ho r t t it le r e fle ct ing t he m ain ide a o f t he m at e r ial.
T o illus t r at e t he e ffe ct o f k no w ing w hat a p as s age is abo ut , r e ad t he
fo llo w ing p as s age o nce , t he n t r y t o r e call as m uch yo u can:
T he p r o ce dur e is act ually quit e s im p le . Fir s t yo u ar r ange t hings int o diffe r e nt
gr o up s . O f co ur s e , o ne p ile m ay be s ufficie nt de p e nding o n ho w m uch t he r e is t o
do . I f yo u hav e t o go s o m e w he r e e ls e due t o lack o f facilit ie s , t hat is t he ne xt
s t e p ; o t he r w is e yo u ar e p r e t t y w e ll s e t . I t is im p o r t ant no t t o o v e r do t hings .
T hat is , it is be t t e r t o do t o o fe w t hings at o nce t han t o o m any. . . . Aft e r t he
p r o ce dur e is co m p le t e d, ar r ange t he m at e r ials int o diffe r e nt gr o up s again. T he y
can t he n be p ut in t he ir ap p r o p r iat e p lace s . E v e nt ually t he y w ill be us e d o nce
m o r e and t he w ho le cycle w ill t he n hav e t o be r e p e at e d.
Y o ur r e call o f t his p as s age w as p r o bably no t t o o go o d be caus e t he
p as s age did no t m ak e m uch s e ns e t o yo u. N o w I 'll t e ll yo u t hat t his
p ar agr ap h is abo ut w as hing clo t he s . T r y r e ading it again and s e e ho w
m uch be t t e r yo u unde r s t and it and r e m e m be r it no w t hat yo u hav e t he
ge ne r al ide a o f w hat it is abo ut .
30
"Adv ance o r ganize r s " ar e m e t ho ds t hat giv e an int r o duct io n t o , o r
o v e r v ie w o f, t he m at e r ial t o be s t udie d ( fo r e xam p le , a s um m ar y o r
o ut line t o lo o k o v e r be fo r e s t udying). R e s e ar ch s ho w s t hat t he y he lp in
le ar ning and r e m e m be r ing r e ading m at e r ial, fo r e lde r ly adult s as w e ll as
yo unge r adult s . T he r e as o n aut ho r s o f t e xt bo o k s o r ganize t he ir m at e r ial
unde r diffe r e nt chap t e r s and he adings is t o t e ll t he r e ade r s t he m ain ide a
o f e ach chap t e r and s e ct io n, ho w t he m at e r ial is p ut t o ge t he r , and ho w
t he t o p ics r e lat e t o e ach o t he r . I f yo u do no t us e t he he adings , yo u ar e
failing t o t ak e adv ant age o f an im p o r t ant s o ur ce fo r le ar ning t he m at e r ial.
U s ing t e xt he adings can aid bo t h in unde r s t anding and r e m e m be r ing
t e xt bo o k s .
31
T he s am e ho lds t r ue fo r p ict ur e s and gr ap hs as fo r he adings . T he
r e as o n p ict ur e s ar e include d in a t e xt bo o k is no t jus t t o t ak e up s p ace ,
m ak e t he bo o k t hick e r , o r giv e t he r e ade r s o m e t hing t o lo o k at t o br e ak
up t he m o no t o ny o f r e ading. R at he r , including p ict ur e s t hat illus t r at e
m at e r ial in t he t e xt has be e n fo und in a num be r o f s t udie s t o incr e as e
le ar ning o f t he t e xt m at e r ial.
32
Question
S k im again, as k ing yo ur s e lf que s t io ns bas e d o n t he he adings s o t hat yo u
w ill k no w s o m e t hings t o lo o k fo r w he n r e ading. Fo r e xam p le , t he
he ading t o t his s e ct io n"U s e a S t udy S ys t e m "m ay r ais e s o m e que s -
t io ns : W hat co ns t it ut e s t his s ys t e m ? A s ys t e m fo r w hat ? H o w can I us e
t his s ys t e m ? S e v e r al s t udie s hav e fo und t hat ins e r t ing w r it t e n que s t io ns
be fo r e , w it hin, o r aft e r t e xt m at e r ial he lp s in le ar ning and r e m e m be r ing
t he m at e r ial, as do que s t io ns m ade up by t he le ar ne r .
33
S ince m o s t
m at e r ial yo u r e ad do e s no t hav e que s t io ns ins e r t e d, yo u can be ne fit by
as k ing yo ur o w n que s t io ns as yo ur r e ad. Que s t io ns can m aint ain int e r e s t ,
fo cus at t e nt io n, fo s t e r act iv e inv o lv e m e nt in le ar ning, and giv e a p ur p o s e
t o yo ur r e ading, all o f w hich he lp yo u t o le ar n t he m at e r ial. Als o , s o m e
t e xt bo o k s p r o v ide r e v ie w que s t io ns at t he e nd o f t he chap t e r ; yo u m ight
t r y r e ading t he m be fo r e r e ading t he chap t e r s o t hat yo u w ill k no w w hat
t o lo o k fo r as yo u r e ad t he chap t e r .
Read
R e ad t he chap t e r w it ho ut t ak ing no t e s . Ans w e r t he que s t io ns yo u hav e
as k e d. R e ad e v e r yt hing. S o m e t im e s t able s , char t s , and gr ap hs co nv e y
m o r e info r m at io n t han t he t e xt do e s . N o t e t hat t his is t he third s t e p in
S Q3R ; fo r m o s t s t ude nt s it is t he firsts t e p in s t udying. I n fact , fo r s o m e
s t ude nt s it is t he o nly s t e p : S o m e s t ude nt s t hink t hat w he n t he y hav e
r un t he ir e ye s o v e r t he t e xt bo o k t he y hav e s t udie d it ( aft e r r e ading t his
s e ct io n o n S Q3R o ne o f m y m e m o r y s t ude nt s co m m e nt e d t hat he us e d
t he 3R m e t ho dr e ad, r e ad, and r e r e ad).
A s t ude nt in o ne o f m y p s ycho lo gy co ur s e s cam e t o t alk w it h m e
abo ut he r lo w quiz s co r e s . S he s aid s he s t udie d fo r t he chap t e r quizze s ,
but s he jus t co uld no t r e m e m be r w hat s he had s t udie d. I as k e d he r t o
de s cr ibe ho w s he s t udie d. S he s aid, "W e ll, I r e ad t he chap t e r t he night
be fo r e t he quiz o r t he m o r ning o f t he quiz." T hat w as it o ne r e ading,
no s ur v e y, no r e v ie w . R e ading w as t he o nly o ne o f t he S Q3R s t e p s s he
w as us ing. I s ugge s t e d t o he r t hat he r p r o ble m w as no t in r e m e m be r ing
t he m at e r ial, but in le ar ning it w e ll e no ugh in t he fir s t p lace . S he p r o bably
co uld no t hav e t o ld m e m uch m o r e abo ut t he chap t e r r ight aft e r r e ading
it t han s he co uld lat e r o n t he quiz.
U nde r lining w hile r e ading is a v e r y p o p ular le ar ning t act ic am o ng
high s cho o l and co lle ge s t ude nt s . R e s e ar ch o n t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f
unde r lining s ho w s t hat it can he lp p e o p le ge t m o r e fr o m t he ir r e ading if
it is do ne r ight , but t he r e ar e s e v e r al w ays t hat s t ude nt s can m is us e
unde r lining.
34
O ne m is us e is t o r e ad a chap t e r and unde r line , and t he n
o nly r e v ie w t he unde r line d p ar t s in s t udying fo r a t e s t . O ne p r o ble m w it h
t his ap p r o ach is t hat yo u us ually do no t k no w w hat is im p o r t ant , o r w hat
r e lat e s t o w hat , t he fir s t t im e yo u r e ad a chap t e r . T hus , w he n yo u
r e v ie w t he unde r line d p ar t s yo u m ay m is s m uch o f w hat is im p o r t ant .
U nde r lining w hile yo u ar e r e ading fo r t he fir s t t im e als o has o t he r
p r o ble m s . I t is e as y t o do , s o m o s t s t ude nt s unde r line t o o m uch; t his
r e s ult s in r e v ie w ing p age s t hat hav e m ar k e d no t o nly t he im p o r t ant p o int s
but als o r e p e at e d and co nflict ing p o int s .
Ano t he r p r o ble m w it h unde r lining t he fir s t t im e t hr o ugh is t hat s o m e
s t ude nt s de v e lo p t he habit o f r e ading t o mark im p o r t ant p o int s r at he r
t han r e ading t o unde r s t and and r e m e m be r t he p o int s ; t hus , a s t ude nt
m ay unde r line an it alicize d s e nt e nce and co nt inue r e ading w it ho ut hav ing
e v e n r e ad t he it alicize d s e nt e nce ! T o us e unde r lining p r o p e r ly, yo u s ho uld
w ait unt il r e aching t he e nd o f a s e ct io n be fo r e unde r lining, t hink abo ut
w hat t he im p o r t ant p o int s w e r e , and t he n go back and unde r line o nly t he
k e y p hr as e s . U nde r lining t he w r o ng t hings m ay act ually int e r fe r e w it h
le ar ning.
35
Recite
R e cit at io n is dis cus s e d as a s e p ar at e s t r at e gy e ar lie r in t his chap t e r .
R e r e ad, as k ing yo ur s e lf que s t io ns abo ut t he he adings and it alicize d w o r ds
and ans w e r ing t he que s t io ns as m uch as yo u can. T his can be do ne aft e r
e ach s e ct io n o r aft e r e ach chap t e r , de p e nding o n t he ir le ngt h. H o w m uch
o f yo ur s t udy t im e s ho uld yo u s p e nd r e cit ing? Fo r m o s t t e xt bo o k s abo ut
half o f yo ur t im e s ho uld be s p e nt r e cit ing. Y o u m ay w ant t o s p e nd m o r e
t im e r e cit ing fo r dis co nne ct e d, m e aningle s s m at e r ial, s uch as lis t s o f
r ule s and fo r m ulas , but s o m e w hat le s s fo r s t o r ylik e , co nne ct e d m at e r ial.
Review
R e v ie w is a v e r y bas ic le ar ning s t r at e gy t hat is o ft e n o v e r lo o k e d in
p o p ular m e m o r y bo o k s . S o m e aut ho r s giv e t he im p r e s s io n t hat if yo u
jus t us e t he r ight t e chnique ( t he ir s ) t o le ar n s o m e t hing, yo u w ill ne v e r
fo r ge t it . T he fact is t hat no m at t e r ho w yo u le ar n s o m e t hing, if yo u do
no t us e it o ccas io nally yo u ar e lik e ly t o fo r ge t it unle s s yo u r e v ie w it .
T hr e e s t udie s illus t r at e t he v ar ie t y o f le ar ning t as k s in w hich r e v ie w has
be e n fo und t o he lp . O ne p s ycho lo gis t s t udie d he r m e m o r y fo r e v e nt s
t hat s he had r e co r de d in a diar y dur ing a p e r io d o f fo ur and o ne - half
ye ar s . S he r e calle d o nly 36 p e r ce nt o f e v e nt s t hat s he ne v e r r e v ie w e d,
but he r r e call w e nt up t o 88 p e r ce nt fo r e v e nt s t hat s he had r e v ie w e d at
le as t 4 t im e s dur ing fo ur ye ar s . I n ano t he r s t udy s t ude nt s r e m e m be r e d
m o r e fr o m a le ct ur e w he n a s ho r t p aus e fo r r e v ie w w as p r o v ide d at t he
e nd. I n a t hir d s t udy Pak is t ani co lle ge s t ude nt s r e m e m be r e d no ns e ns e
s yllable s be t t e r aft e r 6 ho ur s w he n t he y r e v ie w e d t han did o t he r s t ude nt s
no t giv e n a chance t o r e v ie w .
36
T o us e r e v ie w as a p ar t o f S Q3R , s ur v e y again, r e v ie w ing w hat yo u
co uld r e cit e and no t ing w hat yo u co uld no t . Que s t io n yo ur s e lf again. Lik e
t he S ur v e y, t he R e v ie w s ho uld t ak e o nly a fe w m inut e s . I n chap t e r 2 w e
s aw t hat it t ak e s fe w e r t r ials t o r e le ar n o ld m at e r ial ( e v e n w he n it has
ap p ar e nt ly be e n fo r go t t e n w he n m e as ur e d by r e call) t han t o le ar n ne w
m at e r ial; t hus , it p ays t o r e v ie w t he m at e r ial o ccas io nally t o r e fr e s h yo ur
m e m o r y s o t hat yo u w ill no t hav e t o s p e nd as m uch t im e go ing o v e r t he
m at e r ial fo r t he e xam .
I t w as no t e d e ar lie r t hat s p ace d r e v ie w s ar e be t t e r t han co nt inuo us
( m as s e d) r e v ie w s . T he be s t t im e s t o r e v ie w ar e : dur ing s t udy, by r e cit ing
aft e r e ach m ajo r s e ct io n; im m e diat e ly aft e r s t udying; and jus t be fo r e t he
e xam . A r e v ie w im m e diat e ly aft e r s t udying he lp s yo u co ns o lidat e t he
m at e r ial in yo ur m e m o r y, and a lat e r r e v ie w he lp s yo u r e le ar n fo r go t t e n
m at e r ial. O ne s t udy fo und t hat hav ing o ne r e v ie w im m e diat e ly aft e r
le ar ning and o ne a w e e k lat e r w as m o r e e ffe ct iv e t han o nly o ne r e v ie w ,
o r t w o r e v ie w s im m e diat e ly aft e r le ar ning, o r t w o r e v ie w s a w e e k lat e r .
Fo r e ight - ye ar - o ld childr e n, an im m e diat e r e v ie w - t e s t w as m o r e e ffe ct iv e
t han a r e v ie w - t e s t a w e e k lat e r .
37
Many s t ude nt s hav e r e p o r t e d a s av ing in s t udy e ffo r t by t he fo llo w ing
r ule : N e v e r finis h a r e ading s e s s io n w it ho ut r e v ie w ing in o ut line t he m ain
p o int s o f w hat has jus t be e n r e ad. T his r ule has be e n fo und by m any
s t ude nt s t o be t he m o s t im p o r t ant s ingle s t e p t o r e duce fo r ge t t ing. N o t
o nly do e s it he lp yo u s e e w hat yo u hav e le ar ne d, but it als o he lp s yo u
le ar n t he m at e r ial fur t he r be fo r e fo r ge t t ing it ( in chap t e r 3 it w as no t e d
t hat m o s t fo r ge t t ing o ccur s s o o n aft e r le ar ning). I n addit io n, s uch r e v ie w
s av e s t im e and e ffo r t ; be caus e yo u r e m e m be r m o r e , yo u do no t hav e t o
s p e nd s o m uch t im e r e r e ading and r e v ie w ing t he m at e r ial fo r t he e xam
lat e r .
38
O ne s t udy fo und t hat t he be s t r e v ie w s che dule fo r r e m e m be r ing
p e o p le 's nam e s w as a s e r ie s o f gr adually incr e as ing int e r v als be t w e e n
r e v ie w s .
39
Fo r e xam p le , yo u m ight r e v ie w t he nam e o f a p e r s o n im m e di-
at e ly aft e r m e e t ing he r , t he n again 15 s e co nds lat e r , t he n m aybe a
m inut e lat e r , and t he n s e v e r al m inut e s lat e r . I us e d an incr e as ing- int e r v al
r e v ie w s che dule dur ing a 16- m o nt h p e r io d w he n I w as m e m o r izing
s cr ip t ur e s . I le ar ne d o ne ne w s cr ip t ur e e ach day, and car r ie d w it h m e
s e v e n s cr ip t ur e s o n car ds t he ne w o ne I w as le ar ning t hat day p lus t he
s ix I had le ar ne d t he p r e v io us s ix days . Aft e r s e v e n days a car d w o uld go
in a file t o be r e v ie w e d o nce a w e e k fo r a m o nt h, t he n o nce a m o nt h fo r
s e v e r al m o nt hs , and t he n o nce e v e r y t hr e e m o nt hs . T his s che dule o f
gr adually incr e as ing r e v ie w int e r v als he lp e d m e m e m o r ize abo ut 500
s cr ip t ur e s ( av e r aging abo ut t w o v e r s e s e ach) in 16 m o nt hs .
N o t e t hat r e v ie w ing jus t be fo r e an e xam is diffe r e nt fr o m cr am m ing
fo r t he e xam . T he k e y w o r d in t he diffe r e nce is "ne w ." I f t he m at e r ial
yo u ar e s t udying is ne w t o yo u ( t hat is , yo u ar e le ar ning it fo r t he fir s t
t im e ) t he n yo u ar e cr am m ing. I f it is no t ne w ( t hat is , yo u ar e go ing o v e r
w hat yo u hav e s t udie d be fo r e ) t he n yo u ar e r e v ie w ing. Alt ho ugh a final
r e v ie w jus t be fo r e t he e xam is r e co m m e nde d, cr am m ing is no t .
T his s e ct io n o n r e v ie w ing ap p lie s t o le ct ur e o r r e ading no t e s as w e ll
as t o t e xt bo o k s . R e s e ar che r s hav e s t udie d t w o p o s s ible be ne fit s t hat can
co m e fr o m t ak ing no t e s . T he "e nco ding" funct io n o f no t e s is t he be ne fit
t hat co m e s fr o m p ut t ing t he m at e r ial in yo ur o w n w o r ds in o r de r t o w r it e
it do w n. T he "e xt e r nal- s t o r age " funct io n is t he be ne fit t hat co m e s fr o m
hav ing s o m e t hing in w r it ing t o r e v ie w lat e r . Alt ho ugh r e s e ar ch has
p r o v ide d s o m e s up p o r t fo r t he e nco ding funct io n, t he e xt e r nal s t o r age
funct io n is m o r e co ns is t e nt ly s up p o r t e d by r e s e ar ch e v ide nce . N o t e s
giv e yo u s o m e t hing t o r e v ie w lat e r , and r e v ie w ing no t e s us ually p r o duce s
highe r achie v e m e nt t han no t r e v ie w ing no t e s .
40
W he n m y s t ude nt s co m e t o m y o ffice t o t alk abo ut an e xam t he y
hav e t ak e n, I as k t he m t o br ing t he ir clas s no t e s w it h t he m ; I o ft e n find
t hat t he ir no t e s hav e t he ans w e r s t o s e v e r al o f t he que s t io ns t he y m is s e d.
T he y t o o k go o d no t e s but did no t s t udy t he m w e ll e no ugh. S im ilar ly,
r e s e ar ch fo und t hat t he le ct ur e no t e s o f m o s t co lle ge s t ude nt s co nt aine d
t he ans w e r s t o m any o f t he t e s t que s t io ns t he y had m is s e d. A co m m o n
m is t ak e w as t o w ait unt il jus t be fo r e t he e xam t o r e v ie w t he ir no t e s ,
w hich by t he n us ually had lo s t m uch o f t he ir m e aning. Y o u can de m o n-
s t r at e t he im p o r t ance o f r e v ie w ing yo ur le ct ur e no t e s s o o n aft e r t he
le ct ur e by co m p ar ing yo ur abilit y t o r e ad and int e r p r e t yo ur o w n no t e s
t ak e n dur ing a r e ce nt le ct ur e w it h t ho s e yo u t o o k s e v e r al w e e k s ago and
hav e no t lo o k e d at s ince .
41
HOW WELL DO THE PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES WORK?
T he dis t inct io n be t w e e n "p r incip le s " in chap t e r s 4 and 5 and "s t r at e gie s "
in t his chap t e r is s o m e w hat ar bit r ar y; s o m e p r incip le s co uld be v ie w e d
as s t r at e gie s ( fo r e xam p le , "as s o ciat e it " o r "o v e r le ar n it "), and s o m e
s t r at e gie s co uld be v ie w e d as p r incip le s ( fo r e xam p le , "r e v ie w "). T he
s t r at e gie s t he m s e lv e s als o ar e highly o v e r lap p ing and int e r r e lat e d. Fo r
e xam p le , s p ace d s t udy allo w s fo r r e v ie w and us e o f p ar t le ar ning, and
t he s t udy s ys t e m s include s o m e s t r at e gie s , s uch as r e cit at io n, dis cus s e d
in o t he r s e ct io ns . Y o u hav e p r o bably us e d s o m e o f t he p r incip le s and
s t r at e gie s , but yo u m ay hav e us e d t he m w it ho ut k no w ing fo r s ur e w hat
yo u w e r e do ing o r w hy yo u w e r e do ing it . Y o u m ay hav e us e d o t he r s
w it ho ut k no w ing w he t he r t he y w e r e r e ally do ing any go o d, and yo u m ay
e v e n hav e us e d o t he r s in s uch a w ay t hat t he y did no t do m uch go o d.
D o t he p r incip le s and s t r at e gie s dis cus s e d in chap t e r s 4, 5, and 6
r e ally he lp ? O ne clas s ic s t udy indicat e s t hat t he y do . Pe o p le w e r e t aught
s e v e n r ule s fo r m e m o r izing. O ne gr o up w as ins t r uct e d in t he s e v e n r ule s ,
and t he n giv e n 3 ho ur s o f p r act ice us ing t he r ule s . A s e co nd gr o up als o
p r act ice d m e m o r izing fo r 3 ho ur s , but t he y w e r e giv e n no ins t r uct io n.
Bo t h gr o up s w e r e t he n giv e n a m e m o r izat io n t e s t inv o lv ing m any diffe r -
e nt k inds o f m at e r ial, s uch as p o e t r y, p r o s e , fact s , fo r e ign language s ,
and his t o r ical dat e s . T he ins t r uct e d gr o up im p r o v e d abo ut 8 t im e s as
m uch in t he ir m e m o r izing abilit y as did t he unins t r uct e d gr o up an
av e r age o f 36 p e r ce nt co m p ar e d w it h abo ut 4.5 p e r ce nt fo r t he unin-
s t r uct e d gr o up .
42
T he s e v e n r ule s t hat t he s t ude nt s w e r e t aught ar e lis t e d be lo w as
t he y w e r e giv e n in t he o r iginal s t udy. Aft e r e ach r ule , in p ar e nt he s e s ,
ar e t he p r incip le s and s t r at e gie s t hat ar e r e lat e d t o t he r ule .
1. Le ar n by w ho le s . ( W ho le Le ar ning, "S ur v e y" o f S Q3R )
2. U s e act iv e s e lf- t e s t ing. ( R e cit at io n)
3. U s e r hyt hm and gr o up ing. ( Me aningfulne s s , O r ganizat io n)
4. At t e nt io n t o m e aning and adv ant age s o f p ict ur ing. ( Me aningfulne s s ,
Vis ualizat io n)
5. Me nt al ale r t ne s s and co nce nt r at io n. ( At t e nt io n)
6. U s e o f s e co ndar y as s o ciat io ns . ( As s o ciat io n)
7. C o nfide nce in abilit y t o m e m o r ize . ( R e laxat io n, O v e r le ar ning)
A lo t o f r e s e ar ch do ne o n v ar io us le ar ning s t r at e gie s , including
t ho s e in t his chap t e r , has p r o duce d a lo t o f e v ide nce t hat p e o p le can
be co m e m o r e e ffe ct iv e le ar ne r s w he n t he y ar e t aught t he s e s t r at e gie s .
A r e ce nt r e v ie w o f r e s e ar ch o n s t udy s k ills co ur s e s in w hich s t ude nt s
le ar ne d ho w t o us e m o s t o f t he bas ic p r incip le s and le ar ning s t r at e gie s
co nclude d t hat s uch co ur s e s hav e be e n fo und t o incr e as e r e ading co m -
p r e he ns io n, r e duce anxie t y, im p r o v e co ur s e gr ade s , and im p r o v e aca-
de m ic p e r fo r m ance . T r aining in le ar ning s t r at e gie s s e e m s t o be e ffe ct iv e
fr o m e le m e nt ar y s cho o l t hr o ugh co lle ge .
43
O ne o f t he co nclus io ns lis t e d in What Works r e gar ds s t udy s k ills :
T he w ays in w hich childr e n s t udy influe nce s t r o ngly ho w m uch t he y
le ar n. E xam p le s o f s o und s t udy p r act ice s ar e lis t e d, m o s t o f w hich ar e
co v e r e d in t his chap t e r , and it is s t at e d t hat lo w - abilit y and ine xp e r ie nce d
s t ude nt s can le ar n m o r e info r m at io n and s t udy m o r e e fficie nt ly w he n
t he y us e t he s e s k ills .
44
S Q3R and s im ilar s t udy s ys t e m s hav e be e n fo und t o incr e as e t he
r at e o f r e ading, le v e l o f co m p r e he ns io n, and p e r fo r m ance o n e xam ina-
t io ns . A m o difie d v e r s io n o f S Q3R ( PQR S T ) has e v e n he lp e d br ain-
dam age d p at ie nt s acco m p lis h m e m o r y t as k s t hat t he y co uld no t acco m -
p lis h w it ho ut t he s ys t e m . An analys is o f S Q3R in t he fr am e w o r k o f a
le ar ning t he o r y calle d "info r m at io n p r o ce s s ing" e xp lains w hy e ach s t e p
o f S Q3R can facilit at e t he p r o ce s s ing o f info r m at io n, and t he aut ho r
s ugge s t e d t hat s t ude nt s s ho uld be s ho w n why S Q3R w o r k s s o t hat t he y
w ill us e it .
45
H o w e v e r , e v aluat io n o f t he s t udy s ys t e m s has no t be e n all p o s it iv e .
R e v ie w s o f r e s e ar ch o n t he s t udy s ys t e m s hav e s ugge s t e d t hat alt ho ugh
S Q3R ap p e ar s t o hav e a go o d de al o f int uit iv e ap p e al, t he r e is no t a gr e at
de al o f e m p ir ical s up p o r t fo r it , and t hat m uch o f t he p e r ce iv e d p o t e ncy
o f t he s t udy s ys t e m s is bas e d o n o p inio n m o r e t han fact . O ne o f t he m ain
p r o ble m s w it h S Q3R and o t he r s ys t e m s is s im p ly t hat m o s t s t ude nt s do
no t us e t he m , p r o bably be caus e t he y ar e t o o m uch w o r k ( as I s ugge s t e d
e ar lie r fo r r e cit at io n). Als o , t he s ys t e m s m ay be t o o co m p le x t o be us e d
e ffe ct iv e ly by childr e n and o t he r le s s - m at ur e s t ude nt s .
46
Worki ng Mi racl es wi th \ bur
Memory: An I ntroducti on
to Mnemoni cs
C
an yo u r e m e m be r a lis t o f 20 o r m o r e w o r ds , in any o r de r , aft e r
he ar ing it jus t o nce ? C an yo u r e p e at a 30- digit num be r aft e r he ar ing
it o nce ? C an yo u lo o k t hr o ugh a s huffle d de ck o f car ds o nce and
r e m e m be r all 52 car ds in o r de r , o r t e ll w he r e any p ar t icular car ds ar e in
t he de ck ? C an yo u m e m o r ize a 50- p age m agazine s o t hat yo u can t e ll
w hat is o n any p age ?
T he s e ar e e xam p le s o f t he k inds o f m e m o r y fe at s p e r fo r m e d by
s t age m ne m o nis t s in t he ir act s . T he s e fe at s ar e am o ng t ho s e I hav e
dup licat e d fo r p ublic de m o ns t r at io ns , us ing t he t e chnique s and s ys t e m s
in t his bo o k . O t he r m e m o r y fe at s I hav e als o do ne include m e m o r izing
t he cale ndar fo r t he s e co nd half o f t his ce nt ur y, s o t hat I can giv e t he day
o f t he w e e k fo r any dat e fr o m 1950 t o 1999; m e m o r izing m o r e t han 100
t e le p ho ne num be r s o f all t he m e m be r s o f an o r ganizat io n t o w hich I
be lo ng; m e m o r izing t he p age num be r s o f ne ar ly 200 hym ns in a hym nal;
m e m o r izing t he m ajo r co nt e nt s o f e ach o f t he 239 num be r e d s e ct io ns o f
a bo o k .
Fe at s s uch as t he s e s e e m lik e m ir acle s t o p e o p le w ho ar e unfam iliar
w it h t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s inv o lv e d, and t he y r e ally are m ir acle s w he n
co m p ar e d w it h t he unaide d m e m o r y. H o w e v e r , m o s t p e o p le can do s uch
fe at s if t he y w ant t o badly e no ugh t o le ar n and p r act ice t he ap p r o p r iat e
9 3
m ne m o nic s ys t e m s . Fo r e xam p le , m y daught e r did t he 30- digit num be r
and m agazine de m o ns t r at io ns w he n s he w as t hir t e e n ye ar s o ld and m y
s o n did t he 20- w o r d de m o ns t r at io n w he n he w as e ight . Y o u m ay no t want
t o p e r fo r m t he s e p ar t icular fe at s , but t he im p o r t ant p o int is t hat yo u can
do t he m ; t he y ar e no t be yo nd t he r e ach o f a no r m al m e m o r y. I f yo u can
do t he s e fe at s , yo u can als o do o t he r t hings w it h yo ur m e m o r y t hat yo u
do w ant t o do , but m ay hav e , t ho ught w e r e be yo nd yo ur abilit y. T he
p ur p o s e o f t his chap t e r , and t he r e s t o f t he bo o k , is t o t e ach yo u ho w t o
us e m ne m o nics t o he lp yo u w o r k yo ur o w n m e m o r y m ir acle s .
WHAT ARE MNEMONICS?
T he w o r d mnemonic ( p r o no unce d "ne MO N ik ") w as br ie fly de fine d in
t he int r o duct io n t o t his bo o k as "aiding t he m e m o r y." I t is de r iv e d fr o m
Mnemosyne, t he nam e o f t he ancie nt Gr e e k go dde s s o f m e m o r y. T he
us e o f m ne m o nics is no t ne w ; t he Lo ci s ys t e m de s cr ibe d in chap t e r 10
dat e s back t o abo ut 500 B.C., and w as us e d by Gr e e k o r at o r s t o
r e m e m be r lo ng s p e e che s . An int e r e s t ing bo o k has t r ace d t he his t o r y o f
m ne m o nics fr o m ancie nt t im e s t hr o ugh t he R e nais s ance , and s e v e r al
ar t icle s hav e r e v ie w e d t he his t o r y o f m ne m o nics s ince t he n.
1
"Mne m o nics " r e fe r s in ge ne r al t o m e t ho ds fo r im p r o v ing m e m o r y;
a m ne m o nic t e chnique is any t e chnique t hat aids t he m e m o r y. Mo s t
r e s e ar che r s , ho w e v e r , de fine m ne m o nics m o r e nar r o w ly as be ing w hat
m o s t p e o p le co ns ide r t o be r at he r unus ual, ar t ificial m e m o r y aids . Fo r
e xam p le , t he le ar ning s t r at e gie s dis cus s e d in chap t e r 6 aid t he m e m o r y,
but t he y ar e no t us ually r e fe r r e d t o as m ne m o nic s t r at e gie s . O ne
char act e r is t ic o f m o s t m ne m o nic t e chnique s is t hat t he y do no t hav e an
inhe r e nt co nne ct io n w it h t he m at e r ial t o be le ar ne d; r at he r , t he y im p o s e
m e aning o r s t r uct ur e o n m at e r ial t hat is o t he r w is e no t v e r y m e aningful
o r o r ganize d. Ano t he r char act e r is t ic is t hat t he y us ually inv o lv e adding
s o m e t hing t o t he m at e r ial be ing le ar ne d t o m ak e it m o r e m e m o r able ,
and t hus ar e r e fe r r e d t o by m any r e s e ar che r s as v is ual o r v e r bal
"e labo r at io n." T he e labo r at io ns cr e at e m e aningful as s o ciat io ns be t w e e n
w hat is t o be le ar ne d and w hat is alr e ady k no w n.
2
Mne m o nics can be e it he r v is ual o r v e r bal. Vis ual m ne m o nics us e
v is ual im age r y t o as s o ciat e t he it e m s t o be r e m e m be r e d; v e r bal m ne -
m o nics m ak e t he as s o ciat io ns w it h w o r ds . Fo r e xam p le , t o as s o ciat e t he
w o r ds cats and rats, yo u co uld e it he r fo r m a v is ual im age o f cat s e at ing
r at s ( v is ual m e diat o r ), o r yo u co uld fo r m a s e nt e nce s uch as "C at s lik e
t o e at r at s " ( v e r bal m e diat o r ). T he fir s t p ar t o f t his chap t e r giv e s s o m e
e xam p le s o f v e r bal m ne m o nics .
3
Mo s t o f t he r e s t o f t he bo o k , and m o s t
r e s e ar ch o n m ne m o nics , fo cus e s m o r e o n v is ual m ne m o nics .
Mo s t o f t he e xam p le s o f m ne m o nics giv e n in t his chap t e r ar e s ingle -
Working Miracles with Your Memory 9 5
p ur p o s e m ne m o nics us e d fo r r e m e m be r ing s p e cific fact s . Mne m o nics
dis cus s e d in lat e r chap t e r s include m o r e ge ne r al- p ur p o s e s ys t e m s t hat
can be us e d o v e r and o v e r t o r e m e m be r diffe r e nt s e t s o f m at e r ial. I w ill
r e fe r t o t he k inds o f s p e cific- p ur p o s e m ne m o nics dis cus s e d in t his
chap t e r as m ne m o nic "t e chnique s ," and w ill r e fe r t o t he m o r e ge ne r al
m ne m o nics dis cus s e d in chap t e r s 9 t hr o ugh 12 as m ne m o nic "s ys t e m s ."
Some Sample Mnemonics
S o m e o f t he e xam p le s o f as s o ciat io n dis cus s e d in chap t e r 4 co uld be
calle d m ne m o nic t e chnique s ( s uch as r e m e m be r ing port v e r s us starboard
and stalactite v e r s us stalagmite, and s p e lling). Addit io nal e xam p le s can
als o illus t r at e m ne m o nic as s o ciat io ns . Y o u can r e m e m be r t hat a Bact r ian
cam e l has t w o hum p s and a D r o m e dar y cam e l has o ne hum p by no t icing
t he t w o hum p s in t he le t t e r B and t he o ne hum p in D. Y o u can r e m e m be r
t hat t he r e ar e 52 w hit e k e ys and 36 black k e ys o n a p iano by as s o ciat ing
t he w hit e k e ys w it h a de ck o f car ds ( 52 car ds ) o r a cale ndar ( 52 w e e k s
in a ye ar ), and t he black k e ys w it h a yar ds t ick ( 36 inche s ). Mne m o nic
as s o ciat io ns ar e fr e que nt ly us e d in s p e lling ( fo r e xam p le , bad gr am m ar
w ill m ar a r e p o r t ; s t at io nE R y is fo r a le t t E R ; s he s cr e am e d "E E E " as
s he p as s e d by a cE m E t E r y). A bo o k has be e n p ublis he d co nt aining s uch
m ne m o nic as s o ciat io ns fo r 800 p r o ble m s p e lling w o r ds , and s uch s p e lling
m ne m o nics hav e be e n fo und t o be he lp ful fo r s ixt h gr ade r s .
4
R hym e s s uch as t ho s e dis cus s e d in chap t e r 4 m ay als o p r o p e r ly be
r e fe r r e d t o as m ne m o nic t e chnique s . T he fo llo w ing ar e s o m e addit io nal
e xam p le s . A r hym e fo r r e m e m be r ing t he bo o k s o f t he O ld T e s t am e nt in
o r de r be gins : "T hat gr e at Je ho v ah s p e ak s t o us , in Ge ne s is and E xo dus ;
Le v it icus and N um be r s s e e , fo llo w e d by D e ut e r o no m y," and co nt inue s
fo r t he r e m aining 34 bo o k s . A r hym e I o nce r e ad o n a ce r e al bo x ( w he n
I w as har d- p r e s s e d fo r r e ading m at e r ial at br e ak fas t o ne m o r ning) is
aim e d at he lp ing childr e n r e m e m be r w hat e ach v it am in do e s fo r us . Par t
o f t he r hym e w e nt as fo llo w s :
T he v it am in calle d A has im p o r t ant co nne ct io ns
I t aids in o ur v is io n and he lp s s t o p infe ct io ns .
T o v it am in C t his dit t y no w co m e s ,
I m p o r t ant fo r he aling and s t r o ng he alt hy gum s .
D o ne w it h bo t h o f t he s e ?
H e r e co m e t he B's :
Bj fo r t he ne r v e s .
B
2
he lp s ce lls e ne r gize .
D ige s t ing t he p r o t e in's
B
e
's p r ize .
A r hym e he lp s us r e m e m be r ho w t o t r e at a s ho ck v ict im : "I f his
face is r e d, r ais e his he ad; if his face is p ale , r ais e his t ail." R hym e s hav e
als o he lp e d p e o p le in t he ir co o k ing cho r e s : "A p int 's a p o und, t he w o r ld
ar o und" he lp s us r e m e m be r a us e ful e quiv ale nce ; "C o o k ing r ice ? W at e r 's
t w ice " he lp s us r e m e m be r t o co o k o ne cup o f r aw r ice in t w o cup s o f
w at e r ; and "O ne big T e quals t e as p o o ns t hr e e " he lp s us r e m e m be r t hat
t he r e ar e t hr e e t e as p o o ns in a t able s p o o n.
A w e ll- k no w n m ne m o nic is us e d t o r e m e m be r w hich w ay t o s e t t he
clo ck fo r daylight s av ings t im e : "S p r ing fo r w ar d, fall back " ( s e t t he clo ck
fo r w ar d an ho ur in t he s p r ing, and back an ho ur in t he fall). T o r e m e m be r
lo ng num be r s , s e nt e nce s can be co ns t r uct e d s o t hat t he num be r o f
le t t e r s in e ach w o r d co r r e s p o nds w it h e ach digit o f t he num be r in o r de r
( if t he fir s t digit is 3, t he fir s t w o r d w o uld hav e t hr e e le t t e r s , e t c.). Fo r
e xam p le , t o r e m e m be r p i ( k) t o fo ur de cim al p lace s ( 3.1416) r e m e m be r
"Y e s , I k no w a num be r ." Fo r t he am bit io us m e m o r ize r , t his t e chnique
can be co m bine d w it h t he us e o f r hym e t o r e m e m be r % t o 30 de cim al
p lace s , as t he fo llo w ing e xam p le fr o m t he Mensa Journal s ho w s :
S ir , I s e nd a r hym e e xce lling
I n s acr e d t r ut h and r igid s p e lling,
N um e r ical s p r it e s e lucidat e
All m y o w n s t r iv ing can't r e lat e ,
I t nat ur e gain
N o t yo u co m p lain
T ho ugh do ct o r Jo hns o n fulm inat e .
W e s aw e ar lie r t hat a r hym e ( "T hir t y days has S e p t e m be r . . . ") can
he lp us r e m e m be r ho w m any days ar e in e ach m o nt h, but s o m e p e o p le
hav e a har d t im e r e m e m be r ing t he r hym e . ( S o m e o ne o nce s aid t hat a
m o r e ap p r o p r iat e r hym e m ight be "T hir t y days has S e p t e m be r , all t he
r e s t I can't r e m e m be r .") I f yo u hav e a har d t im e r e m e m be r ing t he
r hym e , yo u can us e ano t he r m ne m o nic t e chnique t o r e m e m be r t he
num be r o f days in t he m o nt hs ( s e e t he fo llo w ing diagr am ). H o ld yo ur
hands o ut in fr o nt o f yo u in fis t s , w it h t he p alm s do w n and t he hands
t o ge t he r . T he k nuck le o f t he le ft lit t le finge r r e p r e s e nt s Januar y, t he
v alle y be t w e e n it and t he r ing finge r r e p r e s e nt s Fe br uar y, t he k nuck le o f
t he r ing finge r r e p r e s e nt s Mar ch, and s o o n unt il yo u r e ach t he k nuck le
o f t he r ight r ing finge r , w hich r e p r e s e nt s D e ce m be r . All t he k nuck le
m o nt hs hav e 31 days , and t he v alle y m o nt hs ar e t he s ho r t m o nt hs . Y o u
can do t he s am e w it h o nly o ne fis t by s t ar t ing o v e r o n t he k nuck le o f t he
lit t le finge r fo r Augus t aft e r yo u r e ach July o n t he k nuck le o f t he inde x
finge r .
Working Miracles with Your Memory 97
Memorizing the Calendar
W hile w e ar e o n t he t o p ic o f cale ndar s , le t us co ns ide r again t he 12- digit
num be r t hat w e hav e e nco unt e r e d s e v e r al t im e s : 376- 315- 374- 264. I n
chap t e r 5,1 t o ld yo u t hat if yo u m e m o r ize t his 12- digit num be r yo u w ill,
in e ffe ct , hav e t he cale ndar fo r t he w ho le ye ar o f 1988 m e m o r ize d. H e r e
is ho w it w o r k s . E ach digit r e p r e s e nt s t he dat e o f t he fir s t S unday in
e ach m o nt h; t he fir s t S unday in Januar y is t he 3r d, t he fir s t S unday in
June is t he 5t h, and t he fir s t S unday in D e ce m be r is t he 4t h.
Kno w ing t hat , all yo u hav e t o k no w in addit io n ar e t he m o nt hs and
t he days o f t he w e e k , I f yo u can als o add and s ubt r act up t o 7, t he n yo u
can giv e t he day o f t he w e e k fo r any dat e . W hat day o f t he w e e k is July
4, 1988? July is t he s e v e nt h m o nt h. T he s e v e nt h digit is 3, s o t he fir s t
S unday in July is t he 3r d. Add o ne day t o de t e r m ine t hat July 4, 1988 is a
Mo nday. T r y ano t he r o ne . W hat day is June 18, 1988? T he s ixt h digit is
5, s o t he fir s t S unday in June is t he 5t h. Add 7 t o ge t t he s e co nd S unday,
t he 12t h, and add s ix m o r e days t o ge t t he 18t h, w hich is a S at ur day. ( I n
t his e xam p le it m ay be s im p le r t o add 7 m o r e t o t he s e co nd S unday t o
ge t t he t hir d S unday, t he 19t h, and t he n s ubt r act o ne day.)
T r y a que s t io n lik e t he fo llo w ing: H o w m any Mo ndays ar e in May
1988? T he digit fo r May is 1, s o t he fir s t Mo nday is May 2. Add s e v e ns
t o ge t t he o t he r Mo ndays May 9, 16, 23, 30; t he r e ar e fiv e Mo ndays in
May. T r y t he fo llo w ing: W hat dat e is t he fo ur t h T hur s day in N o v e m be r
( T hank s giv ing)? T he digit fo r N o v e m be r is 6. T his m e ans t hat t he fir s t
T hur s day ( co unt ing back w ar d) is N o v e m be r 3, m ak ing t he s e co nd T hur s -
day N o v e m be r 10, t he t hir d T hur s day N o v e m be r 17, and t he fo ur t h
T hur s day N o v e m be r 24.
C an yo u s e e ho w t he p r incip le o f chunk ing is inv o lv e d , in t his
m ne m o nic? Fo r all p r act ical p ur p o s e s yo u hav e 365 t hings m e m o r ize d,
w he n in fact yo u r e ally hav e o nly 12 t hings m e m o r ize d, but e ach o f t he
12 chunk s r e p r e s e nt s abo ut 30 bit s o f info r m at io n ( dat e s ). O f co ur s e ,
yo u can us e t he t e chnique fo r any ye ar m e r e ly by m e m o r izing t he
ap p r o p r iat e num be r fo r t hat ye ar ; m e m o r izing a ne w 12- digit num be r
o nce a ye ar s ho uld no t be t o o difficult a m e m o r y t as k ( e s p e cially aft e r
r e ading t his bo o k ).
O ne o f m y s t ude nt s m e m o r ize d t he cale ndar us ing t his num be r and
t he n am aze d his co lle ague s at w o r k t he ne xt day. H e r e p o r t e d t hat o ne
o f t he m go t a p uzzle d lo o k o n his face and t he n s aid, "O h, I k no w yo u
s t aye d up fo r 5 ho ur s las t night and m e m o r ize d t he w ho le t hing." T he
s t ude nt had act ually s p e nt le s s t han 3 m inut e s m e m o r izing and p r act icing
t he num be r , and r e p o r t e d t hat "it w as t r uly a m ir acle o f e ffe ct iv e ne s s ."
W he n he w as age e le v e n m y s o n did an im p r e s s iv e de m o ns t r at io n us ing
t he cale ndar num be r ; s e v e r al m e m be r s o f t he audie nce calle d o ut t he ir
bir t hdays ( m o nt h and dat e ) and in le s s t han 10 s e co nds he t o ld t he m
w hat day o f t he w e e k t he ir bir t hday w as t hat ye ar .
FIRST LETTERS AND KEYWORDS
T he v ar ie d e xam p le s o f m ne m o nics in t he p r e v io us s e ct io n he lp giv e a
fe e ling fo r w hat m ne m o nics ar e . Many o f t he s p e cific e xam p le s w e r e
dis cus s e d unde r t he ge ne r al cat e go r ie s o f "as s o ciat io ns " and "r hym e s ."
T his s e ct io n dis cus s e s addit io nal e xam p le s o f v e r bal m ne m o nics t hat
p s ycho lo gis t s hav e s t udie d unde r t he he adings o f "fir s t - le t t e r " m ne m o n-
ics and "k e yw o r d" m ne m o nics .
First- letter Mnemonics
C an yo u nam e t he Gr e at Lak e s in t he m idw e s t e r n U nit e d S t at e s ? T r y it
no w be fo r e yo u r e ad any fur t he r . W hat yo u hav e jus t at t e m p t e d w as a
r e call t as k . Le t us no w change it t o an aide d- r e call t as k . T he fo llo w ing
w o r d is co m p o s e d o f t he fir s t le t t e r o f t he nam e o f e ach lak e : H O ME S .
U s ing t he w o r d as a cue , if yo u w e r e no t able t o nam e all fiv e lak e s , can
yo u do s o no w ? Many p e o p le w ho canno t r e call t he nam e s o f t he lak e s
can do s o w he n giv e n t his cue . T he cue is w hat is k no w n as an acronym
a w o r d t hat is m ade o ut o f t he fir s t le t t e r s o f t he it e m s t o be r e m e m -
be r e d. I n t his e xam p le t he acr o nym H O ME S s t ands fo r H ur o n, O nt ar io ,
Michigan, E r ie , ar id S up e r io r . A m ne m o nic t e chnique t hat is s im ilar t o
t he acr o nym is t he acrostica s e r ie s o f w o r ds , line s , o r v e r s e s in w hich
t he fir s t le t t e r s fo r m a w o r d o r p hr as e ; fo r e xam p le , an acr o s t ic fo r
Working Miracles with Your Memory
9 9
r e m e m be r ing t he nam e s o f t he Gr e at Lak e s m ight be , H e alt hy O ld Me n
E xe r cis e S o m e . Acr o nym s and acr o s t ics ar e r e fe r r e d t o by m o s t m ne -
m o nics r e s e ar che r s as "fir s t - le t t e r m ne m o nics " ( fo r r e as o ns t hat s ho uld
be o bv io us ).
A w e ll- k no w n acr o nym t hat is us e d as an aid t o r e m e m be r t he co lo r s
o f t he v is ible s p e ct r um is t he nam e R O Y G. BI V. T his nam e r e p r e s e nt s
r e d, o r ange , ye llo w , gr e e n, blue , indigo , and v io le t . S im ilar ly, s up p o s e
yo u hav e a s ho p p ing lis t o f bananas , o r ange s , m ilk , and br e ad. T he w o r d
BO MB co uld be us e d t o he lp r e m e m be r t he lis t . An acr o nym do e s no t
e v e n hav e t o be a r e al w o r d. W hat ar e t he o nly fo ur s t at e s in t he U nit e d
S t at e s t hat co m e t o ge t he r at a s ingle p o int ? T he co ine d w o r d C AN U w ill
he lp yo u r e m e m be r C o lo r ado , Ar izo na, N e w Me xico , and U t ah. An
acr o nym fo r r e m e m be r ing t he e xcr e t o r y o r gans o f t he bo dy is S KI LL
( S k in, Kidne ys , I nt e s t ine s , Liv e r , Lungs ). An acr o nym t hat m ay he lp a
Fr e nch s t ude nt r e m e m be r m o s t o f t he v e r bs t hat ar e co njugat e d w it h
t he he lp ing v e r b "t o be " is t he nam e o f a lady, MR S . VAN D E R T AMP
(Monter, Rester, Sortir, Venir, AUer, Naitre, Descendre, Entrer, Rentrer,
Tomber, Arriver, Mourir, Partir).
Acr o nym s ar e w ide ly us e d t o r e p r e s e nt as s o ciat io ns ( C O R E fo r
C o ngr e s s o f R acial E qualit y), o r ganizat io ns ( N O W fo r N at io nal O r ganiza-
t io n fo r W o m e n), go v e r nm e nt age ncie s ( C AB fo r C iv il Ae r o naut ics
Bo ar d), m ilit ar y t it le s and t e r m s ( W AVE S fo r W o m e n Acce p t e d fo r
Vo lunt ar y E m e r ge ncy S e r v ice , S N AFU fo r "S it uat io n no r m al, all fo ule d
up "). C o lle ct io ns hav e be e n co m p ile d o f at le as t 10,000 s uch acr o nym s
us e d o n a nat io nal le v e l.
5
O ne r e as o n t hat s o m any gr o up s ide nt ify
t he m s e lv e s w it h an acr o nym is t hat it s e r v e s as an aid t o he lp p e o p le
r e m e m be r t he m .
Many e xam p le s o f acr o s t ics can als o be giv e n. T he co lo r s o f t he
v is ible s p e ct r um hav e be e n r e m e m be r e d by t he acr o s t ic, "R ichar d O f
Y o r k Gav e Bat t le I n Vain." Ps alm 119 is div ide d int o 22 e ight - v e r s e
s e ct io ns co r r e s p o nding t o t he 22 le t t e r s o f t he H e br e w alp habe t ; t he
fir s t w o r d o f e v e r y v e r s e in e ach s e ct io n be gins w it h t he s am e o ne o f t he
22 le t t e r s , in o r de r . Many anat o m y s t ude nt s hav e us e d acr o s t ics lik e
"O n O ld O lym p us ' T o w e r ing T o p , A Finn And Ge r m an Vie w e d S o m e
H o p s " t o r e m e m be r t he cr anial ne r v e s ( O lfact o r y, O p t ic, O culo m o t o r ,
T r o chle ar , T r ige m inal, Abduce ns , Facial, Audit o r y, Glo s s o p har ynge al, Va-
gus , S p inal Acce s s o r y, and H yp o glo s s al),
6
and m any m us ic s t ude nt s hav e
us e d "E v e r y Go o d Bo y D o e s Fine " t o r e m e m be r t he no t e s o n t he
line s in t he t r e ble cle f ( E GBD F).
An acr o s t ic fo r r e m e m be r ing t he o r de r o f p lane t s fr o m t he s un is
"Me n Ve r y E as ily Mak e Jugs S e r v e U s e ful N o ct ur nal Pur p o s e s " ( Me r -
cur y, Ve nus , E ar t h, Mar s " Jup it e r , S at ur n, U r anus , N e p t une , Plut o ). An
1 0 0 Y O U R ME MO R Y
acr o s t ic t hat he lp e d o ne w o m an line up he r bak ing ingr e die nt s in t he ir
p r o p e r o r de r is "S hir le y S ho uldn't E at Fr e s h Mus hr o o m s " ( S ugar ,
S ho r t e ning, E ggs , Flo ur , Milk ), and an acr o s t ic t hat has he lp e d m at he -
m at ics s t ude nt s p e r fo r m o p e r at io ns in t he ir p r o p e r o r de r o f p r io r it y is
"Ble s s My D e ar Aunt S ally" ( Br ack e t s , Mult ip licat io n, D iv is io n, Addit io n,
S ubt r act io n).
S e v e r al r e s e ar ch s t udie s do ne o n fir s t - le t t e r m ne m o nics hav e fo und
t hat t he y ar e am o ng t he m o s t fr e que nt m ne m o nic t e chnique s t hat p e o p le
us e o n t he ir o w n and t hat t he y can s ignificant ly im p r o v e m e m o r y fo r lis t s
o f it e m s , e v e n in p e o p le w it h br ain dam age .
7
T he r e ar e at le as t fo ur w ays in w hich acr o nym s and acr o s t ics can
he lp m e m o r y,
1. Acr o nym s and acr o s t ics m ak e t he m at e r ial m e aningful; t he y giv e
yo u s o m e t hing m e aningful t o r e m e m be r , s uch as H O ME S , R O Y G. BI V,
and E v e r y Go o d Bo y D o e s Fine .
2. Acr o nym s chunk t he info r m at io n s o yo u do no t hav e t o r e m e m -
be r a lo t . I ns t e ad o f fiv e lak e s o r s e v e n co lo r s , fo r e xam p le , yo u o nly
hav e t o r e m e m be r o ne w o r d o r o ne nam e . O f co ur s e , an acr o nym o r
acr o s t ic it s e lf is no t t he o r iginal info r m at io n; it m e r e ly giv e s yo u s o m e
cue s t o he lp yo u r e t r ie v e t he o r iginal info r m at io n. Aft e r yo u r e m e m be r
t he acr o nym o r acr o s t ic, yo u s t ill m us t be able t o ge ne r at e t he o r iginal
info r m at io n fr o m it . ( A p hys ics p r o fe s s o r m ay no t be p ar t icular ly im -
p r e s s e d if a s t ude nt w r o t e o n an e xam t hat t he co lo r s o f t he v is ible
s p e ct r um w e r e R O Y G. BI V.) T hus , acr o nym s and acr o s t ics m ay be
m o r e us e ful fo r t e r m s t hat ar e fam iliar t o yo u t han fo r t e r m s t hat ar e no t
fam iliar , be caus e a fir s t le t t e r m ight no t be a s ufficie nt cue fo r t e r m s yo u
do no t k no w v e r y w e ll.
8
3. Fir s t - le t t e r m ne m o nics p r o v ide cue s t o he lp yo u r e t r ie v e t he
it e m s ; t he r e fo r e , t he y change a r e call t as k t o an aide d r e call t as k . T his
m ak e s yo ur m e m o r y t as k e as ie r by nar r o w ing yo ur m e m o r y s e ar ch.
R e s e ar ch has s ho w n
r
t hat t he fir s t le t t e r s o f w o r ds he lp p e o p le r e call t he
w o r ds ( e v e n p at ie nt s w it h de m e nt ia and br ain dam age ). Als o , w he n
p e o p le ar e t r ying t o r e call s o m e t hing t he y k no w , s uch as t he nam e o f a
r e lat iv e o r t he cap it al o f a co unt r y, t he y fr e que nt ly t r y t o cue t he m s e lv e s
by ge ne r at ing le t t e r s o f t he alp habe t t o t r igge r r e t r ie v al.
9
4. Fir s t - le t t e r m ne m o nics can t e ll yo u ho w m any it e m s ar e t o be
r e m e m be r e d, s o t hat yo u k no w w he n yo u hav e r e calle d all o f t he m . Fo r
e xam p le , if yo u hav e r e calle d t he nam e s o f fo ur Gr e at Lak e s , yo u k no w
yo u hav e o ne m o r e t o go be caus e t he r e ar e fiv e le t t e r s in t he acr o nym
H O ME S o r fiv e w o r ds in t he acr o s t ic, H e alt hy O ld Me n E xe r cis e S o m e .
T he s e fo ur adv ant age s o f fir s t - le t t e r m ne m o nics ap p ly as lo ng as
yo u can r e m e m be r w hich acr o nym o r acr o s t ic go e s w it h w hich info r m a-
t io n, but w hat if yo u fo r ge t t he m ne m o nic it s e lf? I t w ill no t do yo u m uch
go o d, fo r e xam p le , t o r e m e m be r t hat t he r e is s o m e acr o nym t o he lp
r e m e m be r t he nam e s o f t he Gr e at Lak e s if yo u canno t r e m e m be r w hat
t he acr o nym is . H e r e is a s ugge s t io n t hat m ay he lp p r e v e nt t his p r o ble m :
As s o ciat e t he acr o nym w it h t he info r m at io n it r e p r e s e nt s . Y o u m ight us e
a v e r bal as s o ciat io n s uch as , "T he Gr e at Lak e s m ak e go o d H O ME S fo r
big fis h," o r a v is ual as s o ciat io n s uch as an im age o f H O ME S ( ho us e s )
flo at ing o n t he Gr e at Lak e s . N o w w he n yo u t r y t o t hink o f t he acr o nym
fo r t he Gr e at Lak e s , yo u t hink o f w hat it w as t hat w as flo at ing o n t he
lak e s and t hat le ads yo u t o H O ME S .
The Keyword Mnemonic
A gr e at am o unt o f r e s e ar ch has be e n do ne o n a m ne m o nic t hat is us ually
calle d t he "Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic." T his t e r m w as us e d by R ichar d At k in-
s o n in a 1975 ar t icle de s cr ibing t he us e o f t his m ne m o nic in le ar ning
fo r e ign language v o cabular y.
10
S ubs e que nt r e s e ar che r s us ually at t r ibut e
t he Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic t o him , p r o bably be caus e he w as t he fir s t
r e s p e ct e d p s ycho lo gis t w ho br o ught it t o t he ir at t e nt io n and init iat e d
s ys t e m at ic r e s e ar ch o n it . H o w e v e r , t he t e chnique w as de v e lo p e d and
us e d by o t he r p e o p le be fo r e 1975, p ar t icular ly fo r fo r e ign language s .
T he Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic co ns is t s o f t w o s t e p s , o ne v e r bal and o ne
v is ual. T he fir s t s t e p is t o co ns t r uct a co ncr e t e k e yw o r d t o r e p r e s e nt
t he fo r e ign w o r d t o be le ar ne d. Fo r e xam p le , t he S p anis h w o r d fo r duck
is pato, w hich co uld be r e p r e s e nt e d by t he s o und- alik e k e yw o r d pot. T he
s e co nd s t e p is t o fo r m a v is ual im age co nne ct ing t he k e yw o r d w it h t he
E nglis h m e aning. Fo r e xam p le , yo u co uld p ict ur e a duck co o k ing in a p o t
o r w e ar ing a p o t o n it s he ad. T o r e call t he m e aning o f t he S p anis h w o r d
pato yo u fir s t r e t r ie v e t he k e yw o r d pot, and t he n t he s t o r e d im age t hat
link s it t o duck .
T he Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic is r e ally jus t t he co m bine d us e o f t w o
m ne m o nic t e chnique s dis cus s e d lat e r in t his chap t e r s ubs t it ut e w o r ds
and v is ual as s o ciat io ns . I t als o s har e s s e v e r al p r o p e r t ie s and p r incip le s in
co m m o n w it h o t he r m ne m o nics dis cus s e d in lat e r chap t e r s ( s uch as t he
Lo ci s ys t e m and face - nam e m ne m o nics ). R e s e ar ch s ho w s t hat t he Ke y-
w o r d m ne m o nic is v e r y e ffe ct iv e in le ar ning a fo r e ign v o cabular y, and it
has als o be e n us e d e ffe ct iv e ly t o aid s t ude nt s in s e v e r al o t he r k inds o f
p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning t as k s in s cho o l ( s e e chap t e r 14).
11
I n m y t r av e ls t o o t he r co unt r ie s t o s p e ak o n m y m e m o r y r e s e ar ch,
I hav e had o ccas io n t o le ar n s o m e v o cabular y and p r o nunciat io n in s ix
language s S p anis h, Fr e nch, I t alian, Ge r m an, H e br e w , and Jap ane s e . I
did no t le ar n any o f t he s e language s w e ll e no ugh t o giv e m y r e s e ar ch
r e p o r t in t hat language o r e v e n t o car r y o n an int e llige nt co nv e r s at io n,
but I le ar ne d jus t e no ugh t o be p o lit e and t o co m m unicat e s o m e
ne ce s s ar y ide as . T his include d t hr e e o r fo ur do ze n bas ic w o r ds and
p hr as e s in e ach language , s uch as "p le as e " and "t hank yo u," "ye s " and
"no ," "he llo " and "go o dbye ," "W he r e is . . .? " "I do n't unde r s t and. . . "
"D o yo u s p e ak E nglis h?" and "T hat co s t s t o o m uch." I us e d t he Ke yw o r d
m ne m o nic t o he lp in le ar ning m any o f t he w o r ds , and fo und t hat it co uld
e v e n be us e d fo r s o m e p hr as e s . Fo r e xam p le , t he p r o nunciat io n o f
"Y o u'r e w e lco m e " in H e br e w is lik e "al lo da \ 5VH R " ( a lo ad o f air ), and in
Jap ane s e t he p r o nunicat io n is lik e "do e T AS H e MAS H t a" ( do n't t o uch t he
m us t ache ).
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MNEMONICS
A r e ce nt m e m o r y t e xt bo o k s ugge s t e d t hat t he o bje ct io ns s o m e p e o p le
hav e ( s e e p s e udo - lim it at io ns in chap t e r 8) t o t he us e o f s o m e m e m o r y
m e t ho ds m ight de cr e as e if t he r e as o ns fo r t he m ne m o nics ' e ffe ct iv e ne s s
w e r e be t t e r unde r s t o o d. I t he lp s t o be t t e r unde r s t and m ne m o nics and t o
r e m o v e s o m e o f t he m ys t ical aur a t hat can s ur r o und m ne m o nics if w e
r e alize t hat t he y ar e bas e d up o n w e ll- e s t ablis he d p r incip le s o f le ar ning
and m e m o r y. Mo r e t han 20 ye ar s ago , o ne p s ycho lo gis t o bs e r v e d t hat
m ne m o nic t e chnique s ar e o ddit ie s o nly in t he s e ns e t hat t he y e nable
t he ir us e r s t o de al w it h m e m o r y t as k s t hat m o s t p e o p le do no t e v e n
at t e m p t in e v e r yday life , "but t he y ar e no t o ddit ie s in t he s e ns e t hat t he y
e m p lo y any bas ic p r o ce dur e s w hich ar e abs e nt fr o m e v e r yday act iv it ie s .
T he y ar e m e r e ly s p e cialize d e labo r at io ns o f no r m al m e m o r y act iv it ie s ."
D ur ing t he 1970s o t he r m e m o r y r e s e ar che r s m ade s im ilar o bs e r v a-
t io ns :
12
T he s e cr e t s o f t ho s e w ho p r act ice t he ar t o f m e m o r y o ught t o s he d light o n t he
o r ganizat io n and o p e r at io n o f t he m e chanis m s inv o lv e d in m e m o r y.
A s t udy o f m ne m o nics and m ne m o nis t s can p r o v ide cue s as t o t he funct io ning o f
no r m al m e m o r y and a w ay o f t e s t ing t he ge ne r alit y o f t he o r ie s o f m e m o r y.
N o ge ne r al t he o r y o f m e m o r y can be ade quat e w it ho ut be ing able t o acco unt in
p r incip le fo r t he e fficie ncy o f m ne m o nic s ys t e m s .
T he p o int is t he s am e o ne t hat w as m ade e ar lie r , t hat m ne m o nic
t e chnique s and s ys t e m s do no t replace t he bas ic p r incip le s o f le ar ning but
use t he m . Mne m o nics m ak e us e o f all t he bas ic p r incip le s o f le ar ning and
m e m o r y t hat w e r e dis cus s e d in chap t e r 4, as w e ll as o t he r s .
13
Meaningfulness. Mne m o nic t e chnique s and s ys t e m s he lp m ak e m a-
t e r ial m e aningful by us ing r hym e s , p at t e r ns , and as s o ciat io ns . I n fact ,
p r o bably t he m ain funct io n o f m o s t m ne m o nics is t o im p o s e m e aning o n
m at e r ial t hat is no t inhe r e nt ly m e aningful; t hat is t he k ind o f m at e r ial fo r
w hich m ne m o nics hav e be s t s ho w n t he ir v alue . Mne m o nics ar e no t
ne e de d fo r m at e r ial t hat alr e ady has m e aning. O ne o f t he m o s t p o w e r ful
e xam p le s o f t he us e o f t his p r incip le is t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m ( chap t e r 12),
w hich giv e s m e aning t o o ne o f t he m o s t abs t r act , m e aningle s s k inds o f
m at e r ialnum be r s s o t hat t he y w ill be e as ie r t o le ar n.
Organization. Mo s t o f t he m ne m o nic t e chnique s jus t de s cr ibe d, and
all o f t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s de s cr ibe d in s ubs e que nt chap t e r s , im p o s e
a m e aningful o r ganizat io n o n t he m at e r ial. As m e nt al filing s ys t e m s , t he y
giv e a s ys t e m at ic w ay t o r e co r d and r e t r ie v e t he m at e r ial. Again,
m ne m o nics ar e no t ne e de d fo r m at e r ial t hat alr e ady has an inhe r e nt lo gic
and s t r uct ur e .
Association. W e hav e s e e n s o m e e xam p le s o f m ne m o nic as s o cia-
t io ns . T he p r incip le o f as s o ciat io n is bas ic t o all t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s
dis cus s e d in s ubs e que nt chap t e r s . I n t he Link s ys t e m t he it e m s ar e
as s o ciat e d w it h e ach o t he r . I n t he Lo ci, Pe g, and Pho ne t ic s ys t e m s ,
e as ily r e m e m be r e d m at e r ial t hat is m e m o r ize d p r e v io us ly s e r v e s as yo ur
filing s ys t e m ; yo u as s o ciat e t he ne w m at e r ial t hat yo u w ant t o le ar n w it h
t he m at e r ial t hat has be e n m e m o r ize d p r e v io us ly.
Visualization. Vis ual im age r y als o p lays a ce nt r al r o le in t he m ne -
m o nic s ys t e m s be caus e t he as s o ciat io ns ar e us ually m ade v is ually.
Vis ualizat io n is p r o bably t he m o s t unus ual as p e ct o f m ne m o nic s ys t e m s ,
and m ay als o be t he m o s t m is unde r s t o o d. Fo r t he s e r e as o ns , it is
dis cus s e d m o r e t ho r o ughly in t his bo o k t han any o t he r p r incip le . C hap t e r
3 dis cus s e d t he diffe r e nce s be t w e e n r e m e m be r ing p ict ur e s and w o r ds ;
chap t e r 4 dis cus s e d t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f v is ual im age r y in r e m e m be r ing
v e r bal m at e r ial; and t his chap t e r o ffe r s s o m e s ugge s t io ns fo r t he e ffe ct iv e
us e o f v is ual as s o ciat io ns t o r e m e m be r v e r bal m at e r ial.
Attention. Mne m o nic s ys t e m s fo r ce yo u t o co nce nt r at e o n t he
m at e r ial in o r de r t o fo r m p ict ur e s and as s o ciat e t he m . Mne m o nics can
fo s t e r at t e nt io n be caus e t he y t e nd t o be m o r e int e r e s t ing and fun t han
r o t e le ar ning.
Other Principles and Strategies
I n addit io n t o m ak ing inhe r e nt us e o f all t he bas ic p r incip le s o f m e m o r y
fr o m chap t e r 4, m ne m o nic s ys t e m s can als o be us e d in co nne ct io n w it h
o t he r p r incip le s and s t r at e gie s dis cus s e d in chap t e r s 5 and 6. Fo r
e xam p le , alt ho ugh le ar ning w it h a m ne m o nic s ys t e m fr e que nt ly t ak e s
fe w e r r e p e t it io ns t han le ar ning w it h t he unaide d m e m o r y, yo ur r e t e nt io n
o f t he m at e r ial w ill s t ill be incr e as e d if yo u o v e r le ar n it .
Alt ho ugh m ne m o nic s ys t e m s do no t co m p le t e ly e lim inat e int e r fe r -
e nce , a co ns ide r able am o unt o f e v ide nce s ho w s t hat t he y do r e duce it as
co m p ar e d w it h us ing o nly t he unaide d m e m o r y. Fo r e xam p le , m ne m o nic
s ys t e m s hav e be e n us e d t o le ar n s e v e r al s ucce s s iv e lis t s , o r s e v e r al
diffe r e nt o r de r s o f t he s am e lis t , w it h v e r y lit t le int e r fe r e nce am o ng
t he diffe r e nt lis t s .
14
Y o u w ill p r o bably s t ill ge t s o m e int e r fe r e nce
am o ng diffe r e nt lis t s if t he y ar e le ar ne d co ns e cut iv e ly by t he s am e
m ne m o nic s ys t e m , but t he int e r fe r e nce w ill be a lo t le s s t han if yo u did
no t us e a s ys t e m . O f co ur s e , yo u can r e duce t he int e r fe r e nce e v e n
fur t he r by co m bining t he us e o f m ne m o nics w it h t he o t he r m e t ho ds fo r
r e ducing int e r fe r e nce t hat w e r e dis cus s e d in chap t e r 6.
T he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f m ne m o nic t e chnique s can be incr e as e d if yo u
co m bine t he m w it h o t he r le ar ning s t r at e gie s . S p ace o ut yo ur s t udy
s e s s io ns . U s e w ho le and p ar t le ar ning w he r e ap p r o p r iat e . U s e r e cit at io n.
Finally, us e t he r e le v ant s t e p s fr o m t he S Q3R s t udy s ys t e m w he r e
ap p r o p r iat e . Fo r e xam p le , jus t be caus e yo u us e a m ne m o nic t o le ar n
s o m e t hing do e s no t m e an t hat yo u do no t ne e d t o r e v ie w t he m at e r ial
o ccas io nally. Mne m o nic s ys t e m s aid t he m e m o r y by s up p le m e nt ing s t udy
s t r at e gie s , no t by r e p lacing t he m , jus t as w it h t he bas ic p r incip le s o f
le ar ning.
15
HOW TO MAKE EFFECTIVE VISUAL ASSOCIATIONS
Be caus e v is ual as s o ciat io n p lays a ce nt r al r o le in m o s t m ne m o nic t e ch-
nique s and s ys t e m s , it is us e ful t o hav e s o m e guide s fo r m ak ing e ffe ct iv e
us e o f v is ual im age r y in as s o ciat io ns . R e s e ar ch has be e n do ne o n t hr e e
fact o r s t hat can he lp t o m ak e yo ur v is ual as s o ciat io ns e ffe ct iv e int e r ac-
t io n, v iv idne s s , and bizar r e ne s s .
16
Interaction
Vis ual im age r y by it s e lf is no t m axim ally e ffe ct iv e . T o m ak e v is ual
as s o ciat io n e ffe ct iv e , yo ur im age r y m us t bo t h be "v is ual" and inv o lv e
"as s o ciat io n." T he t w o it e m s yo u ar e as s o ciat ing s ho uld be p ict ur e d as
int e r act ing in s o m e w ay w it h e ach o t he r ( o ne o f t he m do ing s o m e t hing
t o o r w it h t he o t he r ), r at he r t han as m e r e ly s it t ing ne xt t o e ach o t he r o r
o ne o n t o p o f t he o t he r . Fo r e xam p le , if yo u w e r e as s o ciat ing t he w o r ds
dogand broomit w o uld be be t t e r t o p ict ur e a do g s w e e p ing w it h a br o o m
t han t o p ict ur e a do g s t anding by a br o o m .
C o ns ide r able r e s e ar ch e v ide nce s up p o r t s t he int e r act io n e ffe ct :
Vis ual im age r y inv o lv ing int e r act io n am o ng t he it e m s is m o r e e ffe ct iv e
t han s e p ar at e im age s o f t he it e m s . S e v e r al r e s e ar ch s t udie s in w hich
p ict ur e s w e r e s ho w n t o p e o p le hav e fo und t hat w he n t he it e m s in t he
p ict ur e w e r e int e r act ing t he y w e r e r e m e m be r e d be t t e r t han w he n t he y
w e r e no t int e r act ingfo r k inde r gar t e n childr e n t hr o ugh e lde r ly adult s .
17
I n o t he r s t udie s p e o p le m ade up t he ir o w n m e nt al p ict ur e s t o
r e m e m be r w o r ds r at he r t han hav ing p ict ur e s s ho w n t o t he m . Again,
int e r act ing im age r y w as m o r e e ffe ct iv e t han s e p ar at e im age s in s e r ial
le ar ning as w e ll as in p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning. I n fact , e v e n w he n p e o p le
w e r e no t ins t r uct e d t o r e m e m be r t he w o r ds , jus t t e lling t he m t o co m p ar e
t he w o r ds in e ach p air w it h o ne ano t he r yie lde d be t t e r m e m o r y fo r t he
w o r ds t han m ak ing judgm e nt s abo ut e ach w o r d indiv idually. H o w e v e r ,
childr e n as yo ung as fir s t gr ade r s m ay no t be ne fit as m uch fr o m
int e r act ing im age r y w he n t he y ar e ins t r uct e d t o m ak e up t he ir o w n
m e nt al p ict ur e s as t he y do w he n p ict ur e s ar e s ho w n t o t he m .
18
O ne p o s s ible r e as o n fo r t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f int e r act ing im age r y is
t hat im age s o f s e p ar at e it e m s can be co m bine d int o a s ingle im age t hat
is r e m e m be r e d as a unit ; t he r e fo r e , e ach p ar t o f t he im age s e r v e s as a
cue fo r r e m e m be r ing t he r e s t o f t he unit . T his s ugge s t s t hat chunk ing
p lays a r o le in t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f int e r act ing im age r y: O ne im age
r e p r e s e nt s t he r e lat io ns hip am o ng t w o o r m o r e it e m s . I nt e r act iv e im -
age r y is no t m uch be t t e r t han s e p ar at e im age s fo r w o r d p air s t hat ar e
alr e ady m e aningfully r e lat e d, p o s s ibly be caus e t he y ar e alr e ady r e m e m -
be r e d as a s ingle unit be t t e r t han ar e t he ar bit r ar y w o r d p air s us e d in
m o s t r e s e ar ch.
19
Vividness
A v iv id v is ual im age is o ne t hat is cle ar , dis t inct , and s t r o ngo ne t hat is
as s im ilar as p o s s ible t o act ually s e e ing a p ict ur e . Pict ur e s hav e an e v e n
s t r o nge r e ffe ct o n m e m o r y t han, ins t r uct io ns t o v is ualize , s o t hat t he
m o r e yo u can s e e t he im age lik e yo u w e r e act ually lo o k ing at a p ict ur e ,
t he be t t e r .
20
Y o u s ho uld t r y t o s e e yo ur m e nt al p ict ur e s as cle ar ly as
p o s s ible . Fo r e xam p le , if yo u ar e as s o ciat ing t he w o r ds dog and broom
yo u s ho uld no t jus t t hink abo ut t he t w o w o r ds t o ge t he r o r t hink abo ut
t he ide a o f a do g s w e e p ing w it h a br o o m , but yo u s ho uld t r y t o act ually
see t he do g s w e e p ing w it h t he br o o m in yo ur m ind's e ye . Pe o p le w ho ar e
no t accus t o m e d t o v is ualizing ( and m any adult s ar e no t ) m ay find t hat it
he lp s at fir s t if t he y clo s e t he ir e ye s w he n t r ying t o s e e t he m e nt al
p ict ur e . I t als o s e e m s t o he lp if yo u m ak e t he m e nt al p ict ur e de t aile d.
21
W hat k ind o f do g is it ? W hat k ind o f br o o m ? W he r e is he s w e e p ing? W hat
is he s w e e p ing? Pict ur e a dachs hund s w e e p ing m ud o ff yo ur p o r ch w it h
a p us hbr o o m ; o r a bulldo g s w e e p ing fo o d o ff t he k it che n flo o r w it h a
s t r aw br o o m .
I n addit io n t o de t ail, t hr e e s ugge s t io ns t hat ar e fr e que nt ly r e co m -
m e nde d t o he lp m ak e v is ual as s o ciat io ns e ffe ct iv e ar e aim e d at m ak ing
t he m m o r e v iv id ( and m aybe e v e n m o r e bizar r e s e e t he ne xt s e ct io n):
1. Motion. S e e t he p ict ur e in act io n ( t he do g is s w e e p ing w it h t he
br o o m , no t jus t ho lding it ).
2. Substitution. S e e o ne it e m in p lace o f t he o t he r ( yo u ar e s w e e p ing
w it h a do g ins t e ad o f a br o o m , o r a br o o m is co m ing o ut o f a
do gho us e ).
3. Exaggeration. S e e o ne o r bo t h o f t he it e m s e xagge r at e d in s ize o r
num be r ( a C hihuahua is s w e e p ing w it h a giant br o o m , o r a lar ge S t .
Be r nar d is us ing a s m all w his k br o o m ).
Ano t he r fact o r t hat m ay he lp e nhance v iv idne s s is familiarity; im age s
t hat ar e fam iliar in t e r m s o f p r io r e xp e r ie nce s hav e be e n fo und t o be
m o r e v iv id.
22
R e s e ar che r s hav e had a har d t im e de fining and m e as ur ing v iv idne s s ,
w hich can affe ct w he t he r o r no t t he y co nclude t hat v iv idne s s he lp s
m e m o r y. E v e n s o , s e v e r al diffe r e nt k inds o f s t udie s s ugge s t t hat v is ual
as s o ciat io ns s ho uld be v iv id t o be r e m e m be r e d be t t e r . I n o ne s t udy o f
im age r y in p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning, p e o p le r at e d t he v iv idne s s o f t he ir
im age s as t he y co ns t r uct e d t he m . Fo r e v e r y p e r s o n, t he m o r e v iv id t he
im age s w e r e r at e d, t he be t t e r t he y w e r e r e calle d. I n ano t he r s t udy,
p e o p le w ho w e r e ins t r uct e d t o m ak e v iv id v is ual im age s t e nde d t o
r e m e m be r a lis t o f w o r ds be t t e r t han p e o p le w ho w e r e t o ld o nly t o m ak e
v is ual im age s ; p e o p le ins t r uct e d t o m ak e v iv id, act iv e v is ual im age s
t e nde d t o p e r fo r m e v e n be t t e r .
23
E ffe ct s o f m e nt al p r act ice o n m o t o r s k ills w e r e gr e at e r fo r p e o p le
w ho w e r e able t o fo r m v iv id and/o r co nt r o lle d m e m o r y im age s o f t he
p r o ce s s . Pe o p le w ho t e nde d t o fo r m v iv id v is ual im age s o f o t he r p e o p le
no t o nly r e m e m be r e d t he ir ap p e ar ance be t t e r t han t ho s e w ho did no t
but als o r e m e m be r e d o t he r info r m at io n ( at t it ude s , v alue s , his t o r y) abo ut
t he m be t t e r . Finally, p e o p le w ho s e im age s w e r e ge ne r ally high in
v iv idne s s co uld us e im age r y m ne m o nics m o r e e ffe ct iv e ly t han t ho s e
w ho s e im age s w e r e lo w in v iv idne s s ( alt ho ugh t he ir ge ne r al, o v e r all
m e m o r y p e r fo r m ance w as no t s ignificant ly diffe r e nt ).
24
Bizarreness
Po p ular m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k s t yp ically r e co m m e nd t hat v is ual as s o cia-
t io ns s ho uld be bizar r e ( unus ual, w e ir d, im p laus ible , inco ngr uo us , ludi-
cr o us ). T he o p p o s it e o f bizar r e w o uld be p laus ible im agining a p ict ur e
t hat m ak e s s e ns e and co uld r e ally o ccur . Fo r e xam p le , a p ict ur e o f a do g
be ing chas e d o ut o f a ho us e by a p e r s o n w it h a br o o m is p laus ible ; a do g
s w e e p ing w it h a br o o m w o uld be s o m e w hat bizar r e ; and a do g r iding a
br o o m lik e a w it ch, o r a p e r s o n s w e e p ing t he flo o r w it h a do g t ie d t o t he
e nd o f a br o o m s t ick , w o uld be bizar r e .
At le as t 30 r e s e ar ch s t udie s hav e be e n do ne o n t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f
bizar r e v e r s us p laus ible im age r y.
25
Mo s t o f t he s t udie s hav e fo und no
diffe r e nce be t w e e n bizar r e and p laus ible im age s in t he ir e ffe ct iv e ne s s ,
but a fe w s t udie s hav e fo und t hat bizar r e im age s w e r e m o r e e ffe ct iv e
t han p laus ible im age s unde r s o m e co ndit io ns , and a fe w hav e fo und t hat
bizar r e im age s w e r e le s s e ffe ct iv e . S o m e o f t he diffe r e nce s in findings
ar e p r o bably due t o m e t ho do lo gical diffe r e nce s am o ng s t udie s ( s uch as
diffe r e nt de finit io ns o f bizar r e ne s s , im m e diat e v e r s us de laye d r e call,
p ict ur e s v e r s us m e nt al im age s , and p air e d- as s o ciat e s v e r s us fr e e r e call).
W he n bizar r e ne s s do e s he lp , it m ay be be caus e bizar r e im age s als o
inco r p o r at e o t he r fact o r s t hat he lp m e m o r y, s uch as int e r act io n, v iv id-
ne s s , unique ne s s , and t im e . S o m e s t udie s hav e fo und t hat bizar r e ne s s
can be co nfo unde d w it h int e r act io n; s o m e int e r act ing im age s m ay alm o s t
have t o be bizar r e in o r de r t o inv o lv e int e r act io n ( fo r e xam p le , it is har d
t o t hink o f a p laus ible p ict ur e s ho w ing an e le p hant and a p iano int e r act -
ing). Bizar r e im age s m ay be m o r e s t r ik ing and at t e nt io n- ge t t ing, and
t hus m o r e v iv id t han p laus ible im age s : W e s aw in t he p r e v io us s e ct io n
t hat v iv id im age s t e nd t o be r e m e m be r e d be t t e r t han no nv iv id im age s .
Bizar r e im age s t e nd m o r e t o be unique ( dis t inct iv e o r no v e l) t han
p laus ible im age s , and t he unique ne s s o f an im age he lp s m e m o r y. N o v e l
v is ual as s o ciat io ns be t w e e n o bje ct s hav e be e n fo und t o he lp m e m o r y fo r
t he o bje ct s m o r e t han co m m o n as s o ciat io ns , as lo ng as t he no v e l
as s o ciat io ns w e r e p laus ible ; im p laus ible no v e l as s o ciat io ns w e r e no m o r e
e ffe ct iv e t han co m m o n p laus ible as s o ciat io ns .
26
( An e xam p le o f a co m m o n
p laus ible as s o ciat io n is a m an p laying a har p ; a p laus ible no v e l as s o ciat io n
is a m an s it t ing o n a har p ; an im p laus ible no v e l as s o ciat io n is a har p
p laying a m an.) Bizar r e im age s ge ne r ally t ak e m o r e t im e t o fo r m t han do
p laus ible im age s , and e xt r a t im e and e ffo r t s p e nt t hink ing o f an im age
m ay he lp yo u r e m e m be r it be t t e r .
H o w e v e r , it is no t ne ce s s ar y t hat an im age be bizar r e in o r de r t o
be ne fit fr o m t he s e fact o r s ( int e r act io n, v iv idne s s , unique ne s s , e xt r a
t im e ). Y o u can us e all o f t he s e fact o r s in im age s t hat ar e no t bizar r e . O ne
p o p ular m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k illus t r at e d t he adv ant age s o f r idiculo us ,
im p o s s ible , o r illo gical as s o ciat io ns by t he fo llo w ing e xam p le s fo r as s o ci-
at ing air p lane and t r e e : A lo gical p ict ur e w o uld be an air p lane p ar k e d
ne ar a t r e e . S ince t hat is p o s s ible , t he bo o k s aid, it p r o bably w ill no t
w o r k ; be t t e r p ict ur e s w o uld be air p lane s gr o w ing o n t r e e s , o r t r e e s
bo ar ding an air p lane .
27
I t is t r ue t hat t he lat t e r e xam p le s w o uld be m o r e
m e m o r able t han a p lane p ar k e d ne ar a t r e e . H o w e v e r , it is als o t r ue t hat
m o r e p laus ible p ict ur e s inv o lv ing int e r act io n, v iv idne s s , and unique ne s s
w o uld als o be m o r e m e m o r able ; fo r e xam p le , a lo w - flying air p lane
s he ar ing t he t o p s o ff t he t r e e s , o r an air p lane cr as hing int o a t r e e .
O ne r e as o n w hy bizar r e ne s s m ay be ine ffe ct iv e fo r s o m e p e o p le is
t hat s o m e p e o p le hav e a har d t im e m ak ing up bizar r e im age s . S im ilar ly,
e lde r ly adult s t e nd t o no t w ant t o us e bizar r e im age r y, and nat ur al
int e r act ing im age r y w o r k s jus t as w e ll'fo r t he m .
28
I f yo u find it difficult t o
m ak e up bizar r e im age s o r yo u fe e l unco m fo r t able do ing s o , t he n I
r e co m m e nd t hat yo u co nce nt r at e o n m ak ing t he im age s int e r act ing and
v iv iddo no t w o r r y abo ut m ak ing t he m bizar r e . O n t he o t he r hand, if
yo u do no t hav e any t r o uble im agining bizar r e as s o ciat io ns and yo u fe e l
co m fo r t able w it h t he m , t he n I r e co m m e nd t hat yo u go ahe ad and us e
t he m .
MORE ON EFFECTIVE MNEMONICS
I n addit io n t o m ak ing e ffe ct iv e v is ual as s o ciat io ns , t he r e ar e s o m e o t he r
co ns ide r at io ns t hat can he lp yo u us e m ne m o nics e ffe ct iv e ly. H o w can
yo u us e v is ual as s o ciat io ns o n abs t r act v e r bal m at e r ial? I s it m o r e
e ffe ct iv e t o us e yo ur o w n im age s and as s o ciat io ns o r t o us e o ne s p r o v ide d
by s o m e o ne m o r e e xp e r ie nce d? H o w do t he guide line s ap p ly t o us ing
e ffe ct iv e v e r bal as s o ciat io ns ? T he ans w e r s t o t he s e que s t io ns s ugge s t
fur t he r guide line s fo r us ing m ne m o nics e ffe ct iv e ly.
How Can You Use Images for Abstract Material?
I n chap t e r 3 w e s aw t hat co ncr e t e w o r ds ar e e as ie r t o v is ualize t han
abs t r act w o r ds . I t is no t har d t o p ict ur e co ncr e t e w o r ds lik e apple, car,
book, and horse, but it is har de r t o p ict ur e m o r e abs t r act w o r ds lik e
nourishment, liberty, justice, and happiness. S ince m o s t m ne m o nic s ys -
t e m s us e v is ual im age r y, ho w can t he s ys t e m s be us e d t o r e m e m be r
abs t r act m at e r ial?
T he p r o ce dur e fo r us ing im age r y t o he lp r e m e m be r abs t r act t e r m s
is t he s am e as fo r co ncr e t e t e r m s e xce p t t hat yo u add a s t e p us ing
"s ubs t it ut e w o r ds ." Y o u s ubs t it ut e a co ncr e t e w o r d t o r e p r e s e nt t he
abs t r act w o r d. O ne w ay o f do ing t his is t o us e o bje ct s t hat t yp ify t he
abs t r act t e r m : fo r liberty, yo u m ight p ict ur e t he Libe r t y Be ll; fo r justice,
a judge ; fo r happiness, a s m iling face ; fo r education, a s cho o lho us e ; fo r
fashion, a m o de l; fo r depth, a ho le ; fo r agree, a no dding he ad; fo r salary,
a p ayche ck . A s e co nd w ay o f s ubs t it ut ing a co ncr e t e w o r d fo r an abs t r act
o ne is t o us e o bje ct s w ho s e nam e s s o und lik e t he abs t r act t e r m : ce le r y
fo r salary; fr ie d ham fo r freedom; hap p y ne s t fo r happiness. Y o u can e v e n
us e t his t e chnique t o r e m e m be r no ns e ns e s yllable s : C age fo r KAJ; r o ck s
fo r R O X; s e al fo r ZY L; s ack fo r XAC .
T he t e chnique s o f s ubs t it ut e w o r ds is fr e que nt ly r e co m m e nde d in
m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k s , and w e w ill s e e in chap t e r 13 t hat it p lays an
im p o r t ant r o le in r e m e m be r ing nam e s and face s . W e s aw t hat t he
s ubs t it ut e - w o r d t e chnique is p ar t o f t he Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic de s cr ibe d
e ar lie r in t his chap t e r . R e s e ar ch o n t he Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic has fo und
t hat p e o p le ar e quit e ade p t at us ing t he abo v e t w o ap p r o ache s t o
"co ncr e t ize " abs t r act m at e r ials fo r e ffe ct iv e v is ual im age s . H o w e v e r , o ne
s t udy fo und t hat fo r co lle ge s t ude nt s w ho had no e xp e r ie nce w it h
s ubs t it ut e w o r ds , t he fir s t ap p r o ach ( bas e d o n m e aning) w as m o r e
e ffe ct iv e t han t he s e co nd ap p r o ach ( bas e d o n s o und- alik e s ) but w as als o
m o r e difficult t o us e .
29
D o s ubs t it ut e w o r ds r e ally he lp in le ar ning abs t r act m at e r ial? Pic-
t ur e s o f co ncr e t e s ubs t it ut e o bje ct s hav e be e n fo und t o he lp in le ar ning
abs t r act p air e d as s o ciat e s . Fo r e xam p le , a p ict ur e o f a ham m e r hit t ing a
v acuum cle ane r he lp e d p e o p le t o r e m e m be r t he p air , "im p act - v acuum ,"
and a p ict ur e o f a big flo w e r in an o p e n do o r w ay he lp e d p e o p le t o
r e m e m be r "blo o m ing- p o r t al." By us ing co ncr e t e s ubs t it ut e w o r ds , p e o -
p le can us e v is ual im age r y t o le ar n abs t r act w o r ds alm o s t as w e ll as
co ncr e t e w o r ds , and t o r e m e m be r v e r bal m at e r ial t hat is m o r e co m p le x
t han w o r ds ( fo r e xam p le , s ayings lik e "his t o r y r e p e at s it s e lf"). Pe o p le
can e v e n us e v is ual im age r y t o he lp in co nce p t le ar ning.
30
Should You Make up Your Own Mnemonics?
S o m e o ne o nce s aid t hat ide as ar e lik e childr e n: Y o ur o w n ar e v e r y
w o nde r ful. S o m e , r e s e ar ch e v ide nce s up p o r t s t his s aying. Pe o p le t e nd t o
r e m e m be r info r m at io n t hat t he y ge ne r at e t he m s e lv e s be t t e r t han info r -
m at io n t hat is giv e n t o t he m . I n addit io n t o m e m o r y fo r w o r ds and
s e nt e nce s , t his "ge ne r at io n e ffe ct " has als o be e n fo und fo r s uch v ar ie d
it e m s as p hys ical m o v e m e nt s , p r o duct nam e s in adv e r t is e m e nt s , and
co m p ut e r co m m ands .
31
D o e s t he ge ne r at io n e ffe ct ap p ly t o m ne m o nics ? I s it m o r e e ffe ct iv e
t o m ak e up yo ur o w n m ne m o nics ( s ubs t it ut e w o r ds , im age s , and as s o ci-
at io ns ) o r t o ge t t he m fr o m s o m e o ne e ls e ( e xp e r t , t e ache r , r e s e ar che r ,
e t c.)? Po p ular m e m o r y t r e at is e s s ince ancie nt t im e s hav e s ugge s t e d t hat
it is be t t e r t o fo r m yo ur o w n m ne m o nics . S e v e r al s t udie s hav e fo und t hat
as s o ciat io ns do t e nd t o be m o r e e ffe ct iv e and e as ie r t o us e if t he p e o p le
t hink t he m up t he m s e lv e s t han if t he as s o ciat io ns ar e p r o v ide d by t he
r e s e ar che r ; ho w e v e r , m o r e o f t his r e s e ar ch has be e n do ne w it h v e r bal
as s o ciat io ns t han w it h v is ual as s o ciat io ns and a fe w s t udie s hav e yie lde d
m ixe d r e s ult s .
32
T he r e ar e s e v e r al p o s s ible r e as o ns w hy yo u ar e lik e ly t o r e m e m be r
yo ur o w n m ne m o nics be t t e r . Y o u m ay p ut m o r e t ho ught and e ffo r t int o
t he m t han int o m ne m o nics t hat s o m e o ne e ls e giv e s yo u. Y o ur o w n
m ne m o nics ar e lik e ly t o be t he fir s t as s o ciat io ns t o co m e t o yo u at r e call
t im e . Ano t he r p o s s ible r e as o n is t hat be caus e o t he r p e o p le s ugge s t
m ne m o nics diffe r e nt fr o m t he o ne s yo u w o uld t hink o f yo ur s e lf, t he y ar e
no t as m e aningful t o yo u. S o m e t im e s in m y m e m o r y clas s aft e r w e hav e
do ne an act iv it y t hat inv o lv e s us ing v e r bal o r v is ual m ne m o nics , I w ill as k
s o m e o f t he s t ude nt s t o e xp lain s o m e o f t he ir m ne m o nics t o t he r e s t o f
t he clas s . Many m ne m o nics t hat ar e v e r y m e aningful t o a p ar t icular
p e r s o n, and cam e e as ily and nat ur ally t o him in a s p lit s e co nd, m ay t ak e
s e v e r al m inut e s t o e xp lain t o o t he r p e o p le and m ay s o und v e r y cum be r -
s o m e . Y o u do no t hav e t o e xp lain m ne m o nics t hat yo u de v is e t o yo ur s e lf.
W he n t e aching yo ung childr e n ( o r anyo ne e ls e w ho do e s no t k no w
ho w t o m ak e e ffe ct iv e v is ual as s o ciat io ns ) ho w t o us e v is ual as s o ciat io ns ,
it w o uld p r o bably be be s t t o he lp t he m w it h t he as s o ciat io ns at fir s t unt il
t he y hav e s o m e p r act ice and e xp e r ie nce . R e s e ar ch has fo und t hat p e o p le
s uch as yo ung childr e n o r t he m e nt ally r e t ar de d, w ho m ay no t be able t o
co ns t r uct go o d as s o ciat io ns o n t he ir o w n, be ne fit by hav ing as s o ciat io ns
s ugge s t e d t o t he m . T he p r o ble m w it h v e r y yo ung ( p r e s cho o l) childr e n is
no t s o m uch t hat t he y canno t ge ne r at e v is ual im age s ; r at he r , t he p r o ble m
is t hat m o s t o f t he m canno t ge ne r at e effective v is ual im age s .
33
But e v e n p e o p le w ho canno t fo r m e ffe ct iv e as s o ciat io ns o n t he ir o w n
can s t ill m ak e e ffe ct iv e us e o f m ne m o nic p ict ur e s p r o v ide d fo r t he m . Fo r
e xam p le , in a s t udy o n le ar ning fo r e ign language v o cabular y, w he n
p r e s cho o le r s w e r e p r o v ide d w it h m ne m o nic p ict ur e s , t he ir le ar ning
incr e as e d as m uch as 1,000 p e r ce nt ! Mo s t childr e n fr o m e le v e n ye ar s
o ld ap p e ar t o be able t o us e s e lf- ge ne r at e d im age r y as e ffe ct iv e ly as
adult s can, but t e ache r - s up p lie d p ict ur e s s t ill w o r k e d be t t e r t han s e lf-
ge ne r at e d im age s e v e n fo r gift e d s t ude nt s in t he fo ur t h, fift h, and s ixt h
Working Miracles with Your Memory
111
gr ade s . I n addit io n, p e o p le w it h s e v e r e br ain dam age w e r e no t able t o
be ne fit fr o m us ing t he ir o w n im age s , but t he y s t ill be ne fit e d fr o m p ict ur e s
dr aw n fo r t he m . ( Pe o p le w it h o nly s light br ain dam age be ne fit e d fr o m
bo t h.)
34
How Can You Make Effective Verbal Associations?
Much o f t his chap t e r has fo cus e d o n v is ual m ne m o nics . H o w e v e r , w e
hav e als o s e e n t hat no t all m ne m o nic t e chnique s inv o lv e v is ual im age r y.
E xam p le s o f no nv is ual ( v e r bal) m ne m o nics w e r e giv e n e ar lie r ( v e r bal
as s o ciat io ns , r hym e s , acr o nym s , acr o s t ics ), and t he r e ar e no nv is ual
e quiv ale nt s o f m o s t v is ual as s o ciat io ns ( s e e t he p r e v io us e xam p le o f
as s o ciat ing t he w o r ds cats and rats in t he s e ct io n, "W hat Ar e Mne m o n-
ics ?").
3
*
Ve r bal m ne m o nics m ay co m e m o r e nat ur ally t o s o m e p e o p le t han
v is ual m ne m o nics . T he m ne m o nics us e d by co lle ge s t ude nt s t o r e m e m -
be r clas s r o o m no t e s t e nd t o be no nv is ual, and s ur v e ys o f t e chnique s
t he y us e in le ar ning w o r d lis t s did no t find v is ual im age r y am o ng, t he
m any diffe r e nt t e chnique s us e d. A s ur v e y o f co lle ge s t ude nt s and
ho us e w iv e s in E ngland fo und t hat r hym e s and acr o s t ics w e r e am o ng t he
m o s t fr e que nt ly us e d m e m o r y aids . I t has be e n s ugge s t e d t hat e lde r ly
adult s m ight be ne fit m o r e fr o m v e r bal m ne m o nics t han v is ual m ne m o nics ,
be caus e m any o f t he e lde r ly w ho hav e difficult y w it h m e m o r y p r o ble m s
s e e m t o hav e m o r e difficult y w it h v is ual s k ills t han w it h v e r bal s k ills .
36
Alt ho ugh s o m e s t udie s hav e no t fo und a s ignificant diffe r e nce be -
t w e e n v is ual and v e r bal as s o ciat io ns in t he ir e ffe ct iv e ne s s , v is ual as s o ci-
at io ns ar e m o r e o ft e n fo und t o be m o r e e ffe ct iv e t han v e r bal o ne s fo r
r e m e m be r ing co ncr e t e m at e r ial, w he r e as v e r bal as s o ciat io ns m ay be
m o r e e ffe ct iv e fo r abs t r act m at e r ial.
37
Ar e t he r e w ays t o m axim ize t he
e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f v e r bal as s o ciat io ns ?
Much o f t he p r e v io us dis cus s io n o f fact o r s de t e r m ining t he e ffe ct iv e -
ne s s o f v is ual as s o ciat io ns is als o r e le v ant t o v e r bal as s o ciat io ns . T he r e
is s o m e e v ide nce t hat v iv idne s s can affe ct m e m o r y fo r v e r bal m at e r ial as
w e ll as fo r im age s . T he p o s it iv e r e lat io ns hip be t w e e n r e call and r at e d
v iv idne s s o f im age s has als o be e n fo und fo r s e nt e nce s . I n o t he r s t udie s ,
p e o p le le ar ne d co ncr e t e s e nt e nce s o r p ar agr ap hs t hat de s cr ibe d e v e nt s
w it h e it he r high o r lo w v iv idne s s . ( T he v iv id de s cr ip t io ns w e r e e m o t io nal,
co lo r ful, and fo r ce ful, and yie lde d m o r e gr ap hic im age r y.) T he v iv id
s e nt e nce s and p ar agr ap hs w e r e .r e calle d be t t e r t han t he no nv iv id o ne s .
S im ilar ly, including v iv id adje ct iv e s in p ar agr ap hs can r e s ult in be t t e r
r e call o f t he p ar agr ap hs t han us ing "dull" adje ct iv e s . W e s aw t hat
fam iliar it y can add t o t he v iv idne s s o f an im age ; s im ilar ly, s e nt e nce s t hat
w e r e p e r s o nalize d by including fam iliar nam e s o r p lace s w e r e r at e d as
highe r in im age r y v alue and w e r e r e m e m be r e d be t t e r .
38
S o m e o f t he r e s e ar ch o n bizar r e ne s s in as s o ciat io ns has be e n do ne
o n bizar r e s e nt e nce s as w e ll as p ict ur e s , s o t he co nclus io ns r e gar ding
bizar r e ne s s can r e as o nably be t ak e n as ap p lying t o v e r bal as s o ciat io ns as
w e ll as v is ual as s o ciat io ns . T he dis cus s io n o n co ns t r uct ing yo ur o w n
m ne m o nics v e r s us hav ing t he m s up p lie d by o t he r s can als o be ap p lie d t o
v e r bal m ne m o nics .
T he us e o f s ubs t it ut e w o r ds t o m ak e abs t r act v e r bal m at e r ial m o r e
co ncr e t e is no t as dir e ct ly r e le v ant t o v e r bal as s o ciat io ns as it is t o v is ual
as s o ciat io ns , but t he bas ic ide a o f t r ying t o m ak e v e r bal m at e r ial m o r e
co ncr e t e is r e le v ant . O ne p o s s ible w ay t o m ak e abs t r act v e r bal m at e r ial
m o r e co ncr e t e is s ugge s t e d by a s t udy o n m e m o r y fo r abs t r act s e nt e nce s
s uch as , "T he r e gulat io ns anno ye d t he s ale s m an," o r "T he s e t fe ll o ff
t he t able ." S uch s e nt e nce s w e r e r e m e m be r e d be t t e r w he n co ncr e t e
m o difie r s w e r e adde d t o yie ld s e nt e nce s s uch as , "T he s t r ict p ar k ing
r e gulat io ns anno ye d t he s ale s m an," and "T he iv o r y che s s s e t fe ll o ff t he
t able ."
39
The Legi ti macy of
Mnemoni cs: Li mi tati ons
Pseudo-Li mi tati ons
and
A
lt ho ugh t he p r act ical us e o f m ne m o nics dat e s back m o r e t han 20
ce nt ur ie s , t he r e s e ar ch int e r e s t dat e s back o nly abo ut 20 ye ar s .
D ur ing t he fir s t half o f t his ce nt ur y m ne m o nics w e r e w ide ly t aught in
p o p ular m e m o r y bo o k s and co m m e r cial co ur s e s , us e d by m ne m o nis t s
and s o m e laym e n, and igno r e d by m o s t p s ycho lo gis t s . U nt il t he 1960s ,
Am e r ican p s ycho lo gis t s co nce nt r at e d o n o ut w ar dly o bs e r v able be hav io r
in o r de r t o be "s cie nt ific," and did no t co ns ide r m e nt al p r o ce s s e s t o be a
v e r y le git im at e ar e a fo r r e s e ar ch. I n addit io n, m any p s ycho lo gis t s as s o -
ciat e d m ne m o nics w it h s e ns at io nalis m , s ho w m ans hip , and co m m e r cial-
is m . ( I n 1960 s o m e r e s e ar che r s o bs e r v e d t hat t he at t it ude o f m any
e xp e r im e nt al p s ycho lo gis t s w as t hat "m ne m o nic de v ice s ar e im m o r al
t r ick s s uit able o nly f o r . . . s t age m agicians .")
1
T hus , unt il abo ut 20 ye ar s
ago , m any r e s e ar che r s t ho ught t hat r e s e ar ch o n m ne m o nics w o uld no t
yie ld us e ful k no w le dge abo ut m e m o r y, o r t hat s uch gim m ick s w e r e no t
w o r t hy o f s e r io us s cie nt ific s t udy.
I ncide nt ally, it is int e r e s t ing t o no t e t hat t he s k e p t icis m o f s o m e
p s ycho lo gis t s r e gar ding t he v alue o f m ne m o nics is no t lim it e d t o t he
t w e nt ie t h ce nt ur y. I n 1888 a p s ycho lo gis t quo t e d t he fo llo w ing fr o m a
s e v e nt e e nt h- ce nt ur y do cum e nt r e fe r r ing t o t e ache r s o f m ne m o nics :
"Many t he r e be t hat at t his day p r o fe s s t he s am e , t ho ugh t he y ge t m o r e
infam y and dis r e p ut e t han gain t he r e by; be ing a s o r t o f r as cally fe llo w s
1 1 3
I
t hat do m any t im e s im p o s e up o n s illy yo ut h, o nly t o dr aw s o m e s m all
p ie ce o f m o ne y fr o m t he m fo r p r e s e nt s ubs is t e nce ." T he p s ycho lo gis t
t he n w e nt o n t o s ay, "T he r e is at le as t t his diffe r e nce be t w e e n t he
m ne m o nic t e ache r s o f Agr ip p a's t im e and t ho s e o f t he p r e s e nt . T he
lat t e r ge ne r ally ge t , no t a s m all p ie ce o f m o ne y but a lar ge r p ie ce , and
t he y s o m e t im e s im p o s e up o n o t he r s as w e ll as s illy yo ut h."
2
R e s e ar ch int e r e s t in m ne m o nics be gan in t he m id- 1960s , aide d by
t he r e t ur n o f m e nt al p r o ce s s e s as a le git im at e ar e a o f s cie nt ific inv e s t i-
gat io n ( s e e chap t e r 4). Vir t ually all o f t he e xp e r im e nt al r e s e ar ch o n
m ne m o nics has be e n p ublis he d s ince t he n. By t he e ar ly 1970s , s e v e r al
r e s p e ct e d p s ycho lo gis t s and r e p ut able r e s e ar che r s had s ugge s t e d t hat
m ne m o nics s ho uld be t ak e n s e r io us ly, and had e nco ur age d r e s e ar ch o n
m ne m o nics . I n 1973 m ne m o nics r e s e ar ch finally e ar ne d it s o w n he ad-
ing"Mne m o nic Le ar ning"in Psychological Abstracts, and s ince t he n
abo ut 20 r e fe r e nce s p e r ye ar hav e be e n cit e d unde r t he he ading. By t he
m id- 1980s , t he r e had be e n e no ugh r e s e ar ch o n m ne m o nics t o fill a bo o k
co ns is t ing o f 20 chap t e r s , e ach r e v ie w ing an ar e a o f m ne m o nics r e s e ar ch.
( I hav e w r it t e n a m o r e de t aile d acco unt o f t he le git im acy and r is e t o
r e s p e ct abilit y o f m ne m o nics r e s e ar ch e ls e w he r e .)
3
H o w e v e r , t he r e ar e p s ycho lo gis t s , r e s e ar che r s , e ducat o r s , and
o t he r s w ho s t ill do ubt t he le git im acy o f s t udying and us ing m ne m o nics .
S o m e o f t he r e as o ns fo r t he ir s k e p t icis m ar e v alid lim it at io ns o f m ne m o n-
ics and s o m e ar e no t . T his chap t e r dis cus s e s bo t h k inds o f lim it at io ns .
( O t he r p s ycho lo gis t s hav e als o analyze d t he lim it at io ns and p r o ble m s in
m ne m o nics r e s e ar ch and ap p licat io ns .)
4
SOME LIMITATIONS OF MNEMONICS
Y o u le ar ne d in chap t e r 7 t hat yo u can w o r k m ir acle s w it h yo ur m e m o r y
us ing m ne m o nics . H o w e v e r , yo u als o le ar ne d in chap t e r 1 t hat t he r e ar e
no m e m o r y t e chnique s t hat ar e m agical, all- p o w e r ful ans w e r s t o all
le ar ning and m e m o r y t as k s . I n addit io n t o t he ir p o w e r and s t r e ngt hs ,
m ne m o nics als o hav e w e ak ne s s e s and lim it at io ns . S o m e o f t he lim it at io ns
o f m ne m o nics ar e p r im ar ily a r e s ult o f us ing v is ual im age r y, and t hus
ap p ly p r im ar ily t o v is ual m ne m o nics ; o t he r lim it at io ns ap p ly als o t o v e r bal
m ne m o nics . T he lim it at io ns include t im e co ns t r aint s , abs t r act m at e r ial,
le ar ning v e r s us r e t e nt io n, im age r y abilit y, v e r bat im m e m o r y, de co ding
int e r fe r e nce , and t r ans fe r and m aint e nance .
Time
W e s aw in chap t e r 2 t hat v is ual m e m o r y p r o ce s s e s m ay be s o m e w hat
s lo w e r t han v e r bal p r o ce s s e s . I t m ay t ak e a lit t le lo nge r t o t hink up an
The Legitimacy of Mnemonics
1 1 5
im age o f t he o bje ct t hat is r e p r e s e nt e d by a w o r d t han t o t hink o f t he
w o r d it s e lf. Many s t udie s hav e s ho w n t hat yo u m ay no t hav e t im e t o fo r m
im age s and as s o ciat e t he m if m at e r ial is p r e s e nt e d t o o fas t .
5
T hus , v is ual
as s o ciat io ns m ay no t be an e ffe ct iv e s t r at e gy w he n m at e r ial is p r e s e nt e d
t o o fas t .
W hat is "t o o fas t "? T he Bag s ys t e m ( chap t e r 11) has be e n fo und t o
be e ffe ct iv e at a p r e s e nt at io n r at e o f 4 o r 8 s e co nds p e r it e m , but no t at
2 s e co nds p e r it e m . T w o s e co nds is ap p ar e nt ly no t lo ng e no ugh fo r t he
unp r act ice d p e r s o n t o fo r m e ffe ct iv e v is ual as s o ciat io ns . I n us ing v is ual
o r v e r bal as s o ciat io ns , 5 s e co nds is t yp ically s ufficie nt s t udy t im e t o
p r o duce r e t e nt io n fo r ho ur s o r days ; fo r p ict ur e s ( v e r s us ge ne r at e d
im age s ) 1 o r 2 s e co nds m ay be s ufficie nt . A diffe r e nce o f o nly 1 o r 2
s e co nds p e r it e m ( 5 v e r s us 6 s e co nds in o ne s t udy, 3 v e r s us 5 s e co nds
in ano t he r ) has be e n fo und t o m ak e a s ignificant diffe r e nce in ho w w e ll
v is ual as s o ciat io ns he lp in r e m e m be r ing t he it e m s . S t udie s us ing v is ual
im age r y in p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning t yp ically giv e p e o p le at le as t 5
s e co nds p e r p air ; w he n allo w e d t o s e t t he ir o w n r at e , p e o p le av e r age
abo ut 7 s e co nds p e r p air . I f v e r bal m at e r ial is p r e s e nt e d t o yo u at t he
r at e o f 1 o r 2 s e co nds p e r it e m , yo u w ill p r o bably no t be able t o us e
v is ual im age r y t o r e m e m be r it .
6
I t m ay be no t e d t hat yo u can im p r o v e yo ur s p e e d o f m ak ing v is ual
as s o ciat io ns w it h p r act ice ; t he m o r e p e o p le p r act ice fo r m ing v is ual
as s o ciat io ns , t he le s s t im e it t ak e s fo r t he m t o do it . T he av e r age t im e
o f 7 s e co nds p e r as s o ciat io n is fo r p e o p le w ho ar e us ing v is ualizat io n fo r
t he fir s t t im e . C o lle ge s t ude nt s w ho w e r e giv e n m o r e t r aining t han us ual
w e r e e v e nt ually able t o us e a m ne m o nic inv o lv ing v is ual im age r y ( Ke y-
w o r d m ne m o nic) t o le ar n Ge r m an v o cabular y at a 2.5- s e co nd r at e as w e ll
as t he y had fir s t do ne w it h t he m ne m o nic at a 10- s e co nd r at e . I n addit io n,
t he t im e lim it at io n do e s no t m at t e r in m any p r act ical le ar ning t as k s
be caus e yo u can de t e r m ine yo ur o w n r at e ; t he m at e r ial do e s no t co m e
o ne it e m at a t im e at a s e t r at e . Finally, it s ho uld be no t e d t hat e v e n
t ho ugh it m ay t ak e lo nge r t o go t hr o ugh s o m e m at e r ials o nce us ing v is ual
as s o ciat io ns t han no t us ing t he m , t he o v e r all le ar ning t im e m ay be le s s
be caus e yo u m ay no t hav e t o go back t hr o ugh t he m at e r ial as m any t im e s
t o le ar n it .
7
W e hav e s e e n p r e v io us ly t hat any k ind o f co ding t o t r ans fe r m at e r ial
fr o m s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y t o lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y t ak e s t im e w he t he r it
be v is ualizing, chunk ing, as s o ciat ing, o r ganizing, o r s e e k ing m e aning.
T hus , t he t im e lim it at io n is no t unique t o m ne m o nic s ys t e m s us ing v is ual
im age r y ( alt ho ugh t im e is a m o r e s e r io us p r o ble m fo r v is ual im age r y w it h
abs t r act w o r ds t han w it h co ncr e t e w o r ds , as dis cus s e d in t he ne xt
s e ct io n). Fo r e xam p le , p e o p le ins t r uct e d t o m ak e up e ight acr o s t ics t o
he lp t he m le ar n e ight lis t s o f s ix w o r ds t o o k lo nge r t o le ar n t he lis t s t han
did p e o p le no t us ing acr o s t ics ( alt ho ugh t he y r e m e m be r e d m o r e w o r ds
o n a lat e r m e m o r y t e s t fo r all e ight lis t s ).
8
R e t r ie v al t im e is ano t he r w ay in w hich t im e m ay lim it t he us e o f
m ne m o nics . I t m ay t ak e lo nge r t o de co de a m ne m o nic as s o ciat io n t han
t o jus t t hink o f t he info r m at io n dir e ct ly. T he r e is s o m e r e s e ar ch e v ide nce
t hat v is ual as s o ciat io ns do r e quir e lo nge r r e t r ie v al t han r o t e r e m e m be r -
ing, but als o t hat t he y w ill r e ach t he s am e r e t r ie v al s p e e d as r o t e
r e m e m be r ing w it h r e p e at e d p r act ice .
9
I n addit io n t o p r e s e nt at io n t im e and r e t r ie v al t im e , m ne m o nics als o
o ft e n r e quir e e xt r a s t udy t im e t o le ar n t he m ne m o nic it s e lf. Fo r e xam p le ,
a s ys t e m s uch as t he Pe g s ys t e m ( chap t e r 11) m ay no t be w o r t h t he
e xt r a t im e it t ak e s t o le ar n t he s ys t e m if it w e r e t o be us e d o nly o nce .
H o w e v e r , if it w e r e us e d m any t im e s , t he t im e s av e d in t he s ubs e que nt
us e s m ay o ut w e igh t he e xt r a le ar ning t im e acco m p anying t he fir s t us e
( s e e "Mne m o nics Giv e Y o u Mo r e t o R e m e m be r " lat e r in t his chap t e r ).
T he co s t - e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f m ne m o nics , in t e r m s o f t im e and e ffo r t t o le ar n
r e lat iv e t o p ayo ff, is s t ill an o p e n r e s e ar ch que s t io n.
10
Abstract Material
W e s aw in chap t e r 7 t hat yo u can us e v is ual im age r y t o aid m e m o r y fo r
abs t r act t e r m s by us ing co ncr e t e s ubs t it ut e w o r ds . H o w e v e r , t he us e o f
co ncr e t e s ubs t it ut e w o r ds fo r abs t r act t e r m s has at le as t t hr e e p o s s ible
lim it at io ns :
1. T o fo r m an im age fo r abs t r act w o r ds t ak e s s o m e w hat lo nge r
t han fo r co ncr e t e w o r ds be caus e o f t he e xt r a s t e p o f t hink ing o f a
co ncr e t e w o r d t o r e p r e s e nt t he abs t r act t e r m .
11
2. T he s ubs t it ut e w o r d is o nly a cue t o r e m ind yo u o f t he abs t r act
ide a, and t he r e is alw ays t he chance t hat yo u w ill r e m e m be r t he w o r d
w it ho ut r e m e m be r ing t he ide a it r e p r e s e nt s . I t is p o s s ible t hat yo u m ight
r e call t he p ict ur e o f t he Libe r t y Be ll o r a judge o r a s m iling face and no t
be able t o r e call t hat t he y r e p r e s e nt libe r t y o r jus t ice o r hap p ine s s . T his
m ay be o ne r e as o n w hy it has be e n fo und t o be m o r e difficult t o de co de
abs t r act m e diat o r s t han co ncr e t e m e diat o r s .
12
3. I t m ay be v e r y har d t o fo r m go o d co ncr e t e w o r ds fo r s o m e
abs t r act t e r m s and ide as ( fo r e xam p le , assertion, theory, analysis, infer-
ence). E v e n if yo u can co m e up w it h s o m e co ncr e t e w o r ds fo r s uch
t e r m s , t he y m ay t ak e ino r dinat e ly lo ng t o co ns t r uct and m ay no t be v e r y
go o d r e p r e s e nt at io ns o f t he abs t r act t e r m s t he y r e p r e s e nt .
Alt ho ugh v is ual im age r y can he lp yo u r e m e m be r abs t r act m at e r ial,
t he abo v e lim it at io ns s ugge s t t hat v e r bal m e diat o r s m ay be m o r e e ffe ct iv e
The Legitimacy of Mnemonics 1 1 7
t han v is ual m e diat o r s fo r s o m e abs t r act m at e r ial. Ve r bal m e diat o r s ar e
no t as de p e nde nt o n t he co ncr e t e ne s s o f t he m at e r ial fo r t he ir us e . Fo r
e xam p le , t o as s o ciat e theory and analysis yo u co uld s ay, "T hat t he o r y is
w o r t hy o f analys is ," but it w o uld be har d t o t hink o f a go o d im age fo r t his
as s o ciat io n. I n addit io n, r e s e ar ch has s ho w n t hat v e r bal m e diat o r s do no t
t ak e m o r e t im e fo r abs t r act t e r m s t han fo r co ncr e t e t e r m s , as v is ual
m e diat o r s do .
13
Learning Versus Retention
T he r e is s o m e de bat e am o ng r e s e ar che r s as t o w he t he r m ne m o nics he lp
o nly le ar ning o r als o he lp r e t e nt io n. I n chap t e r 3 w e s aw t hat t he r at e o f
fo r ge t t ing de p e nds o n ho w w e ll yo u le ar n s o m e t hing m o r e t han it do e s
o n ho w fas t yo u le ar n it ; t hus , it is p o s s ible t o le ar n m at e r ial fas t e r
w it ho ut ne ce s s ar ily r e t aining it lo nge r . S o m e r e s e ar che r s hav e s aid t hat
alt ho ugh m ne m o nic t e chnique s and s ys t e m s he lp in le ar ning m at e r ial
fas t e r t he y do no t he lp in r e m e m be r ing it lo nge r . I n fact , it has be e n
claim e d t hat w e canno t r e ally im p r o v e m e m o r y, but t hat m e m o r y s ys -
t e m s w o r k by im p r o v ing le ar ning. O n t he o t he r hand, t he r e ar e t ho s e
w ho s ay t hat m ne m o nics he lp a p e r s o n r e m e m be r m at e r ial lo nge r as w e ll
as le ar n it fas t e r . R e v ie w s o f t he r e le v ant r e s e ar ch indicat e t hat alt ho ugh
a fe w s t udie s do s ho w t hat im age r y do e s no t he lp lo ng- t e r m r e t e nt io n,
m o s t s t udie s s ho w t hat im age r y do e s he lp r e t e nt io n at le as t as m uch as
it he lp s le ar ning.
14
T he r e ar e t w o co ns ide r at io ns t hat w e s ho uld k e e p in m ind co nce r n-
ing t his is s ue o f le ar ning v e r s us r e t e nt io n. Fir s t , w he t he r m ne m o nics
he lp r e t e nt io n de p e nds o n ho w r e t e nt io n is m e as ur e d, and r e t e nt io n has
be e n m e as ur e d diffe r e nt w ays in diffe r e nt s t udie s . A s im p le e xam p le
illus t r at e s t he diffe r e nce s . S up p o s e o ne gr o up o f p e o p le le ar ne d a lis t o f
20 it e m s us ing a m ne m o nic, and a s e co nd gr o up le ar ne d t he lis t w it ho ut
us ing a m ne m o nic. Aft e r go ing t hr o ugh t he lis t o nce , t he fir s t gr o up
r e m e m be r e d an av e r age o f 18 it e m s , and t he s e co nd gr o up r e m e m be r e d
an av e r age o f 12 it e m s . T his finding w o uld indicat e t hat t he m ne m o nic
he lp e d in le ar ning t he lis t be t t e r w it h o ne e xp o s ur e . A w e e k lat e r , t he
m ne m o nic gr o up m ay r e m e m be r 12 it e m s and t he o t he r gr o up , 8 it e m s .
D id t he m ne m o nic he lp r e t e nt io n a w e e k lat e r ? U s ing t he amount
rememberedit did: T he m ne m o nic gr o up r e m e m be r e d 4 m o r e it e m s t han
t he o t he r gr o up ( 12 v e r s us 8). U s ing t he amount forgotten it did no t : T he
m ne m o nic gr o up fo r go t 2 m o r e it e m s t han t he o t he r gr o up ( 6 v e r s us 4).
U s ing t he percentage remembered or forgotten t he r e w as no diffe r e nce
be t w e e n t he t w o gr o up s : T he y e ach fo r go t o ne - t hir d o f w hat t he y had
le ar ne d ( 6/18 v e r s us 4/12).
T he s e co nd co ns ide r at io n t o k e e p in m ind is t hat t he is s ue o f
le ar ning v e r s us r e t e nt io n m ay be an im p o r t ant t he o r e t ical dis t inct io n t o
t he r e s e ar che r , but it m ay no t m ak e m uch p r act ical diffe r e nce t o t he
p e r s o n do ing t he le ar ning. S up p o s e t hat m ne m o nics did he lp le ar ning
o nly, and t hat o ne gr o up us e d a m ne m o nic s ys t e m t o le ar n m at e r ial and
ano t he r gr o up did no t . E ach gr o up le ar ne d t he m at e r ial unt il t he y co uld
r e cit e it p e r fe ct ly o nce . N o w , if m ne m o nics he lp e d le ar ning but no t
r e t e nt io n, t he n w e w o uld e xp e ct t hat t he t w o gr o up s w o uld r e m e m be r
t he s am e am o unt o f m at e r ial a w e e k lat e r . But t he m ne m o nic gr o up m ay
hav e t ak e n o nly 15 m inut e s t o le ar n t he m at e r ial and t he o t he r gr o up
m ay hav e t ak e n 30 m inut e s . ( I n o ne s t udy w it h le ar ning- dis able d s t u-
de nt s , t he m ne m o nic gr o up le ar ne d t w ice as m any s cie nce fact s as a
dir e ct - ins t r uct io n gr o up did in t he s am e am o unt o f t im e .)
15
T his m e ans
t hat t he m ne m o nics he lp e d t he p e o p le t o m ak e m o r e e fficie nt us e o f
t he ir s t udy t im e : T he y r e m e m be r e d as m uch as t he o t he r gr o up w it h
o nly half as m uch s t udy. N o w s up p o s e t hat bo t h gr o up s s t udie d fo r 30
m inut e s . T his w o uld m e an t hat t he m ne m o nic gr o up co uld t he n s p e nd 15
m inut e s o v e r le ar ning t he m at e r ial, s o t hat t he y w o uld hav e it le ar ne d
be t t e r and t hus w o uld r e t ain it lo nge r .
Imagery Ability
At t he e nd o f chap t e r 7 w e s aw t hat s o m e adult s ar e no t accus t o m e d t o
t hink ing in im age s , s o v e r bal m ne m o nics m ay co m e m o r e nat ur ally t han
v is ual m ne m o nics . Pe r hap s t his is be caus e v is ualizing is har de r w o r k t han
v e r balizing, o r p e r hap s as childr e n acquir e language s k ills t he y r e ly m o r e
o n v e r bal abilit y and le s s o n im age r y, o r p e r hap s o ur cult ur e and
e ducat io nal s ys t e m w it h it s e m p has is o n fact s and it s v e r bal o r ie nt at io n
de s t r o ys t he childho o d r e liance o n im age r y. W hat e v e r t he r e as o n, t he r e
is e v ide nce t hat yo ung childr e n t e nd t o r e ly o n v is ual im age r y fo r m e m o r y
m o r e t han o lde r childr e n and adult s do .
16
E v e n am o ng adult s , p e o p le diffe r in t he ir habit s o f v is ual o r v e r bal
t hink ing and in t he ir im age r y abilit y. W e hav e s e e n t hat e lde r ly p e o p le in
p ar t icular t e nd no t t o us e v is ual im age r y. Be caus e m any adult s ar e no t
us e d t o p ict ur ing t hings , v is ualizat io n m ay s e e m unnat ur al t o t he m .
T ho s e adult s and childr e n w ho do hav e t he abilit y t o us e im age r y hav e
be e n fo und t o be ne fit m o r e by ins t r uct io ns t o m ak e v is ual as s o ciat io ns
t han t ho s e w ho lack t his abilit y. T hus , m ne m o nic s ys t e m s us ing v is ual *
im age r y m ay hav e lim it e d us e fulne s s fo r s o m e adult s .
17
'
H o w e v e r , e v e n t ho ugh s o m e p e o p le m ay no t be in t he habit o f v is ual
t hink ing o r hav e t he cur r e nt abilit y t o us e im age r y e ffe ct iv e ly, m o ^t
p e o p le do hav e t he capacity t o do s o and can be t r aine d t o us e im age r y!
U s e o f v is ual im age r y is a le ar ne d s k ill t hat r e quir e s ins t r uct io n, t r aining,
and p r act ice jus t lik e o t he r m e m o r y s k ills .
18
Adult s , e lde r ly adult s , and
yo ung childr e n, as w e ll as le ar ning- dis able d childr e n, m e nt ally r e t ar de d
and br ain- dam age d p at ie nt s , and o t he r ine fficie nt le ar ne r s , hav e all be e n
t r aine d t o us e v is ual m ne m o nics e ffe ct iv e ly.
19
Pe o p le w ho can v is ualize w e ll can be ne fit fr o m t he s t ar t by t he
m ne m o nic s ys t e m s ; t ho s e w ho hav e difficult y v is ualizing m ay r e quir e
s o m e t im e t o de v e lo p t he abilit y, but if t he y p r act ice t he y can acquir e t he
s k ill. S o m e p e o p le do no t do t o o w e ll w he n t he y fir s t t r y t o us e v is ual
as s o ciat io ns t o r e m e m be r be caus e t he y m ay no t t r y as har d, o r m ay
r e s o r t t o o t he r m e t ho ds be caus e t he y do no t t r us t t he p r o ce dur e ; t he
r e as o n is no t t hat t he y ar e incap able o f im age r y. T he fe w p e o p le w ho
canno t us e v is ual im age r y at all, and canno t le ar n t o do s o , m ay be able
t o us e m ne m o nic t e chnique s inv o lv ing v e r bal m e diat io n; but t he v is ual
im age r y p ar t o f m ne m o nic s ys t e m s m ay be le s s p o w e r ful fo r t he m .
Verbatim Memory
S o m e m e m o r y t as k s m ay r e quir e w o r d- fo r - w o r d m e m o r izing ( fo r e xam -
p le , le ar ning s cr ip t ur e s , p o e m s , s cr ip t s , e t c.). Mne m o nic s ys t e m s ar e
no t e s p e cially ap p r o p r iat e fo r s uch v e r bat im m e m o r y t as k s . W he n p e o p le
as k m e ho w t o m e m o r ize t he s e k inds o f m at e r ials v e r bat im , I r e fe r t he m
t o t he m e m o r izing s t r at e gie s dis cus s e d in chap t e r 6. W e w ill s e e in
s ubs e que nt chap t e r s t hat m ne m o nic s ys t e m s can he lp in r e m e m be r ing
t he m ain p o int s o r ide as co v e r e d in s uch m at e r ials and in ge t t ing t he s e
p o int s in t he r ight o r de r , t hus p r o v iding a fr am e w o r k w it hin w hich t he
e xact w o r ds can t he n be le ar ne d. But t he s ys t e m s do no t he lp m uch
dir e ct ly in t he w o r d- fo r - w o r d m e m o r y p ar t o f t he t as k .
Interference
W e hav e s e e n t hat m ne m o nic s ys t e m s can r e duce int e r fe r e nce am o ng
diffe r e nt s e t s o f m at e r ial. N o w I w ill s ugge s t t hat v is ual im age s m ay
act ually incr e as e int e r fe r e nce . T he r e is r e ally no inco ns is t e ncy, be caus e
I am no w t alk ing abo ut a diffe r e nt k ind o f int e r fe r e nce .
An im age m ay be e as y t o r e m e m be r , but w he n us e d t o r e m e m be r
v e r bal m at e r ial, t he im age m us t be de co de d back int o t he ap p r o p r iat e
v e r bal r e s p o ns e . T he int e r fe r e nce p r o ble m ar is e s in r e calling a co ncr e t e
no un t hat has s yno nym s t hat co uld be r e p r e s e nt e d by t he s am e p ict ur e ;
t hus , o ne p ict ur e co uld r e p r e s e nt m o r e t han o ne w o r d. Fo r e xam p le , t he
p ict ur e o f a s m all childco uld als o r e p r e s e nt t he w o r ds infant o r baby; t he
p ict ur e o f a dog co uld als o r e p r e s e nt canine o r wolf; and t he p ict ur e o f a
car co uld als o r e p r e s e nt automobile o r vehicle.
T his int e r fe r e nce p r o ble m is m o s t lik e ly t o ar is e w he n w e ar e us ing
im age r y t o le ar n abs t r act m at e r ial. Fo r e xam p le , if w e us e an im age o f a
s m iling face t o r e p r e s e nt t he w o r d happiness, t he n lat e r w he n w e r e call
t he s m iling face w e m ight t hink o f smile, face, o r head. A num be r o f
s t udie s indicat e t hat alt ho ugh high im age r y is s up e r io r t o lo w im age r y,
t his k ind o f de co ding e r r o r is m o r e lik e ly w it h v is ual im age s t han w it h
v e r bal m at e r ial alo ne .
20
Maintenance and Transfer
D o p e o p le w ho ar e t aught ho w t o us e m ne m o nics co nt inue t o us e t he m
lat e r o n t he ir o w n? D o t he y t r ans fe r t he ir m ne m o nic s k ills t o t as k s o t he r
t han t he o ne t he y w e r e t r aine d o n? T he s e t w o que s t io ns r e fe r t o t he
p r o ble m s o f m aint e nance and t r ans fe r ( o r ge ne r alizat io n), r e s p e ct iv e ly.
Mo s t r e s e ar ch o n s uch aut o no m o us us e o f m ne m o nics has be e n do ne
w it h childr e n, and has no t be e n e nt ir e ly e nco ur aging. E v e n t ho ugh
childr e n w ho ar e v e r y yo ung o r m e nt ally r e t ar de d can be t aught t o us e
m ne m o nics e ffe ct iv e ly fo r a p ar t icular t as k , t he y o ft e n fail t o us e t he
m ne m o nics o n t he ir o w n o n s ubs e que nt t as k s and fail t o ge ne r alize t o
o t he r t as k s .
21
Pr o bably t he m o s t im p o r t ant fact o r influe ncing childr e n's aut o no -
m o us us e o f m ne m o nics is ho w m uch t r aining and p r act ice t he y r e ce iv e
be fo r e t he y ar e le ft o n t he ir o w n. I n m o s t s t udie s t he childr e n ar e giv e n
br ie f ins t r uct io n and lit t le o r no p r act ice . T he ir t r ans fe r o f a m ne m o nic
t o ne w t as k s incr e as e s w he n t he y ar e giv e n co m p r e he ns iv e ins t r uct io ns
o n ho w , w he n, w hy, and w he r e t o us e t he m ne m o nic and addit io nal
p r act ice w it h t he m ne m o nic dur ing ins t r uct io n. W it h s ufficie nt t r aining
e v e n k inde r gar t e n p r e r e ade r s hav e be e n able t o t r ans fe r a v is ual im age r y
m ne m o nic t o o t he r s im ilar t as k s .
22
C hildr e n's us e o f m ne m o nics o n lat e r t as k s can be incr e as e d by
p r o m p t ing, o r be ing r e m inde d t o us e t he m ne m o nic o n a t as k . T he fact
t hat t he y o ft e n fail t o t hink o f us ing t he m ne m o nic o n t he ir o w n indicat e s
t hat e v e n t ho ugh t he y hav e le ar ne d it w e ll e no ugh t o us e it , t he y m ay no t
hav e le ar ne d it w e ll e no ugh fo r it t o be co m e ingr aine d in t he ir habit ual
w ay o f r e m e m be r ing. O lde r childr e n m ay no t ne e d as m uch p r o m p t ing o r
t r aining as yo unge r childr e n; fo r e xam p le , e ight h- gr ade childr e n t aught
t o us e a m ne m o nic w e r e able t o us e t he t e chnique s e v e r al w e e k s lat e r
w it ho ut be ing p r o m p t e d.
23
S o m e r e s e ar che r s hav e s ugge s t e d t hat childr e n's failur e t o us e
m ne m o nics aut o no m o us ly m ay no t be a v e r y s e r io us p r o ble m . I f t he go al
is t o incr e as e t he child's le ar ning, t he n aut o no m o us us e is im p o r t ant o nly
if t he r e is no bo dy o r no t hing ar o und t o p r o m p t t he child t o us e t he
m ne m o nic. T he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f t he m ne m o nic is t he s am e w he t he r
childr e n us e it o n t he ir o w n o r o nly unde r ins t r uct io n. W he n childr e n ar e
le ar ning in m o s t nat ur al s e t t ings , t he r e is o ft e n s o m e o ne ar o und w ho
co uld p r o v ide s uch p r o m p t ing ( fo r e xam p le , p ar e nt s o r t e ache r s ).
24
T he p r o ble m s o f m aint e nance and t r ans fe r ar e no t lim it e d t o chil-
dr e n. I hav e fo und t hat adult s m ay no t co nt inue t o us e m ne m o nics o n
t he ir o w n. Fo r e xam p le , m any s t ude nt s fr o m m y co lle ge m e m o r y co ur s e s
hav e r e p o r t e d a s ignificant de cline in us e o f t he ir s k ills a fe w m o nt hs aft e r
co m p le t ing t he co ur s e ( alt ho ugh t he ir r e p o r t e d us e w as s t ill highe r t han
it w as be fo r e t ak ing t he co ur s e ). Als o , in o ne s t udy in w hich w e t aught
e lde r ly adult s t o us e v is ual as s o ciat io ns and t he Pe g s ys t e m ( chap t e r 11)
e ffe ct iv e ly, w e fo und s e v e r al m o nt hs lat e r t hat v ir t ually no ne o f t he m had
us e d it fo r anyt hing s ince t he s t udy. T his finding is co ns is t e nt w it h o t he r
r e s e ar ch t hat s ho w s t hat m o s t e lde r ly adult s w ho hav e be e n t aught
im age r y m ne m o nics do no t us e t he m w he n t he y ar e no t r e m inde d t o do
s o .
25
I n addit io n t o ho w w e ll t he y le ar ne d t he m ne m o nic s k ills , le v e l o f
m o t iv at io n and o p p o r t unit y fo r us e p r o bably als o p lay a s ignificant r o le in
w he t he r adult s co nt inue t o us e m ne m o nics .
I t m ay be no t e d t hat t his failur e t o co nt inue t o us e ne w s k ills aft e r
t r aining is no t lim it e d jus t t o m ne m o nics . Maint e nance and t r ans fe r o f
any k ind o f m e nt al s k ill ( le ar ning s t r at e gie s , cr e at iv e t hink ing, p r o ble m
s o lv ing, e t c.) is har d fo r childr e n, and e v e n fo r co lle ge s t ude nt s and
adult s . Lik e w is e , a co ns t ant p r o ble m fo r any k ind o f t he r ap y, including
m e m o r y t he r ap y, is t he e xt e nt t o w hich im p r o v e m e nt s o bs e r v e d in t he
clinic act ually ge ne r alize t o t he p at ie nt 's e v e r yday life .
26
R e s e ar ch o n
le ar ning s t r at e gie s has fo und t hat aut o no m o us us e o f o t he r le ar ning and
m e m o r y s k ills can be incr e as e d in t he s am e t w o w ays as fo r m ne m o nics
incr e as e d t r aining and p r act ice w it h s t r at e gie s , and t ho r o ugh e xp lanat io n
o f ho w and w hy t he y w o r k and w he n t o us e t he m .
27
SOME PSEUDO- LIMITATIONS OF MNEMONICS
T his chap t e r s o far has dis cus s e d s o m e o f t he v alid lim it at io ns and
p r o ble m s o f m ne m o nics . T he r e ar e als o "p s e udo - lim it at io ns "p r o ble m s
and lim it at io ns t hat ar e no t as v alid as t he o ne s jus t dis cus s e d, o r t hat
ar e no t as s e r io us as s o m e cr it ics w o uld hav e us be lie v e . Fo r e xam p le , a
r e ce nt bo o k o n ho w t o s t udy lis t e d t hr e e m ain lim it at io ns o f m ne m o nics :
m at e r ial m e m o r ize d by r o t e lack s unde r s t anding; m ne m o nic de v ice s jus t
add t o t he m e m o r y's o v e r all lo ad; m at e r ial le ar ne d t hr o ugh m ne m o nics
is s o o n fo r go t t e n.
28
T he fir s t t w o o f t he s e lim it at io ns ar e dis cus s e d in t he
fo llo w ing s e ct io ns ; t he t hir d o ne do e s no t ne e d t o be addr e s s e d.
O ne p s ycho lo gis t has o bs e r v e d t hat "lik e m any t hings , m ne m o nic
t e chnique s ar e e as y t o p ar o dy and p o k e fun at ." But ; he no t e d, t hat
m ak e s t he m no le s s e ffe ct iv e , "and t he r e is no t hing lik e s ucce s s t o
r e info r ce s o m e o ne in a ne w m e t ho d o f le ar ning." H e als o o bs e r v e d t hat
cr it ics r ar e ly m ak e it e xp licit t hat t he alt e r nat iv e s t o m ne m o nics in
m e m o r izing ar e e it he r "dum b, blind r e p e t it io n o r s im p ly o ut r ight failur e ,
and no o ne s e e m s t o w ant t o cham p io n t he s e alt e r nat iv e s . "
29
C r it ics o f
m ne m o nics hav e s ugge s t e d fiv e lim it at io ns t hat I clas s ify as p s e udo -
lim it at io ns :
30
1. T he y ar e no t p r act ical.
2. T he y do no t aid unde r s t anding.
3. T he y giv e yo u m o r e t o r e m e m be r .
4. T he y ar e cr ut che s .
5. T he y ar e t r ick s .
Mnemonics Are Not Practical
Bo t h t he k inds o f m e m o r y t as k s s t udie d in t he r e s e ar ch labo r at o r y and
t he k inds o f m e m o r y de m o ns t r at io ns do ne by p e r fo r m e r s can co nt r ibut e
t o t he im p r e s s io n t hat v is ual im age r y m ne m o nics ar e no t p r act ical. I n
t he r e s e ar ch labo r at o r y, m uch r e s e ar ch o n v is ual im age r y in v e r bal
le ar ning and m e m o r y has co nce nt r at e d o n p air e d- as s o ciat e and s e r ial
le ar ning o f unr e lat e d no uns . Alt ho ugh t he s e p ar adigm s ar e co nv e nie nt
fo r p s ycho lo gical r e s e ar che r s , m any p e o p le 's p r act ical m e m o r y p r o ble m s
do no t fit w e ll w it hin e it he r p ar adigm .
Pe o p le s o m e t im e s co m e up t o m e aft e r a le ct ur e and de m o ns t r at io n
in w hich I hav e p e r fo r m e d o ne o r m o r e o f t he fe at s de s cr ibe d at t he
be ginning o f chap t e r 7, and s ay t hat t he y do no t hav e m uch us e fo r
r e m e m be r ing a lo ng lis t o f unr e lat e d no uns o r fo r m e m o r izing a m agazine .
Aft e r all, t he y ar e no t p lanning t o go o n t o ur giv ing m e m o r y s ho w s .
Many o f t he m act as if t he y w e r e w at ching a m agic s ho w r at he r t han an
e xhibit io n o f ap p lie d p s ycho lo gy. S im ilar ly, o ne m e m o r y t e xt bo o k s aid o f
m ne m o nics : "A m ajo r difficult y w it h m any o f t he s e m e m o r y t r ick s is t hat
t he y ar e lar ge ly us e ful fo r r e calling s im p le lis t s s uch as lis t s o f gr o ce r y
it e m s . T his m ay he lp in a p inch, but in ge ne r al t he y do n't he lp a gr e at
de al w he n it co m e s t o t he k inds o f m e m o r ie s t hat p lay a m ajo r p ar t in
e v e r yday life ."
31
I f, in fact , t he m e m o r y t as k s co nt aine d in r e s e ar ch s t udie s and in
de m o ns t r at io ns w e r e all t hat m ne m o nics w e r e go o d fo r , p e o p le m ight
hav e a go o d cas e fo r claim ing t hat m ne m o nics hav e lit t le p r act ical v alue
in e v e r yday life . Aft e r all, ho w o ft e n do yo u ne e d t o m e m o r ize a lis t o f
The Legitimacy of Mnemonics 123
p air s o f no uns , o r a lis t o f unr e lat e d w o r ds , o r a m agazine ? I ant icip at e
t he s e o bje ct io ns in m y t e aching, and e m p has ize t hat m ne m o nic s ys t e m s
ar e no t jus t fo r r e s e ar ch o r fo r s ho w . I p o int o ut t o t he audie nce w hat I
p o int e d o ut at t he be ginning o f chap t e r 7w he t he r o r no t p e o p le want
t o do s uch fe at s , t he im p o r t ant p o int is t hat t he y cando t he m ; and t hat
m e ans t he y can als o do o t he r t hings w it h t he ir m e m o r ie s t hat t he y do
w ant t o do , but m ay hav e t ho ught w e r e be yo nd t he ir abilit ie s .
W hat ar e s o m e o f t he s e "o t he r t hings " t hat p e o p le can do w it h t he ir
m e m o r ie s ? R e s e ar ch has s ho w n e ffe ct iv e us e s o f m ne m o nic t e chnique s
and s ys t e m s fo r m any ar e as o f s cho o lw o r k ( s e e chap t e r 14) as w e ll as
fo r s uch o t he r p r act ical m e m o r y t as k s as le ar ning fo r e ign language s ,
o v e r co m ing abs e nt m inde dne s s , and r e m e m be r ing e r r ands , p e o p le 's
nam e s , num be r s ( p ho ne num be r s , dat e s , e t c.), s cr ip t ur e s , and adv e r -
t is e m e nt s . R e s e ar che r s hav e s ugge s t e d t hat t he v o cat io nal do m ain is als o
a fr uit ful do m ain fo r t he ap p licat io n o f m ne m o nics , and t hat in indus t r ial
and m ilit ar y s e t t ings t he r e is w ide s p r e ad ne e d t o m e m o r ize lis t s and
le ar n o p e r at io nal m o de ls . I n fact , m ne m o nics hav e be e n de v e lo p e d fo r
ar e as o f m ilit ar y t r aining s uch as Mo r s e co de , s ignal flags , and o r de r s t o
s e nt r ie s . I n addit io n, m ne m o nics he lp no t o nly fo r m at e r ial in p air e d-
as s o ciat e o r lis t fo r m , but als o hav e be e n fo und t o he lp in le ar ning p r o s e
m at e r ial.
32
Many o f t he s e ap p licat io ns , and o t he r s , ar e dis cus s e d in o t he r
chap t e r s .
T he p o t e nt ial ap p licabilit y o f m ne m o nics be yo nd t he r e s e ar ch lab
and m ne m o nis t s ' de m o ns t r at io ns is als o s ugge s t e d by t he w ide r ange o f
p e o p le t hat hav e be e n able t o us e m ne m o nics e ffe ct iv e ly ( s e e t he s e ct io n
o n "I m age r y Abilit y" e ar lie r in t his chap t e r ). Many m ne m o nic t e chnique s
and s ys t e m s hav e be e n inco r p o r at e d int o m e m o r y r e habilit at io n t he r ap y
fo r p at ie nt s w it h acquir e d br ain dam age .
33
As a final co m m e nt o n p r act ical us e s o f m ne m o nics , it m ay be no t e d
t hat w hat is "p r act ical" de p e nds o n indiv idual int e r e s t s and ne e ds . Fo r
e xam p le , o ne p e r s o n m ay s e e no p r act ical ne e d fo r m e m o r izing lo t s o f
p e o p le 's nam e s , w hile t hat abilit y m ay be v e r y us e ful t o s o m e o ne w ho
de als w it h a lo t o f p e o p le ( fo r e xam p le , a t e ache r o r s ale s p e r s o n); o ne
p e r s o n m ay s e e t he abilit y t o m e m o r ize num be r s as im p r act ical, w hile
ano t he r w ho w o r k s w it h m e as ur e m e nt s , p r ice s , o r s che dule s m ay find it
v e r y us e ful; o ne p e r s o n m ay no t be int e r e s t e d in le ar ning a fo r e ign
language , w hile ano t he r o ne p r e p ar ing t o v is it ano t he r co unt r y m ay find
it v e r y us e ful; and m e m o r izing a lis t o f it e m s m ay no t be p r act ical t o
s o m e p e o p le , but v e r y us e ful t o a w ait r e s s o r s ho r t - o r de r co o k . E v e n
t he e ducat io nal us e s o f m ne m o nics m ay no t s e e m as p r act ical t o s o m e o ne
w ho is no t in s cho o l. T hus , w hat is p r act ical t o o ne p e r s o n m ay no t be
p r act ical t o ano t he r .
1 2 4
Y O U R ME MO R Y
Mnemonics Do Not Aid Understanding
S o m e p e o p le ( and s o m e p s ycho lo gy t e xt bo o k s ) hav e dis m is s e d m ne m o n-
ics w it h t he co m m e nt t hat t he y ar e e ffe ct iv e fo r ce r t ain k inds o f r o t e
m e m o r y t as k s , but t hat m any le ar ning t as k s inv o lv e unde r s t anding
( co m p r e he ns io n) m o r e t han s t r aight m e m o r y fo r fact s . T he im p licat io n
is t hat m ne m o nics ar e no t w o r t h le ar ning be caus e t he y do no t he lp w it h
unde r s t anding.
T he r e ar e t w o w ays o f r e s p o nding t o t his cr it icis m . Fir s t , t he
s t at e m e nt t hat m ne m o nics canno t he lp w it h unde r s t anding m ay no t be
e nt ir e ly accur at e . O ne p s ycho lo gis t has r e ce nt ly s ugge s t e d t hat e v e n
t ho ugh im age r y t e chnique s ar e no t o ft e n us e d t o facilit at e co m p r e he n-
s io n, t he y m ay hav e p o t e nt ial v alue fo r do ing s o , and s o m e r e s e ar ch
s up p o r t s t his s ugge s t io n. R e s e ar ch o n m e nt al e labo r at io n in ins t r uct io n
indicat e s t hat t he im age s le ar ne r s ge ne r at e o ft e n incr e as e bo t h t he ir
unde r s t anding and t he ir m e m o r y, and t hat m ne m o nic p ict ur e s and dia-
gr am s giv e n t o le ar ne r s can als o facilit at e bo t h unde r s t anding and
m e m o r y.
34
Vis ual im age r y m ay be inv o lv e d in t he int e r nal r e p r e s e nt at io n
o f s uch abs t r act v e r bal co nce p t s as clo ck t im e , m o ne t ar y v alue , and
m o nt hs o f t he ye ar , and t he r e is e v ide nce t hat p ict ur e s and v is ual im age r y
can he lp in unde r s t anding co nce p t s and s e nt e nce s and p r o s e r e ading
m at e r ial. I m age r y m e diat io n has be e n us e d in t he de v e lo p m e nt o f br o ad-
bas e d p r o gr am s fo r t e aching co gnit iv e s t r at e gie s and in t he t r aining o f
ge ne r alize d co gnit iv e s t r at e gie s fo r le ar ning. Me nt al im age r y has e v e n
be e n fo und t o he lp in p r o ble m s o lv ing.
35
But s up p o s e t hat m ne m o nics do no t he lp w it h unde r s t anding. I n
fact , it is p r o bably t r ue t hat m ne m o nics ar e no t as us e ful fo r co m p r e he n-
s io n t as k s as t he y ar e fo r s t r aight m e m o r y t as k s . A s e co nd w ay o f
r e s p o nding t o t he cr it icis m t he n is , S o w hat ? Mne m o nics ar e no t intended
fo r s uch t as k s as r e as o ning, unde r s t anding, and p r o ble m s o lv ing; t he y
w e r e no t de v e lo p e d fo r t hat p ur p o s e . T he y ar e int e nde d t o aid le ar ning
and m e m o r y. S ho uld w e dis car d s o m e t hing if it do e s no t do w hat it is not
int e nde d t o do as e ffe ct iv e ly as it do e s w hat it is int e nde d t o do ?
I n chap t e r 1, an analo gy w as dr aw n be t w e e n m e m o r y t o o ls and
car p e nt r y t o o ls . I t w as p o int e d o ut t hat w hat a ham m e r do e s , it do e s
v e r y p o w e r fully, but it is no t int e nde d t o do e v e r yt hing. W e w o uld no t
dis car d it be caus e it do e s no t s aw bo ar ds o r t ur n s cr e w s . S im ilar ly,
m ne m o nics e nable p e o p le t o do am azing fe at s t hat canno t be do ne w it h
t he unaide d m e m o r y; and w hat t he y ar e s up p o s e d t o do , t he y do v e r y
p o w e r fully. I t is no t v alid t o cr it icize m ne m o nics be caus e t he y ar e no t as
p o w e r ful in do ing w hat t he y ar e no t s up p o s e d t o do .
T o s ay t hat m ne m o nic s ys t e m s ar e no t w o r t h us ing be caus e m any
le ar ning t as k s do no t inv o lv e s t r aight m e m o r y is s o m e w hat lik e s aying
t hat t he m ult ip licat io n t able s ar e no t w o r t h le ar ning be caus e m any m at h
p r o ble m s do no t inv o lv e m ult ip licat io n, o r t hat S p anis h is no t w o r t h
le ar ning be caus e m any p e o p le do no t s p e ak S p anis h. T he r e ar e als o
m any m at h p r o ble m s t hat do inv o lv e m ult ip licat io n and m any p e o p le w ho
do s p e ak S p anis h. Lik e w is e , it is t r ue t hat m any t as k s do not inv o lv e
s t r aight m e m o r y, but it is als o t r ue t hat m any t as k s do inv o lv e s t r aight
m e m o r y. W he t he r w e lik e it o r no t , m o s t o f us hav e m any t hings t o
r e m e m be r nam e s , p ho ne num be r s , t hings t o do , t hings t o buy, ad-
dr e s s e s , dat e s , e r r ands , s p e e che s , r e p o r t s , and s cho o lw o r k . T hus , e v e n
if m ne m o nics did he lp o nly r e m e m be r ing and no t unde r s t anding, m any
p e o p le m ay s t ill hav e e no ugh t o r e m e m be r t o m ak e t he us e o f m e m o r y
aids w o r t hw hile . ( S e e chap t e r 14 fo r a dis cus s io n o f r e m e m be r ing and
unde r s t anding in s cho o l.)
T he e xp e r ie nce s o f t he R us s ian m ne m o nis t S , de s cr ibe d in chap t e r
3, hav e be e n us e d as an e xam p le o f ho w m ne m o nics no t o nly m ay no t
he lp unde r s t anding but m ay act ually int e r fe r e w it h it . S us e d v is ual
im age r y t o r e m e m be r e v e r yt hing: Giv e n a lis t o f num be r s t hat had an
inhe r e nt p at t e r n, he did no t s e e t he p at t e r n; r at he r , he r e m e m be r e d t he
lis t by v is ualizing t he num be r s . T his finding has le d s o m e p e o p le t o a
co nclus io n s uch as t hat m ade by o ne p s ycho lo gis t : "Ap p ar e nt ly, t he
m ne m o nis t e xhibit e d lit t le t ale nt fo r abs t r act t hink ing, w hich is no t
une xp e ct e d co ns ide r ing t hat m ne m o nic t e chnique s us e co ncr e t e m e t ho ds
o f o r ganizat io n and he nce int e r fe r e w it h o r ganizing info r m at io n acco r ding
t o abs t r act p r incip le s ."
36
T he im p licat io n is t hat o ur us e o f m ne m o nics
w ill als o int e r fe r e w it h o ur abilit y t o s e e and unde r s t and abs t r act p at t e r ns
and p r incip le s .
H o w e v e r , S w as compelled by his co gnit iv e s t yle t o fo r m v is ual
im age s ; he co uld no t he lp it . Jus t be caus e w e cho o s e t o us e m ne m o nics
t o im p o s e m e aning o n s o m e m at e r ial do e s no t m e an t hat w e w ill no t be
able t o le ar n o t he r m at e r ial t hat is m e aningful w it ho ut m ne m o nics ; no r
do e s us ing m ne m o nics o n uno r ganize d m at e r ial m e an t hat w e m us t als o
us e t he m o n o r ganize d m at e r ial.
Mnemonics Give You More to Remember
Mo s t m ne m o nic t e chnique s and s ys t e m s act ually incr e as e t he am o unt o f
m at e r ial yo u m us t r e m e m be r . Mne m o nic s ys t e m s r e quir e yo u t o m e m -
o r ize m at e r ial co ns t it ut ing a m e nt al filing s ys t e m in addit io n t o t he
info r m at io n t o be r e m e m be r e d. I n fact , t hat is t he m e aning o f t he w o r d
elaboration w he n p s ycho lo gis t s t alk o f v is ual and v e r bal e labo r at io n. Fo r
e xam p le , t o us e t he Lo ci s ys t e m ( chap t e r 10) t o m e m o r ize a s e r ie s o f
10 it e m s , yo u m us t r e m e m be r 10 lo cat io ns in addit io n t o t he 10 it e m s t o
be r e m e m be r e d. T his fact has le d s o m e cr it ics t o s ugge s t t hat t he
s ys t e m s ar e act ually m o r e w o r k t han it w o uld be jus t t o le ar n t he
info r m at io n by it s e lf ( s o m e t hing lik e de t e r m ining t he num be r o f ho r s e s
in a he r d by co unt ing t he num be r o f le gs and div iding by fo ur ).
I t is t r ue t hat m o s t m ne m o nic s ys t e m s do add t o t he am o unt o f
m at e r ial t o be r e m e m be r e d, and as a r e s ult t he y m ay r e quir e e xt r a e ffo r t
w he n t he y ar e fir s t be ing le ar ne d. But t his e xt r a e ffo r t m ay be illus o r y
fo r t hr e e r e as o ns :
1. O nce t he lo cat io ns ( o r o t he r m ne m o nic e labo r at io ns ) ar e
le ar ne d, t he y ar e us e d o v e r and o v e r t o le ar n ne w m at e r ial. O ne do e s
no t m e m o r ize a ne w s e t o f lo cat io ns fo r e ach lis t t o be r e m e m be r e d.
T hus , t he e xt r a e ffo r t o f le ar ning t he lo cat io ns o ccur s o nly o nce .
2. N o m at t e r ho w it is do ne , r e m e m be r ing is w o r k , and m e m o r y
aids ar e no t ne ce s s ar ily s up p o s e d t o m ak e it e as y, jus t m o r e e ffe ct iv e
( as no t e d in chap t e r 1). Le ar ning t o us e m ne m o nics is a s k ill t hat r e quir e s
p r act ice jus t lik e acquir ing any o t he r s k ill. Fo r e xam p le , w he n a p e r s o n
is fir s t le ar ning t o us e a t yp e w r it e r , t yp ing m ay be s lo w e r t han w r it ing
and m ay s e e m t hat it is m o r e t r o uble t hat it is w o r t h; but t yp ing is m o r e
e fficie nt t han w r it ing o nce t he p e r s o n m as t e r s t he s k ill. O r a go lfe r m ay
find t hat le ar ning a ne w gr ip o r a ne w s w ing m ay hinde r he r gam e at fir s t ,
but if s he k e e p s p r act icing it s he w ill find t hat he r gam e im p r o v e s .
S im ilar ly, m ne m o nic s ys t e m s m ay s e e m at fir s t t o be m o r e t r o uble t han
t he y ar e w o r t h, but p e o p le w ho hav e m ade t he e ffo r t t o le ar n t he m and
ge t us e d t o us ing t he m us ually r e p o r t t hat t he y ar e w o r t h t he e ffo r t . T he
e xt r a e ffo r t o f le ar ning a s ys t e m can be p ar t ially o ffs e t by t he fact t hat it
m ay no w t ak e le s s t im e and e ffo r t t o le ar n o t he r m at e r ial t han it do e s
w it ho ut a s ys t e m . Pe o p le w ho us e d v is ual m ne m o nics t o r e m e m be r a lis t
o f s ayings o r a lis t o f e r r ands r e p o r t e d t hat t he t as k w as e as ie r t han did
p e o p le w ho did no t us e t he m ne m o nics .
37
3.. Me m o r y cap acit y is no t a funct io n o f t he am o unt o f m at e r ial t o
be le ar ne d as m uch as it is a funct io n o f o t he r fact o r s , s uch as ho w
o r ganize d o r m e aningful t he m at e r ial is . Fo r e xam p le , w e s aw in chap t e r
2 t hat t he num be r o f chunk s is m o r e im p o r t ant t han t he num be r o f it e m s :
Y o u can r e m e m be r a s e nt e nce co nt aining 40 le t t e r s be t t e r t han a s e r ie s
o f 10 unr e lat e d le t t e r s . W e als o s aw in chap t e r 7 t hat a s e nt e nce s uch as
"T he s e t fe ll o ff t he t able " is act ually e as ie r t o r e m e m be r w he n co ncr e t e
de t ails ar e adde d ( "T he iv o r y che s s s e t fe ll o ff t he t able ").
O t he r s t udie s hav e als o fo und t hat adding r e le v ant de t ails t o a
s e nt e nce im p r o v e s m e m o r y fo r t he s e nt e nce . Fo r e xam p le , s e nt e nce s
s uch as t he fo llo w ing w e r e fo und t o be e as ie r t o r e m e m be r w he n t he
p ar t s in p ar e nt he s e s w e r e adde d: T he fat o ne bo ught t he p adlo ck ( t o
p lace o n t he fr idge do o r ); T he bald o ne cut o ut t he co up o n ( fo r t he hair
t o nic); T he funny o ne adm ir e d t he r ing ( t hat s quir t e d w at e r ). I n ano t he r
s t udy p e o p le w e r e giv e n fact s abo ut fam o us p e o p le : "At a cr it ical p o int in
his life , Mo zar t m ade a jo ur ne y fr o m Munich t o Par is ." S o m e fact s had
r e le v ant de t ails adde d: "Mo zar t w ant e d t o le av e Munich t o av o id a r o m at ic
e nt angle m e nt ." T he p e o p le r e calle d m o r e fact s w he n giv e n adde d de t ails
t han w he n fact s w e r e p r e s e nt e d alo ne .
38
T hus , t he am o unt o f m at e r ial t o be r e m e m be r e d is no t t he p r im ar y
co nce r n in as s e s s ing m e m o r y cap acit y. O nce a p e r s o n le ar ns t he addi-
t io nal m at e r ial inv o lv e d in acquir ing a m ne m o nic s ys t e m , he us ually finds
t hat t he adv ant age s in t e r m s o f o r ganizat io n and m e aningfulne s s o ut w e igh
t he dis adv ant age o f hav ing addit io nal m at e r ial t o r e m e m be r .
Mnemonics Are Crutches
S o m e p e o p le cr it icize m ne m o nics o n t he bas is t hat a p e r s o n m ay be co m e
de p e nde nt o n a m ne m o nic and us e it as a m e m o r y cr ut ch. ( I n fact , o ne
p s ycho lo gis t r e fe r r e d t o a m ne m o nic as an "ar t ificial m e m o r y- cr ut ch.")
T he n he w ill no t be able t o r e m e m be r t he m at e r ial w it ho ut t he cr ut ch.
T hat is , a p e r s o n w ho m e m o r ize s a giv e n s e t o f m at e r ial w it h a m ne m o nic
w ill be co m e de p e nde nt o n t hat m ne m o nic t o r e m e m be r t hat m at e r ial.
Fo r e xam p le , ho w m any p e o p le can r e m e m be r t he num be r o f days in
N o v e m be r w it ho ut go ing t hr o ugh t he r hym e , "T hir t y days has S e p t e m -
be r , Ap r il, June , and N o v e m be r . . . . "? T he cr it ic s ays , "W hat hap p e ns if
yo u fo r ge t t he cr ut ch?"
T he r e ar e at le as t t hr e e r e s p o ns e s t o t his que s t io n:
1. T he "cr ut ch" it s e lf is fr e que nt ly no t fo r go t t e n as e as ily as t he
it e m s w o uld be w it ho ut t he cr ut ch. Pe o p le m ay r e m e m be r s o m e m ne -
m o nics lo ng aft e r t he y hav e fo r go t t e n t he m at e r ial. O ne p s ycho lo gis t
le ar ne d a r hym e fr o m a fr ie nd fo r m e m o r izing n t o 20 de cim al p lace s ;
lat e r he s t ill r e m e m be r e d t he r hym e but had t o t e le p ho ne his fr ie nd t o
r e m e m be r ho w t o de co de it int o t he ap p r o p r iat e digit s . S im ilar ly, s o m e
p e o p le can r e m e m be r t he s e nt e nce t he y us e d t o m e m o r ize t he nam e s o f
t he cr anial ne r v e s ( "O n O ld O lym p us ' T o w e r ing 1bp s . . . , " chap t e r 7)
lo ng aft e r t he y hav e fo r go t t e n t he nam e s o f t he ne r v e s . H o w e v e r ,
r e m e m be r ing t he m ne m o nic is no t r e s p o ns ible fo r t he ir hav ing fo r go t t e n
t he m at e r ial.
2. S uch de p e nde ncy fr e que nt ly do e s no t hap p e n. I t is p o s s ible t hat
it can hap p e n w it h s o m e m at e r ial t hat a p e r s o n do e s no t le ar n v e r y
t ho r o ughly and/o r us e v e r y o ft e n. H o w e v e r , e s p e cially if t he m at e r ial is
s o m e t hing t hat a p e r s o n w ill be us ing r e gular ly, he w ill e v e nt ually find
t hat he no lo nge r ne e ds t o r e call t he o r iginal m ne m o nic as s o ciat io n in
o r de r t o r e call t he m at e r ial.
39
T he m at e r ial m ay co m e aut o m at ically. I
can r e call m at e r ial t hat I le ar ne d ye ar s ago us ing m ne m o nics , but I
canno t r e m e m be r s o m e o f t he as s o ciat io ns I o r iginally us e d t o le ar n t he
m at e r ial.
3. E v e n if a p e r s o n, did be co m e de p e nde nt o n a m ne m o nic t o
r e m e m be r ce r t ain m at e r ial, is t hat bad? I s it unde s ir able fo r a p e r s o n
w it h p o o r e ye s ight t o be co m e de p e nde nt o n e ye glas s e s t o he lp him s e e
be t t e r ? E v e n a p e r s o n w it h go o d e ye s ight m ay ne e d a t e le s co p e t o s e e
dis t ant o bje ct s cle ar ly. I s t hat w o r s e t han no t be ing able t o s e e t he
dis t ant o bje ct s ? I s it w o r s e fo r a p e r s o n t o de p e nd o n m ne m o nic
as s o ciat io ns t o r e m e m be r t he nam e s o f e v e r yo ne he m e e t s t han t o fo r ge t
t he ir nam e s ? I us e d t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m ( chap t e r 12) t o m e m o r ize t he
t e le p ho ne num be r s o f m o r e t han 100 p e o p le in a gr o up t o w hich I be lo ng.
I m us t r e fe r t o m y m ne m o nic as s o ciat io ns t o r e m e m be r all o f t he
num be r s , but is t his w o r s e t han no t r e m e m be r ing t he num be r s ? I do no t
t hink s o . E v e n if t he cr ut ch cr it icis m o f de p e nde ncy w e r e t r ue , it m ay be
be t t e r t o r e m e m be r m at e r ial us ing a m ne m o nic t han t o no t r e m e m be r
t he m at e r ial.
An ir o ny o f t he cr ut ch cr it icis m is t hat it act ually s e r v e s as t he bas is
fo r t w o co nflict ing cr it icis m s . O n o ne hand, t he cr it ic s ays t hat yo u canno t
r e m e m be r t he m at e r ial w it ho ut t he cr ut ch ( m e aning t hat yo u ar e lo s t if
yo u fo r ge t t he cr ut ch). O n t he o t he r hand, t he cr it ic s ays t hat yo u
be co m e t o o de p e nde nt o n t he cr ut ch fo r r e m e m be r ing t he m at e r ial
( m e aning t hat yo u canno t fo r ge t t he cr ut ch).
Ano t he r as p e ct o f t he cr ut ch cr it icis m inv o lv e s a ge ne r al de p e nde ncy
o n m ne m o nics . I t is t he ar gum e nt t hat a p e r s o n w ho ge t s in t he habit o f
us ing m ne m o nics m ay no t be able t o le ar n m at e r ial w it ho ut m ne m o nics .
As o ne p s ycho lo gis t e xp laine d it : "S o m e s ucce s s w it h m ne m o nics m ay
s e t up a v icio us cir cle : T he m o r e w e us e t he m , t he m o r e w e ne e d t he m ,
and t he m o r e w e ar e incline d, o r e v e n fo r ce d, t o be p e r funct o r y in o ur
at t e m p t s t o unde r s t and ne w info r m at io n."
40
Lur ia's S is o ft e n us e d as an
e xam p le o f ho w a de p e nde ncy o n m ne m o nics can le ad t o a failur e t o be
able t o le ar n w it ho ut m ne m o nics ( but s e e t he dis cus s io n o f S in t he
s e ct io n o n m ne m o nics and unde r s t anding).
Act ually, t he ap p r o p r iat e us e o f m ne m o nics can le ad t o gr e at e r s e lf-
co nfide nce in o t he r r e m e m be r ing, r at he r t han m ak ing a p e r s o n a he lp le s s
m e m o r y cr ip p le . T he fo llo w ing co m m e nt s o f t w o o f m y m e m o r y s t ude nt s
ar e r e p r e s e nt at iv e o f m any:
I hav e fo und t hat m ne m o nic de v ice s hav e no t o nly he lp e d m e in t he o bv io us w ays ,
but hav e als o im p r o v e d m y s e ns it iv it y t o m y no r m al m e m o r y. N o w w he n I go t o
us e t he r o t e s ys t e m , I find it e as ie r be caus e o f t he s e lf- co nfide nce t hat m ne m o n-
ics gav e t o m e .
I find m ys e lf go ing abo ut m y daily act iv it ie s ap p lying m ne m o nics t o e v e r y s it uat io n
t hat I p o s s ibly can. I find m ys e lf in r e t ur n t o be m o r e e ffe ct iv e and m o r e
o r ganize d, and t o hav e a co ns ide r able am o unt o f s e lf- co nfide nce t hat I had no t
e xp e r ie nce d be fo r e .
Mnemonics Are Tricks
I s aac As im o v de s cr ibe d an e xp e r ie nce w hich illus t r at e s a v ie w o f int e lli-
ge nce t hat is s im ilar t o s o m e p e o p le 's v ie w o f m e m o r y. W he n As im o v
buys s e v e r al o bje ct s at a s t o r e , he w at che s t he cle r k w r it e t he num be r s
o n a s lip o f p ap e r ( fo r e xam p le , $1.55, $1.45, $2.39, and $2.49) and
aut o m at ically m ut t e r s t he t o t al$7.88. W he n t he cle r k finis he s his
addit io n and ge t s $7.88, he lo o k s up in aw e and s ays , "T hat 's am azing.
Y o u m us t be v e r y s m ar t t o be able t o do a t hing lik e t hat ." T he n As im o v
e xp lains ho w t o do it . "Y o u do n't add $1.45 and $1.55. Y o u t ak e 5 ce nt s
fr o m o ne and add it t o t he o t he r s o yo u hav e $1.50 and $1.50 w hich
co m e s t o $3.00 at o nce . T he n ins t e ad o f adding $2.39 and $2.49 yo u add
a p e nny t o e ach and add $2.40 and $2.50, w hich co m e s t o $4.90,
r e m e m be r ing t hat yo u w ill hav e t o r e m o v e t he p e nnie s yo u adde d. T he
$3.00 and t he $4.90 ar e $7.90, and w he n yo u t ak e o ff t he t w o p e nnie s ,
yo u hav e $7.88 and t hat 's yo ur ans w e r . I f yo u p r act ice t hat s o r t o f t hing,
yo u can. . . "
At abo ut t his p o int , As im o v has t o s t o p be caus e he canno t igno r e
t he cle r k 's co ld s t ar e as t he cle r k s ays , "O h, it 's jus t a t r ick ." As im o v
o bs e r v e d, "N o t o nly am I no lo nge r int e llige nt , I am no t hing but a fak e r .
T o t he av e r age p e r s o n, in o t he r w o r ds , unde r s t anding t he p r o p e r t ie s o f
num be r s and us ing t ho s e p r o p e r t ie s is not int e llige nt . Pe r fo r m ing m e -
chanical o p e r at io ns is int e llige nt ."
41
I n do ing m e m o r y de m o ns t r at io ns , I hav e o bs e r v e d s o m e p e o p le
r e act lik e t he cle r k in As im o v 's s t o r y. T he y ar e im p r e s s e d by m y am azing
m e m o r y unt il I e xp lain a lit t le abo ut t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m us e d, at w hich
t im e I no lo nge r hav e an am azing m e m o r y but am jus t a fak e r . ( Pe r hap s
t his is w hy s o m e m e m o r y "e x p e r t s " do no t div ulge t he ir s e cr e t s .) T o
s o m e p e o p le unde r s t anding t he p r incip le s o f m e m o r y and ap p lying t he m
v ia m ne m o nic t e chnique s is no t m e m o r izing. R o t e r e p e t it io n and dr ill is
m e m o r izing. I hav e s e v e r al m e m o r y and p s ycho lo gy t e xt bo o k s p ublis he d
in t he 1980s t hat r e fe r t o m ne m o nics as "t r ick s ," and s o m e p s ycho lo gis t s
r e fe r t o m ne m o nics as "ar t ificial m e m o r y."
T he dis t inct io n be t w e e n "nat ur al" m e m o r y and "ar t ificial" m e m o r y
aids m ay be an ar t ificial dis t inct io n; t he dis t inct io n be t w e e n w hat is
nat ur al m e m o r y and w hat is ar t ificial m e m o r y is o ft e n no t cle ar , and
t he r e m ay be m o r e s im ilar it ie s t han t he r e ar e diffe r e nce s ( s e e "Bas ic
Pr incip le s o f Mne m o nics " in chap t e r 7).
42
I t s e e m s t o m e t hat t he
nat ur alar t ificial dis t inct io n s t e m s in p ar t fr o m e quat ing "unaide d" w it h
"nat ur al"; but unaide d r o t e r e he ar s al fe e ls no m o r e nat ur al t o m any
p e o p le t han do t he ir at t e m p t s t o im p o s e m e aning o n m at e r ial.
T he v ie w t hat r o t e r e p e t it io n and dr ill is r e al r e m e m be r ing and t he
us e o f m ne m o nics is ar t ificial can le ad t o t he claim t hat t he us e o f
m ne m o nics is unfair . S ince a m ne m o nic is a t r ick o r gim m ick , it is no t
fair t o us e a m ne m o nic s ys t e m be caus e yo u ar e no t r e ally r e m e m be r ing.
T he 12- digit num be r fo r m e m o r izing t he cale ndar is a go o d e xam p le : Y o u
hav e no t r e ally m e m o r ize d all 365 dat e s ; t he r e fo r e , yo u hav e no t r e ally
m e m o r ize d t he cale ndar fo r a ye ar . T his ar gum e nt s e e m s t o be s aying
t hat yo u ar e che at ing if yo u do no t do t hings t he har d w ay. Y o u ar e
che at ing t o us e an aid. Act ually, t he "unfair ne s s " t o t he cr it ics m ay lie in
t he fact t hat yo u can r e m e m be r s o m uch m o r e t han t he y can. I t is no
le s s fair t o us e aids t o t r ain t he m e m o r y t han it is t o us e s p e cial t r aining
t e chnique s t o t r ain lo ng- dis t ance r unne r s , k e ybo ar d- le ar ning aids t o
t e ach p iano le s s o ns , o r a m at he m at ical fo r m ula t o find t he cir cum fe r e nce
o f a cir cular fie ld giv e n t he diam e t e r . ( I s it s o m e ho w m o r e "fair " t o w alk
ar o und t he fie ld and m e as ur e it w it h a t ap e m e as ur e t han t o jus t us e t he
fo r m ula c = r cd?)
I t w as no t e d at t he be ginning o f t he chap t e r t hat v ie w ing m ne m o nics
as t r ick s and gim m ick s p r o bably co nt r ibut e d t o t he he s it ancy o f m any
p s ycho lo gis t s t o acce p t m ne m o nics as a le git im at e ar e a o f inv e s t igat io n.
I t is p r o bably als o o ne r e as o n p e o p le ap p laud a m e m o r y de m o ns t r at io n
as if it w e r e a m agic s ho w ( aft e r all, m agicians do t r ick s ) r at he r t han a
de m o ns t r at io n o f ap p lie d p s ycho lo gy. U nfo r t unat e ly, s o m e co m m e r cial
m e m o r y t r aine r s co nt r ibut e t o , and e v e n e nco ur age , t his im age . O ne
m e m o r y co ur s e t hat us e s p ar t s o f an aut o m o bile as t he bas is fo r a Lo ci
s ys t e m ( s e e chap t e r 10) is t it le d "Aut o - m agic," and ano t he r co m m e r cial
co ur s e is t it le d "Me m o r y Magic."
Mental Fi l i ng Systems: Li nk
and Story Mnemoni cs
I
n chap t e r 7 m ne m o nic "t e chnique s " and m ne m o nic "s ys t e m s " w e r e
dis t inguis he d. T he e xam p le s o f m ne m o nics dis cus s e d s o far in t his
bo o k illus t r at e s p e cific- p ur p o s e t e chnique s . Fo r e xam p le , t he "1 4 9 2 . . . "
v e r s e he lp s us r e m e m be r w he n C o lum bus dis co v e r e d Am e r ica, but it
do e s no t he lp r e m e m be r o t he r dat e s . "I be fo r e e . . . " he lp s us r e m e m be r
ho w t o s p e ll w o r ds w it h ie in t he m , but it do e s no t he lp s p e ll o t he r
w o r ds . H O ME S he lp s us r e m e m be r t he nam e s o f t he Gr e at Lak e s , but
it do e s no t he lp r e m e m be r o t he r nam e s . O f co ur s e , o t he r r hym e s and
acr o nym s can be co ns t r uct e d t o r e m e m be r o t he r dat e s , s p e lling w o r ds ,
and nam e s , but t he s e p ar t icular m ne m o nics lack ge ne r alit y; t he y can be
ap p lie d o nly fo r o ne p ur p o s e .
Mne m o nic s ys t e m s ar e m o r e ge ne r al- p ur p o s e m e t ho ds t hat can be
ap p lie d t o diffe r e nt k inds o f m e m o r y t as k s ; t he y ar e no t lim it e d t o o nly
o ne s e t o f m at e r ial, but can be us e d o v e r and o v e r t o le ar n diffe r e nt
m at e r ial. C hap t e r s 9 t hr o ugh 12 dis cus s fiv e m ne m o nic s ys t e m s Link ,
S t o r y, Lo ci, Pe g, and Pho ne t ic. E ach o f t he s e fo ur chap t e r s has t hr e e
m ajo r s e ct io ns . T he fir s t s e ct io n de s cr ibe s and e xp lains t he m ne m o nic
s ys t e m . T he s e co nd s e ct io n de s cr ibe s s o m e r e ce nt r e s e ar ch e v ide nce
co nce r ning ho w w e ll t he s ys t e m w o r k s , t o giv e yo u co nfide nce in it s
e ffe ct iv e ne s s . T he t hir d s e ct io n s ugge s t s s o m e w ays yo u m ight be able
t o us e t he s ys t e m in p r act ical m e m o r y t as k s .
1 3 1
All o f t he p r incip le s , char act e r is t ics , ap p licat io ns , s t r e ngt hs , and
lim it at io ns o f m ne m o nics in chap t e r s 7 and 8 ap p ly t o m ne m o nic s ys t e m s
as w e ll as t o m ne m o nic t e chnique s . Aft e r yo u hav e r e ad chap t e r s 9
t hr o ugh 12, r e ad chap t e r s 7 and 8 again; m any o f t he p o int s r e gar ding
m ne m o nics w ill be e v e n m o r e m e aningful w he n yo u ar e fam iliar w it h t he
m ne m o nic s ys t e m s .
YOUR MENTAL FILING SYSTEM
I n chap t e r 1 t he e fficie ncy o f an o r ganize d 3" x 5" file bo x w as co m p ar e d
w it h a lar ge r uno r ganize d bo x as filing s ys t e m s in dis cus s ing t he cap acit y
o f m e m o r y. T he n in chap t e r 2 t he analo gy o f a m e nt al filing s ys t e m w as
us e d in dis cus s ing s ho r t - t e r m and lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y. Mne m o nic s ys -
t e m s m ay be v ie w e d quit e lit e r ally as m e nt al filing s ys t e m s . T he y allo w
yo u t o s t o r e info r m at io n in yo ur m e m o r y in a w ay t hat yo u w ill be able t o
find it and ge t it back o ut w he n yo u w ant it .
S up p o s e yo u w e r e as k e d t o go t o yo ur lo cal libr ar y and ge t a ce r t ain
bo o k . E v e n t ho ugh t he libr ar y m ay hav e t ho us ands o f bo o k s , t he t as k
w o uld no t be t o o har d be caus e t he bo o k s ar e file d s ys t e m at ically. Y o u
w o uld go t o t he car d o r co m p ut e r cat alo g, lo o k up t he call num be r o f t he
bo p k , and t he n go t o t he p ar t o f t he libr ar y w he r e t hat num be r w as
lo cat e d and ge t t he bo o k ( unle s s yo ur luck is lik e m ine , in w hich cas e t he
bo o k w o uld p r o bably be che ck e d o ut ).
N o w s up p o s e all t he bo o k s in t hat libr ar y w e r e dum p e d int o o ne big
p ile in t he p ar k ing lo t o r o n t he s t r e e t , and yo u w e r e as k e d t o ge t a
ce r t ain bo o k . Y o ur t as k w o uld be m uch m o r e difficult . W hy? T he p ile
co nt ains t he s am e num be r o f bo o k s as t he libr ar y, but t he diffe r e nce is
t hat yo u no w hav e no s ys t e m at ic w ay t o lo cat e a p ar t icular bo o k . Y o u
hav e t o s e ar ch t hr o ugh all t he bo o k s t o find a p ar t icular o ne .
S im ilar ly, s up p o s e yo u ar e giv e n a lis t o f 10 it e m s t o r e m e m be r .
Lat e r , w he n t he t im e co m e s fo r r e call, yo u be gin lo o k ing t hr o ugh yo ur
m e m o r y fo r t he 10 it e m s . Fo r m o s t p e o p le t he t as k is lik e finding a bo o k
in a p ile o f t ho us ands o f bo o k s . Y o u k no w t he 10 it e m s w e r e p ut in yo ur
m e m o r y s o m e w he r e . But yo u k no w t ho us ands o f w o r ds ; ho w can yo u
s ys t e m at ically s e ar ch t hr o ugh all t he s e w o r ds and ide nt ify t he 10 yo u ar e
lo o k ing fo r ? U nle s s t he it e m s w e r e o r iginally s t o r e d in s o m e s ys t e m at ic,
o r de r ly m anne r , yo u hav e no go o d w ay t o s ys t e m at ically s e ar ch fo r t he m .
Fo r p e o p le w ho us e a m ne m o nic s ys t e m t o le ar n t he 10 it e m s , t he t as k
is m o r e lik e finding a bo o k in a libr ar y. T he y hav e s t o r e d t he it e m s in
s uch a w ay t hat t he y can ide nt ify t he m and cue t he m s e lv e s as t o w he r e
t he it e m s ar e .
W he n yo u ar e t r ying t o find it e m s in yo ur m e m o r y, a m ne m o nic
s ys t e m can he lp in at le as t t hr e e w ays as a m e nt al filing s ys t e m :
Mental Filing Systems: Link and Story Mnemonics 133
1. I t w ill giv e yo u a p lace t o s t ar t yo ur s e ar ch, a w ay t o lo cat e t he fir s t
it e m .
2. I t w ill giv e yo u a w ay o f p r o ce e ding s ys t e m at ically fr o m o ne it e m t o
t he ne xt .
3. I t w ill le t yo u k no w w he n yo ur r e call is finis he d, w he n yo u hav e
r e ache d t he las t it e m .
E v e n fo r m at e r ial t hat yo u k no w v e r y w e ll, yo u m ay hav e a har d t im e
w it ho ut s t e p s 2 and 3. Fo r e xam p le , w e s aw in chap t e r 4 t hat if yo u t r y
t o r e cit e t he alp habe t in r ando m o r de r yo u ar e lik e ly t o find t hat yo u ar e
lo s t by t he t im e yo u ar e halfw ay finis he d. Y o u ar e no t s ur e w hich le t t e r s
yo u hav e nam e d o r ho w m any yo u hav e nam e dp r o ble m s t hat do no t
o ccur w he n yo u r e cit e t he le t t e r s in alp habe t ical o r de r .
WHAT IS THE LINK SYSTEM?
T he Link s ys t e m , w hich co uld als o be calle d t he "C hain s ys t e m ," co ns is t s
o f t w o s t e p s . Fir s t , fo r m a v is ual im age fo r e ach it e m in t he lis t t o be
le ar ne d. S e co nd, as s o ciat e t he im age fo r e ach it e m w it h t he im age fo r
t he ne xt it e m . T hus , yo u fo r m a v is ual as s o ciat io n be t w e e n t he fir s t t w o
it e m s , t he n be t w e e n t he s e co nd and t hir d it e m s , t he n be t w e e n t he t hir d
and fo ur t h it e m s , and s o o n. Y o u do no t t r y t o as s o ciat e e v e r y it e m w it h
e v e r y o t he r it e m in o ne big p ict ur e ; r at he r , yo u as s o ciat e t he it e m s t w o
at a t im e . T he r e as o n fo r t he nam e o f t his s ys t e m s ho uld be o bv io us :
Y o u ar e link ing t he it e m s t o ge t he r t o fo r m a chain o f as s o ciat io ns .
T he Link s ys t e m is t he m o s t e le m e nt ar y, o f t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s .
I n fact , it m ay r e ally be t o o s im p le t o be calle d a "s ys t e m ." I s o m e t im e s
de s cr ibe t he Link s ys t e m w he n I giv e a s ho r t le ct ur e o n m ne m o nics ,
be caus e , alt ho ugh it is s im p le , it is ade quat e t o illus t r at e t he p r incip le s
o n w hich m ne m o nic s ys t e m s ar e bas e d and ho w p o w e r ful t he y can be fo r
ap p r o p r iat e k inds o f m at e r ial. T he Link s ys t e m is ap p r o p r iat e fo r s e r ial
le ar ning t as k s , w he r e yo u hav e a s e r ie s o f it e m s t o r e m e m be r : T he Link
s ys t e m he lp s yo u r e m e m be r all t he it e m s in o r de r .
Much o f t he dis cus s io n o n m ne m o nics in chap t e r s 7 and 8 w as
illus t r at e d w it h p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning, but s e r ial le ar ning is r e ally no t
v e r y diffe r e nt . S e r ial le ar ning can be v ie w e d as a s e r ie s o f p air e d-
as s o ciat e t as k s w he r e e ach it e m in t he lis t s e r v e s fir s t as t he r e s p o ns e
t o t he p r e v io us it e m and t he n as t he cue fo r t he ne xt it e m . Fo r e xam p le ,
s up p o s e w e hav e fo ur it e m s ide nt ifie d by t he le t t e r s A, B, C, and D. A
p air e d- as s o ciat e t as k w o uld co ns is t o f t w o p air s , A- B and C- D. Y o u w o uld
be cue d w it h A ar id C and w o uld r e s p o nd by r e calling B and D. A s e r ial
le ar ning t as k w o uld co ns is t o f t he s e r ie s A- B- C- D, w hich co uld be v ie w e d
as co ns is t ing o f t hr e e p air s A- B, B- C, and C- D. T hus , s e r ial le ar ning
is s im ilar t o p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning, s o t hat e v e r yt hing dis cus s e d
p r e v io us ly o n r e m e m be r ing p air s o f it e m s is als o r e le v ant t o t he Link and
S t o r y s ys t e m s .
As an e xam p le o f t he Link s ys t e m , s up p o s e yo u w e r e giv e n a lis t
t hat be gins w it h t he fo llo w ing fiv e it e m s : p ap e r , t ir e , do ct o r , r o s e , ball.
T o us e t he Link s ys t e m in r e m e m be r ing t he s e fiv e it e m s , yo u fir s t fo r m
a v is ual as s o ciat io n r e lat ing paper and tire. Y o u m ight p ict ur e a car dr iv ing
o n p ap e r t ir e s , o r us ing a t ir e t o e r as e w r it ing fr o m a p ap e r . N e xt
as s o ciat e tire and doctor. Y o u m ight p ict ur e a t ir e r unning o v e r a do ct o r ,
o r a t ir e p e r fo r m ing an o p e r at io n. T o as s o ciat e doctor and rose, yo u m ight
p ict ur e a do ct o r o p e r at ing o n a r o s e , o r a do ct o r giv ing r o s e s t o a
p at ie nt . T o as s o ciat e rose and ball, yo u m ight p ict ur e t w o p e o p le p laying
cat ch w it h a r o s e , o r balls gr o w ing o n a r o s e bus h. O f co ur s e , it m ay be
jus t as e as y fo r s o m e p e o p le t o r e m e m be r o nly fiv e it e m s w it ho ut us ing
a s ys t e m ; ho w e v e r , t he p r o ce dur e is t he s am e w he t he r yo u hav e 5 it e m s
o r 50 it e m s .
T he v is ual as s o ciat io ns I hav e s ugge s t e d fo r t he s e fiv e it e m s ar e
s o m e p o s s ibilit ie s t hat co m e t o m y m ind; t he y m ay no t be t he m o s t
m e m o r able o ne s fo r yo u. W e hav e s e e n t hat bo t h v is ual and v e r bal
m e diat o r s t e nd t o be m o r e e ffe ct iv e if yo u t hink t hle m up yo ur s e lf t han if
t he y ar e giv e n, t o yo u by s o m e o ne e ls e . S o m e o f t he as s o ciat io ns I
s ugge s t e d abo v e ar e bizar r e and s o m e ar e p laus ible . I f yo u lik e bizar r e -
ne s s , yo u can us e bizar r e im age s ; if no t , yo u can us e p laus ible o ne s as
lo ng as t he y ar e v iv id and int e r act ing. Ge ne r ally, yo u s ho uld us e t he fir s t
as s o ciat io n t hat co m e s t o yo ur m ind, be caus e it w ill lik e ly als o be t he
fir s t o ne t o co m e t o yo ur m ind w he n yo u w ant t o r e call t he it e m s .
W hat e v e r yo ur as s o ciat io n is , us e t he guide s and p r incip le s dis cus s e d in
chap t e r 7 t o fo r m go o d im age s and e ffe ct iv e v is ual as s o ciat io ns .
W he ne v e r I r e ad a lis t o f it e m s t o an audie nce s o t hat t he y can t r y
us ing t he Link s ys t e m , o r any o t he r m ne m o nic s ys t e m , I e m p has ize t w o
addit io nal p o int s . I fir s t t e ll t he m , "Mak e s ur e yo u act ually see e ach o f
yo ur as s o ciat io ns , e v e n if it is o nly a br ie f s e co nd. I f it he lp s at fir s t t o
cut o ut dis t r act io ns , clo s e yo ur e ye s ." T he n I t e ll t he m , "Aft e r I hav e
giv e n yo u s e v e r al it e m s yo u ar e go ing t o s t ar t w o r r ying abo ut fo r ge t t ing
t he fir s t fe w it e m s , and yo u w ill w ant t o go back and r e v ie w t he m . D o n't
go back and r e v ie w , o r yo u w ill m is s t he ne w as s o ciat io ns . Jus t co nce n-
t r at e o n m ak ing a go o d as s o ciat io n fo r e ach it e m as it co m e s , and t r us t
yo ur m e m o r y t hat yo u w ill be able t o ge t t he it e m s back w he n yo u w ant
t he m ."
T o r e call a lis t t hat yo u hav e le ar ne d w it h t he Link s ys t e m , yo u
be gin w it h t he fir s t it e m and p r o ce e d in o r de r as e ach it e m le ads t o t he
ne xt o ne . Fo r o ur e xam p le , t hink o f p ap e r ; s e e t he im age t hat inv o lv e s
p ap e r ; and it r e m inds yo u o f t ir e ; t ir e le ads t o do ct o r ; do ct o r le ads t o
.r o s e ; and r o s e le ads t o ball.
I n t he Link s ys t e m e ach it e m is cue d by t he p r e v io us it e m e xce p t
fo r t he fir s t o ne . Y o u ne e d s o m e w ay t o cue yo ur s e lf t o r e m e m be r t he
fir s t it e m . O ne w ay t o do t his is t o as s o ciat e t he fir s t it e m w it h s o m e t hing
t hat is r e lat e d t o t he lis t and t hat is e as y t o r e m e m be r . Fo r e xam p le , yo u
m ight as s o ciat e t he fir s t w o r d w it h t he s o ur ce o f t he lis t : I f a p e r s o n is
giv ing yo u t he lis t , as s o ciat e t he fir s t it e m o n t he lis t w it h t hat p e r s o n
( t hat is w hat I t e ll m y s t ude nt s t o do w he n I r e ad a lis t t o t he m ); if t he
lis t co m e s fr o m a t e xt bo o k , as s o ciat e t he fir s t it e m w it h t he bo o k . I f t he
lis t is a s ho p p ing lis t , as s o ciat e t he fir s t it e m w it h t he do o r t o t he s t o r e .
WHAT IS THE STORY SYSTEM?
T he S t o r y s ys t e m is a v ar iant o f t he Link s ys t e m in w hich yo u w e av e t he
it e m s int o a co nne ct ing s t o r y. I t is an e xt e ns io n o f t he us e o f s e nt e nce s
as m e diat o r s in p air e d- as s o ciat e t as k s ; yo u jus t co nt inue w it h addit io nal
s e nt e nce s t o fo r m a s t o r y bas e d o n t he it e m s yo u w ant t o r e m e m be r .
Fo r e xam p le , yo u m ight us e s o m e t hing lik e t he fo llo w ing fo r t he p r e v io us
fiv e - it e m lis t : The paperboy r o lle d a tire do w n t he s ide w alk , and it hit t he
doctor co m ing t o m ak e a ho us e call ( no w t hat 's a bizar r e ide a!); it k no ck e d
him int o a r o s e bus h, w he r e he p ick e d up a ball and t hr e w it at t he bo y.
T he p r o ce dur e fo r r e calling it e m s le ar ne d w it h t he S t o r y s ys t e m is
e s s e nt ially t he s am e as w it h t he Link s ys t e m . Be gin w it h t he fir s t it e m
and p r o ce e d t hr o ugh t he s t o r y, p ick ing t he k e y w o r ds o ut as yo u co m e
t o t he m .
Alt ho ugh t he S t o r y s ys t e m is v e r y s im ilar t o t he Link s ys t e m , t he r e
ar e at le as t fo ur diffe r e nce s :
1
1. I n t he Link s ys t e m yo u link e ach p air o f it e m s inde p e nde nt ly o f t he
p r e v io us link s ; in t he S t o r y s ys t e m yo u link t he it e m s in a co nt inuo us ,
int e gr at e d s e que nce . T his lo gical s e que nce m ay be an adv ant age o f
t he S t o r y s ys t e m o v e r t he Link s ys t e m fo r s o m e p e o p le w ho find it
e as ie r t o r e call a s t o r y t han a s e r ie s o f unr e lat e d as s o ciat io ns .
2. T he S t o r y s ys t e m m ay r e quir e a lit t le m o r e t im e t o m ak e e ach
as s o ciat io n t han t he Link s ys t e m do e s , be caus e yo u m us t t hink o f an
as s o ciat io n t hat fit s t he nar r at iv e o f t he s t o r y r at he r t han us ing t he
fir s t as s o ciat io n t hat co m e s t o yo ur m ind.
3. T he lo nge r t he lis t , t he har de r it is t o w o r k e ach s ucce e ding it e m
int o an int e gr at e d s t o r y. Mo s t p e o p le find it har d t o p ut t o ge t he r a
s t o r y t o r e m e m be r a lis t o f 20 it e m s . H o w e v e r , it is no t m uch har de r
t o us e t he Link s ys t e m o n a lis t o f 20 it e m s t han o n a lis t o f 10 it e m s .
4. I t e m s le ar ne d by t he Link s ys t e m can be r e calle d in back w ar d o r de r
alm o s t as w e ll as fo r w ar d, but it e m s w o v e n int o a s t o r y m ay be
har de r and t ak e lo nge r t o r e call back w ar d.
T he S t o r y s ys t e m can be us e d e ffe ct iv e ly in v e r bal fo r m w it ho ut
acco m p anying v is ual im age r y, but it is p r o bably m o r e p o w e r ful if yo u
act ually p ict ur e t he e v e nt s hap p e ning as yo u t hink o f t he m . I n fact , t he
Link s ys t e m als o can be us e d w it h v e r bal m e diat o r s by a p e r s o n w ho
canno t us e v is ual im age r y. ( Ve r bal as s o ciat io ns m ay als o be e ffe ct iv e ly
us e d in t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s dis cus s e d in s ubs e que nt chap t e r s ).
2
I f
yo u us e v e r bal m e diat o r s fo r t he Link o r S t o r y s ys t e m s , t he n yo u m ay
be able t o ap p ly t he m m o r e dir e ct ly t o abs t r act m at e r ial w it ho ut hav ing
t o us e co ncr e t e s ubs t it ut e w o r ds .
HOW WELL DO THE LINK AND STORY SYSTEMS WORK?
S e v e r al r e s e ar ch s t udie s up t o t he m id- 1970s fo und t hat t he Link and
S t o r y s ys t e m s can be e ffe ct iv e in le ar ning and r e m e m be r ing w o r d lis t s .
Pe o p le us ing t he Link s ys t e m t yp ically r e m e m be r e d 2 t o 3 t im e s as m any
w o r ds fr o m a 20- w o r d lis t as did p e o p le w ho w e r e no t t aught t he s ys t e m .
S im ilar ly, p e o p le us ing t he S t o r y s ys t e m t o le ar n a do ze n o r m o r e lis t s
o f 10 w o r ds r e m e m be r e d 2 t o 7 t im e s as m any w o r ds as did p e o p le no t
us ing t he s ys t e m . T he r e s e ar ch als o fo und t hat t he S t o r y s ys t e m co uld
be us e d e ffe ct iv e ly o n abs t r act w o r ds ( alt ho ugh no t quit e as e ffe ct iv e ly
as o n co ncr e t e w o r ds ), and e v e n t hat s e nt e nce s s t r ung t o ge t he r as
s t o r ie s w e r e r e m e m be r e d be t t e r t han w he n t he y w e r e p r e s e nt e d as
unr e lat e d s e nt e nce s .
3
R e ce nt r e s e ar ch has s up p o r t e d s o m e o f t he o lde r findings and
p r o duce d a fe w ne w ins ight s int o t he Link and S t o r y s ys t e m s . S o m e o f
t he r e ce nt findings o n t he Link s ys t e m include :
4
1. T he s am e lis t o f 20 w o r ds w as le ar ne d and r e calle d in a ne w o r de r
e v e r y fe w m inut e s fo r 5 t im e s w it h s ur p r is ingly fe w e r r o r s , as
co m p ar e d w it h p e o p le le ar ning fiv e diffe r e nt lis t s .
2. I ns t r uct ing p e o p le in t he Link s ys t e m r e duce d t he r ange o f diffe r -
e nce s am o ng p e o p le but did no t e lim inat e t he diffe r e nce s . ( R e call o f
p e o p le us ing t he Link s ys t e m r ange d fr o m 55 t o 97 p e r ce nt v e r s us
29 t o 95 p e r ce nt fo r t ho s e no t us ing t he Link s ys t e m .)
3. T he Link w as e ffe ct iv e fo r 12 w o r ds in im m e diat e r e call but no t o ne
w e e k lat e r .
4. T he Link s ys t e m w as m o r e e ffe ct iv e t han jus t im age r y o r r e he ar s al
in a fr e e r e call t as k , but it s e ffe ct iv e ne s s w as e v e n gr e at e r w he n t he
o r de r o f r e call o f t he w o r ds w as co ns ide r e d.
5. Pe o p le w ho w e r e giv e n s o m e p r act ice us ing t he Link s ys t e m ( w hich
t he y ar e us ually no t giv e n in r e s e ar ch s t udie s ) w e r e able t o im p r o v e
t he ir p e r fo r m ance t o w he r e t he y co uld s o o n r e m e m be r lis t s o f 30 t o
40 w o r ds .
Mo s t o f t he s e r e ce nt s t udie s , lik e t he e ar lie r o ne s , us e d w o r d lis t s .
O ne o f t he m ne m o nis t s ( T .E .) de s cr ibe d in chap t e r 3 w ho had an
e xce p t io nal m e m o r y fo r s t o r ie s us e d t he Link s ys t e m and s ubs t it ut e
w o r ds . I n a s t udy t o s e e if t he Link s ys t e m co uld be us e d t o r e m e m be r
e r r ands , o r t hings t o do , co lle ge s t ude nt s w e r e giv e n a lis t o f 22 e r r ands
t o r e m e m be r ( ge t a hair cut , ge t gas in t he car , e t c.). T he y he ar d t he lis t
o nce w it h a 10- s e co nd p aus e aft e r e ach e r r and. T he s t ude nt s w ho had
be e n t aught t he Link s ys t e m r e m e m be r e d s ignificant ly m o r e e r r ands
t han t ho s e no t t aught t he s ys t e m . S t ude nt s fr o m t he s e co nd gr o up w ho
us e d t he ir o w n v is ual im age r y m ne m o nic als o r e calle d s ignificant ly m o r e
e r r ands t han did t he o t he r s t ude nt s ( abo ut t he s am e as t he s t ude nt s w ho
w e r e t aught t he Link s ys t e m ).
5
S e v e r al s t udie s o n t he S t o r y s ys t e m hav e als o fo und it t o be e ffe ct iv e
fo r e le m e nt ar y s cho o l childr e n and co lle ge s t ude nt s , fo r im m e diat e and
de laye d m e m o r y, and fo r fr e e r e call, s e r ial r e call, and r e co gnit io n.
E xp e r im e nt e r - p r o v ide d s t o r ie s w e r e fo und t o be e ffe ct iv e fo r r e m e m be r -
ing fiv e lis t s o f s ix w o r ds e ach. H o w e v e r , alt ho ugh s t udie s hav e fo und
t hat t he S t o r y s ys t e m he lp s in le ar ning s e v e r al s ho r t lis t s ( up t o 16
w o r ds ), t he findings fo r le ar ning a lo nge r lis t ( up t o 30 w o r ds ) hav e be e n
m ixe d; s o m e r e s e ar ch fo und t hat s e lf- ge ne r at e d s t o r ie s w e r e e ffe ct iv e
fo r a lo ng lis t , but o ne s t udy did no t .
6
T he Link and S t o r y s ys t e m s hav e als o be e n fo und t o be e ffe ct iv e in
a no nw e s t e m cult ur e and fo r s p e cial p o p ulat io ns . T he Link s ys t e m w as
us e d e ffe ct iv e ly by co lle ge s t ude nt s in I ndia. A s t o r y he lp e d chr o nic
o r ganic am ne s iac p at ie nt s r e m e m be r w o r d lis t s ; t he y im p r o v e d as m uch
as t he no r m al co m p ar is o n gr o up , alt ho ugh t he ir r e call w as lo w e r . O t he r
r e s e ar ch co m p ar e d acr o nym s and t he S t o r y, Link , and Lo ci s ys t e m s
( chap t e r 10) fo r w o r d lis t s w it h no r m al p e o p le and w it h br ain- dam age d
p at ie nt s . T he Link and S t o r y s ys t e m s w e r e bo t h fo und t o be m o r e
e ffe ct iv e t han no m e t ho d, and t he S t o r y s ys t e m w as t he m o s t e ffe ct iv e
m ne m o nic fo r bo t h gr o up s fo r r e call 24 ho ur s lat e r .
7
Demonstrations
I n addit io n t o t he r e s e ar ch s t udie s , de m o ns t r at io ns by m y audie nce s and
m e m o r y s t ude nt s s ho w t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f t he Link and S t o r y s ys t e m s .
I fr e que nt ly us e t he Link s ys t e m t o he lp p e o p le de m o ns t r at e t o t he m -
s e lv e s t he p o w e r o f v is ual as s o ciat io n, be caus e I can e xp lain t he s ys t e m
t o t he m in abo ut 5 m inut e s and le t t he m t r y it . I r e ad t o t he m a lis t o f 20
w o r ds t o r e m e m be r , and hav e t he m w r it e as m any as t he y can r e call in
o r de r . T he n I t e ach t he m t he Link s ys t e m . Finally, I r e ad t o t he m a
s e co nd lis t o f 20 w o r ds t o r e m e m be r us ing t he Link s ys t e m , and hav e
t he m r e call as m any as t he y can in o r de r . Ve r y fe w p e o p le r e call all 20
w o r ds fr o m t he fir s t lis t ( t ho s e w ho do ge ne r ally us e s o m e k ind o f
m ne m o nic t e chnique ). H o w e v e r , aft e r le ar ning t he Link s ys t e m , abo ut
half t he audie nce ge ne r ally r e calls all 20 w o r ds fr o m t he s e co nd lis t .
Many o f t he m ar e as t o unde d at t he ir o w n p e r fo r m ance .
I n m y m e m o r y co ur s e I giv e m y s t ude nt s s e v e r al m e m o r y t e s t s
dur ing t he fir s t co up le o f clas s p e r io ds , and t he n giv e t he m t he s am e
t e s t s lat e r in t he co ur s e . O ne o f t he t e s t s is t he s am e o ne I de s cr ibe d
fo r m y le ct ur e audie nce s t o r e m e m be r a lis t o f 20 w o r ds aft e r he ar ing
t he m o nce at a r at e o f o ne w o r d e v e r y 10 s e co nds . T he fo llo w ing
s um m ar ize s t he p e r fo r m ance o f abo ut 100 s t ude nt s in s e v e r al r e ce nt
clas s e s : Be fo r e le ar ning t he Link and S t o r y s ys t e m s , 18 p e r ce nt o f t he
s t ude nt s r e calle d all 20 w o r ds . ( Mo s t o f t he 18 p e r ce nt us e d t he Link o r
S t o r y s ys t e m o r a s im ilar m ne m o nic t hat t he y had le ar ne d be fo r e t he
clas s .) S e v e r al w e e k s lat e r , us ing t he s ys t e m s , t he p e r ce nt age o f
s t ude nt s r e calling all 20 w o r ds incr e as e d t hr e e fo ld t o 54 p e r ce nt . At t he
o t he r e nd o f t he p e r fo r m ance s cale , t he p e r ce nt age o f s t ude nt s r e calling
fe w e r t han 14 w o r ds w as 40 p e r ce nt be fo r e le ar ning t he s ys t e m s and 15
p e r ce nt aft e r le ar ning t he s ys t e m s .
T he s e r e s ult s fr o m m y m e m o r y clas s e s ar e m o r e s t r ik ing t han
t ho s e fo und in s o m e r e s e ar ch s t udie s be caus e o f s e v e r al p r o ce dur al
diffe r e nce s . Fo r e xam p le , I giv e m y s t ude nt s abo ut 10 s e co nds p e r w o r d;
t his p r e s e nt at io n r at e is s lo w e r t han t hat us e d in m o s t r e s e ar ch s t udie s .
Als o , t he s am e p e o p le le ar n bo t h lis t s o f w o r ds ( o ne lis t be fo r e le ar ning
t he s ys t e m s and o ne us ing t he s ys t e m s ), r at he r t han co m p ar ing s o m e
p e o p le w ho us e d t he s ys t e m w it h o t he r s w ho did no t us e it , as is do ne
in m o s t r e s e ar ch s t udie s .
T hus , t he r e is co ns ide r able e v ide nce t hat t he Link and S t o r y
s ys t e m s r e ally can m ak e a diffe r e nce in m e m o r y. I t is im p o r t ant t o no t e
als o t hat p e o p le in t he r e s e ar ch s t udie s and s o m e o f t he de m o ns t r at io ns
w e r e us ing t he s ys t e m s fo r t he fir s t t im e . W it h p r act ice , yo u co uld
e xp e ct t o be co m e e v e n m o r e e ffe ct iv e in us ing t he s ys t e m s . ( T his
co ns ide r at io n als o ap p lie s t o t he r e s e ar ch o n t he Lo ci, Be g, and Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m s dis cus s e d in t he ne xt t hr e e chap t e r s .)
Mental Filing Systems: Link and Story Mnemonics 1 3 9
HOW CAN YOU USE THE LINK AND STORY SYSTEMS?
Aft e r he ar ing t he s e s ys t e m s de s cr ibe d t o t his p o int s o m e p e o p le w o nde r
abo ut t he ir us e , be caus e m o s t p e o p le do no t ne e d t o m e m o r ize a lis t o f
20 unr e lat e d w o r ds . O f co ur s e , if t his w e r e t he o nly ap p licat io n, t he n t he
s ys t e m s w o uld p r o bably no t be w o r t h t he e ffo r t o f le ar ning t he m ( e xce p t
p e r hap s t o am aze yo ur fr ie nds ). W hat ar e * s o m e p r act ical s it uat io ns in
w hich t he s ys t e m s co uld be us e d?
Lists
T he Link and S t o r y s ys t e m s can be us e d in alm o s t any s it uat io ns w he r e
yo u w ant t o r e m e m be r lis t s o f t hings . T his m ay s e e m t o be r at he r
r e s t r ict iv e , but act ually t he r e ar e m any k inds o f e v e r yday m e m o r y t as k s
t hat inv o lv e s e r ial le ar ning, o r e v e n fr e e r e call w he r e t he o r de r o f t he
it e m s is no t im p o r t ant ( t he s ys t e m s jus t o r de r t he it e m s t o he lp r e call
t he m ). O ne cat e go r y w o uld include s ho p p ing lis t s and lis t s o f t hings t o
do . T he us e fo r s ho p p ing lis t s is fair ly s t r aight fo r w ar djus t link t he
it e m s o n t he lis t . O ne w o m an w ho at t e nde d o ne o f m y le ct ur e s r e p o r t e d
lat e r t hat s ince s he had s t ar t e d us ing t he Link s ys t e m , s he har dly e v e r
w r o t e do w n he r s ho p p ing lis t s anym o r e . N o t o nly did t he Link s ys t e m
e nable he r t o r e m e m be r t he it e m s but s he had m o r e fun do ing it t hat
w ay.
T he us e o f t he Link o r S t o r y s ys t e m fo r lis t s o f t hings t o do m ay
no t be quit e as s t r aight fo r w ar d as fo r s ho p p ing lis t s , but t he p r o ce dur e
is t he s am e . S up p o s e t hat yo u ne e d t o do t he fo llo w ing t as k s t o m o r r o w :
C all t he ne w s p ap e r o ffice abo ut yo ur s ubs cr ip t io n, ge t t he flat t ir e o n
yo ur car fix e d, go t o t he do ct o r 's o ffice , hav e s o m e r o s e s s e nt t o a
fr ie nd, and p ick up t he t ick e t s fo r t he up co m ing ball gam e . T o he lp yo u
r e m e m be r t he s e it e m s , yo u m ight p ick a k e y w o r d t o r e p r e s e nt e ach o f
t he s e t as k s : paper, tire, doctor, rose, and ball ( D o t he s e w o r ds lo o k
fam iliar ?) T he n link t he w o r ds t o ge t he r o r w e av e t he m int o a s t o r y, as
de s cr ibe d at t he be ginning o f t his chap t e r .
T he s ys t e m s can als o be us e d fo r le ar ning m at e r ial t hat co ns is t s o f
s e p ar at e , o r de r e d p ar t s , s uch as t he am e ndm e nt s t o t he C o ns t it ut io n,
t he T e n C o m m andm e nt s , o r t he nam e s o f t he p r e s ide nt s . T he p r o ce dur e
fo r s uch a t as k is t o p ick a k e y w o r d r e p r e s e nt ing e ach it e m and t he n link
t he w o r ds t o ge t he r o r fo r m a s t o r y w it h t he m . Fo r e xam p le , t o r e m e m -
be r t he T e n C o m m andm e nt s yo u m ight link t he fo llo w ing: O ne go d,
gr av e n im age , s w e ar ing, S abbat h, p ar e nt s , k ill, adult e r y, s t e al, lie , co v e t .
Y o u co uld us e co ncr e t e s ubs t it ut e w o r ds and t he ir p ict ur e s t o r e p r e s e nt
t he t e r m s t hat ar e abs t r act ; t hus , yo u m ight p ict ur e a chur ch m e e t ing t o
r e p r e s e nt Sabbath and a p e r s o n w ho s e face is gr e e n w it h e nv y and w ho
has do llar s igns in his e ye s t o r e p r e s e nt covet.
T he p r o ce dur e fo r r e m e m be r ing a s e r ie s o f p e o p le 's nam e s w o uld
be s im ilar , and can be illus t r at e d by t he e xp e r ie nce o f a w o m an w ho
at t e nde d o ne o f m y le ct ur e s . S he r e p o r t e d t hat s he had us e d t he Link
s ys t e m t o le ar n t he 12 ap o s t le s nam e d in t he N e w T e s t am e nt fo r a
S unday S cho o l le s s o n s he w as giv ing. S he m ade up a s ubs t it ut e w o r d t o
r e p r e s e nt e ach o f t he nam e s ( m at fo r Mat t he w , be at e r fo r Pe t e r , e t c.)
and link e d t he m t o ge t he r . T he n s he s ur p r is e d he r clas s ( and he r s e lf) by
be ing able t o nam e all 12 m e n in o r de r . O t he r s t ude nt s o f m ine hav e
do ne t he s am e t hing w it h t he nam e s o f t he bo o k s in t he O ld and N e w
T e s t am e nt s .
R e m e m be r t hat it e m s t o be r e m e m be r e d by t he Link o r S t o r y
s ys t e m s do no t ne ce s s ar ily hav e t o hav e a nat ur al o r de r t o t he m . A w ife
m ay t hink o f t hings t hat s he w ant s he r hus band t o do w he n he co m e s
ho m e , link t he fir s t t as k t o him , and link e ach s ucce e ding t as k in t he
o r de r t he y co m e t o he r m ind ( t ak e o ut t he gar bage , m o w t he law n,
r e p lace t he hall light bulb, e t c.). S im ilar ly, s he m ay us e t he s am e ,
p r o ce dur e t o r e m e m be r t hings t hat hap p e ne d dur ing t he day t o t e ll him
( a le t t e r cam e fr o m his fo lk s , t he ir s o n go t an "A " o n his ho m e w o r k , t he
do g had p up p ie s , e t c.).
T he S t o r y s ys t e m us ing s ubs t it ut e w o r ds has be e n us e d t o r e m e m -
be r t he nam e s o f t he cr anial ne r v e s ( an alt e r nat iv e t o t he acr o s t ic w e
le ar ne d in chap t e r 7"O n O ld O lym p us '. . ."):
At t he oil factory( o lfact o r y ne r v e ) t he optician( o p t ic) lo o k e d fo r t he occupant
( o culo m o t o r ) o f t he truck ( t r o chle ar ). H e w as s e ar ching be caus e three gems
( t r ige m inal) had be e n abducted( abduce ns ) by a m an w ho w as hiding his face
( facial) and ears ( audit o r y). A glossy photograph ( glo s s o p har ynge al) had be e n
t ak e n o f him , but it w as t o o vague( v agus ) t o us e . H e ap p e ar e d t o be spineless
( s p inal acce s s o r y) and hypocritical( hyp o glo s s al).
8
A s im ilar e xam p le o f a us e o f t he S t o r y s ys t e m is t he fo llo w ing s t o r y
us e d t o r e m e m be r t he nam e s o f t he 13 o r iginal s t at e s in t he o r de r t he y
e nt e r e d t he U nio n:
A lady fr o m Delawarebo ught a t ick e t o n t he Pennsylvaniar ailr o ad. S he p ack e d a
new jerseys w e at e r in he r s uit cas e , and w e nt t o v is it he r fr ie nd Georgia in
Connecticut T he ne xt m o r ning s he ^nd he r fr ie nd at t e nde d massin a chur ch o n
Mary's land. T he n t he y t o o k t he South car lineho m e , and dine d o n a new ham,
w hich had be e n r o as t e d by Virginia( t he co o k fr o m New York). Aft e r dinne r t he y
t o o k t he North car lineand rode to the island.
9
Mental Filing Systems: Link and Story Mnemonics
1 4 1
A s t ude nt in o ne o f m y m e m o r y clas s e s , w ho w as a s e co nd- gr ade
t e ache r , t r ie d t his s t o r y w it h he r s t ude nt s and w as s o im p r e s s e d w it h
ho w fas t t he y le ar ne d t he s t at e s t hat s he calle d t he p r incip al in t o s e e
w hat t he childr e n had acco m p lis he d in s uch a s ho r t t im e . T w o w e e k s
lat e r , w it h s o m e int e r m it t e nt r e v ie w , 26 o f t he 33 childr e n co uld s t ill
r e call at le as t 12 o f t he 13 s t at e s .
A k ind o f S t o r y m e t ho d can e v e n be us e d t o le ar n e quat io ns , s uch
as t he e quat io n fo r changing Fahr e nhe it ( F) t e m p e r at ur e t o C e nt igr ade
( C ): F = 9/5C + 32. T he s e nt e nce is "Fr iday ( F) is t he s am e ( = ) 9 t o
5 ( 9/5) dr ag in C o lle ge ( C ); but I 'v e o nly go t 32 m inut e s ( 32) t o go ! "
10
Speeches or Reports
Ano t he r p o s s ible us e o f t he Link o r S t o r y s ys t e m is fo r r e m e m be r ing
s p e e che s . ( Bis ho p Fult o n J . S he e n s aid t hat t he r e as o n he s p o k e w it ho ut
no t e s w as be caus e an o ld I r is h lady w at ching a bis ho p r e ad his s e r m o n
r e m ar k e d, "I f he can't r e m e m be r it , ho w do e s he e xp e ct us t o ?")
11
S up p o s e yo u w ant t o m ak e t he fo llo w ing p o int s in a s p e e ch t o yo ur lo cal
PT A gr o up : A t r affic light s ho uld be ins t alle d at t he int e r s e ct io n by t he
s cho o l; a fe nce s ho uld be co ns t r uct e d alo ng t he s ide o f t he p laygr o und
by t he s t r e e t ; funds ne e d t o be r ais e d t o buy m o r e m us ical ins t r um e nt s
fo r t he s cho o l; clas s r o o m s ar e t o o cr o w de d; s o m e change s s ho uld be
m ade in t he r o ut e o f t he s cho o l bus ; and t he m e dia s e ct io n o f t he libr ar y
ne e ds e xp anding.
T he fir s t s t e p in us ing t he Link o r S t o r y s ys t e m t o r e m e m be r yo ur
p o int s is t o p ick a co ncr e t e k e y w o r d t o r e p r e s e nt e ach p o int : t r affic
light , fe nce , m us ical ins t r um e nt s , cr o w de d clas s r o o m , bus , audio v is ual
s up p lie s . ( Y o u m ay w ant t o be m o r e s p e cific and us e t r o m bo ne s fo r
m us ical ins t r um e nt s and v ide o t ap e s fo r audio v is ual s up p lie s .) O nce yo u
p ick yo ur k e y w o r ds , yo u jus t link t he m in t he o r de r yo u w ant t o t alk
abo ut t he m .
Mar k T w ain r e p o r t e dly t r ie d s e v e r al s ys t e m s fo r r e m e m be r ing his
s p e e che s . Finally, he hit o n t he ide a o f cr e at ing v is ual im age s . H e w o uld
act ually dr aw t he p ict ur e s r e p r e s e nt ing his ide as . H e r e is an e xam p le .
Fir s t a hays t ack w it h a w iggly line unde r it t o r e p r e s e nt a r at t le s nak e t o r e m ind
him t o be gin t alk ing abo ut r anch life in t he W e s t . T he n t he r e w e r e s lant ing line s
w it h w hat m us t be an um br e lla unde r t he m and t he R o m an num e r al I I . T hat
r e fe r r e d t o a gr e at w ind t hat w o uld s t r ik e C ar s o n C it y e v e r y aft e r no o n at 2
o 'clo ck .
N e xt cam e a co up le o f jagge d line s , light ning, o bv io us ly t e lling him it w as
t im e t o m o v e o n t o t he s ubje ct o f w e at he r in S an Fr ancis co , w he r e t he p o int w as
t hat t he r e w as n't any light ning, o r t hunde r e it he r , he no t e d.
Fr o m t hat day, T w ain s p o k e w it ho ut no t e s , and t he s ys t e m ne v e r Me d him .
H e dr e w a p ict ur e o f e ach s e ct io n o f his s p e e ch, all s t r ung o ut in a r o w , t he n he 'd
lo o k at t he m and de s t r o y t he m . W he n he s p o k e , t he r e w as t he r o w o f im age s
fr e s h and s har p in his m ind. H e 'd m ak e no t e s bas e d o n t he r e m ar k s o f a p r e v io us
s p e ak e r jus t ins e r t ano t he r p ict ur e in t he s e t o f im age s .
12
T w ain's s ys t e m w as s o go o d, he s aid, t hat 25 ye ar s aft e r he had
giv e n a s p e e ch he co uld r e m e m be r t he w ho le t hing by a s ingle act o f
r e call. O f co ur s e , yo u w ill be able t o r e co gnize T w ain's s ys t e m as an
ap p licat io n o f t he Link and S t o r y s ys t e m s .
T he s am e s ys t e m fo r le ar ning yo ur s p e e ch co uld be ap p lie d als o t o
r e m e m be r ing s p e e che s o t he r p e o p le giv e , o r t o r e m e m be r ing le ct ur e s in
s cho o l. Y o u can link t he p o int s t o ge t he r in o r de r as t he s p e ak e r co v e r s
t he m . O f co ur s e , t his r e quir e s s k ill at fo r m ing as s o ciat io ns r ap idly, and
als o r e quir e s t hat yo u co nce nt r at e o n t he s p e e ch t o be able t o s e le ct t he
k e y p o int s . W it h p r act ice , yo u m ay e v e n be able t o ap p ly t he s am e
p r o ce dur e t o r e m e m be r ing w hat yo u r e ad.
13
Other Uses
E xp e r ie nce s r e p o r t e d by s e v e r al s t ude nt s in m y m e m o r y clas s s ugge s t
t hat t he Link and S t o r y s ys t e m s can be us e d p r o fit ably in s cho o l. O ne
s t ude nt us e d t he Link s ys t e m t o he lp him co m p le t e a s e lf- p ace d p hys ics
co ur s e . T he co ur s e e m p lo ye d a 24- chap t e r t e xt bo o k , a 6- unit s t udy
guide , a s e r ie s o f film s o n t he m ajo r unit s , and o p t io nal film e d le ct ur e s .
T he s t ude nt link e d t he info r m at io n unde r e ach unit t o acquir e a chain p f
info r m at io n r e lat ing t o e ach unit , and t he n as s o ciat e d e ach chain t o t he
ap p r o p r iat e film . T hus , he co uld us e t he film s t o cue him s e lf as t o w hich
chain o f info r m at io n he ne e de d, and t he chain t o ge t t he info r m at io n.
U s ing t his filing s ys t e m , he co m p le t e d t he o ne - s e m e s t e r co ur s e in t w o
w e e k s and o bt aine d A's o n all fo ur e xam s ! H e w r o t e , "T he clas s w as a
fir s t o f it s k ind fo r m e , s o I w as a lit t le le e r y o f ho w I w o uld p e r fo r m ,"
and he r e p o r t e d ( r at he r s ur p r is e d) t hat "t he r e s ult s w e r e quit e am azing."
Ano t he r s t ude nt r e p o r t e d t hat o ne t e s t co nt aining fiv e fill- in- t he -
blank que s t io ns fr o m fo ur chap t e r s o f r e ading had he r t hink ing t hat s he
had t o s p e nd at le as t 4 ho ur s jus t acquaint ing he r s e lf w it h t he m at e r ial.
S he r e p o r t e d t hat , "W he n t im e w as e at e n aw ay t o 1 ho ur I had t o m ak e
a las t - dit ch e ffo r t and fe lt t hat t he o nly he lp I had w as m ne m o nics . U s ing
t he Link s ys t e m , aft e r 1 ho ur o f s t udy I w as able t o ans w e r fiv e o f fiv e
que s t io ns co r r e ct ly, w it h le s s r e call t im e t han us ual."
O ne s t ude nt de s cr ibe d ho w s he us e d t he Link s ys t e m t o p r e p ar e
fo r an e s s ay t e s t o n a t e xt chap t e r o n R o o s e v e lt 's N e w D e al p r o gr am s .
Aft e r le ar ning t he Act s and Adm inis t r at io ns he cr e at e d, s he gr o up e d
t he m int o t hr e e cat e go r ie s o f abo ut a half- do ze n e ach and us e d t he Link
s ys t e m t o r e m e m be r t he lis t s . S he r e p o r t e d t hat t he r e w e r e 10 e s s ay
que s t io ns , and us ing t he s e lis t s , "I w as able t o r e call t he w ho le chap t e r
and co uld e ffe ct iv e ly ans w e r e ach que s t io n. R e s ult s o f t he t e s t ? A! "
Ano t he r s t ude nt us e d t he Link and s t o r y s ys t e m s t o r e m e m be r 20 FC C
r ule s and r e gulat io ns r e gar ding r adio s t at io ns . S he t o o k abo ut 45 m inut e s
t o m ak e up s ubs t it ut e w o r ds and link t he m , and r e m e m be r e d all t he
r ule s t hr e e days lat e r w it h no r e v ie w in be t w e e n.
T he Link s ys t e m can he lp in le ar ning fo r e ign language s . Jacque s
R o m ano , w ho die d in 1962 at t he age o f 98, w as no t e d fo r his r e m ar k able
m e m o r y. H e w as e s p e cially no t e d fo r his abilit y t o s p e ak m any fo r e ign
language s . R o m ano fo und t hat he ne e de d o nly abo ut 125 bas ic w o r ds t o
co m m unicat e in a ne w language . H e co uld acquir e t his bas ic v o cabular y
in abo ut t w o w e e k s by le ar ning 10 w o r ds a day. ( T his t im e co uld p r o bably
be s ho r t e ne d by us ing t he Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic de s cr ibe d in chap t e r 7.)
H e t he n built int e r lo ck ing chains o f ne w w o r ds by link ing t he m t o t he 125
bas ic w o r ds and incr e as e d his v o cabular y unt il he be cam e flue nt in t he
language .
14
S o m e le ar ning t as k s m ay inv o lv e bo t h s e r ial le ar ning and p air e d-
as s o ciat e le ar ning, and t hus co uld co m bine t he Link s ys t e m and t he
Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic. Fo r e xam p le , be ing able t o giv e t he cap it al cit y o f
e ach s t at e w he n s o m e o ne t e lls yo u t he s t at e nam e , o r t he v ice - p r e s ide nt
w he n s o m e o ne t e lls yo u e ach p r e s ide nt 's nam e , is a p air e d- as s o ciat e
t as k . But ho w abo ut be ing able t o r e call e ach s t at e nam e and it s cap it al?
Y o u co uld us e t he Link s ys t e m t o link t he s t at e nam e s t o ge t he r , and t he
Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic t o as s o ciat e t he cap it al t o e ach s t at e .
O f co ur s e , t he s e e xam p le s o f p o s s ible us e s o f t he Link and S t o r y
s ys t e m s do no t e xhaus t all t he p o s s ibilit ie s . T he y ar e giv e n t o s ho w t hat
m ne m o nic s ys t e m s r e ally do hav e p r act ical v alue , and t o s ugge s t ide as
t hat m ay s t ir up yo ur im aginat io n fo r ap p licat io ns t hat m ight be t t e r fill
yo ur o w n ne e ds . I n addit io n, p o p ular m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k s co nt ain
num e r o us e xam p le s o f ho w t o p ut t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s t o p r act ical
us e ; s o m e o f t he e xam p le s in t his chap t e r , as w e ll as in fo llo w ing
chap t e r s , ar e adap t e d fr o m t he s e bo o k s .
15
HAD
Mental Fi l i ng Systems:
Loci Mnemoni c
O
ne lim it at io n o f t he Link and S t o r y s ys t e m s dis cus s e d in t he
p r e v io us chap t e r s t e m s fr o m t he fact t hat e ach it e m is as s o ciat e d
w it h t he p r e v io us it e m s o t hat fo r ge t t ing o ne it e m affe ct s m e m o r y fo r
s ubs e que nt it e m s . T he Lo ci s ys t e m do e s no t hav e t hat lim it at io n. I n t he
Lo ci s ys t e m yo u build up a m e nt al file o f p r e v io us ly m e m o r ize d im age s
w it h w hich yo u can as s o ciat e ne w info r m at io n t o be le ar ne d. T he s e
im age s e xis t inde p e nde nt ly o f t he info r m at io n t o be le ar ne d. T hus , t he
Lo ci s ys t e m fit s t he analo gy o f a m e nt al filing s ys t e m be t t e r t han do e s
t he Link s ys t e m .
WHAT IS THE LOCI SYSTEM?
T he Lo ci s ys t e m is t he m o s t ancie nt m ne m o nic s ys t e m , dat ing back t o
abo ut 500 B.C. I t w as the m ne m o nic s ys t e m unt il abo ut t he m iddle o f t he
s e v e nt e e nt h ce nt ur y, w he n o t he r s ys t e m s , s uch as t he Pe g and Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m s ( dis cus s e d in t he ne xt t w o chap t e r s ), be gan t o e v o lv e . T he
his t o r y o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m has be e n t r ace d in de t ail fr o m 500 B.C.
t hr o ugh t he s e v e nt e e nt h ce nt ur y.
1
T his chap t e r no t e s jus t a fe w int e r e s t -
ing fact s abo ut t he o r igin and ancie nt us e s o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m .
1 4 4
Mental Filing Systems: Loci Mnemonic 145
Origin
T he o r igin o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m is ge ne r ally at t r ibut e d t o t he fo llo w ing
s t o r y t o ld by C ice r o . A p o e t nam e d S im o nide s w as s p e ak ing at a banque t
w he n a m e s s age w as br o ught t o him t hat s o m e o ne w as o ut s ide w ait ing
t o s e e him . W hile S im o nide s w as o ut s ide , t he r o o f o f t he banque t hall
co llap s e d, cr us hing t he o ccup ant s be yo nd r e co gnit io n. S im o nide s w as
able t o ide nt ify t he bo die s by r e m e m be r ing t he p lace s at w hich t he
gue s t s had be e n s it t ing. T his e xp e r ie nce s ugge s t e d t o S im o nide s a
s ys t e m fo r m e m o r izing. N o t ing t hat it w as his m e m o r y o f t he p lace s
w he r e t he gue s t s w e r e s it t ing t hat had e nable d him t o ide nt ify t he m , he
infe r r e d t hat a p e r s o n co uld im p r o v e m e m o r y by as s o ciat ing m e nt al
im age s o f t he it e m s t o be r e m e m be r e d w it h m e nt al im age s o f lo cat io ns
fo r t he it e m s . T his o bs e r v at io n r e p o r t e dly gav e r is e t o t he Lo ci s ys t e m .
T he w o r d loci ( p r o no unce d LO s i) is t he p lur al o f locus, w hich
m e ans "p lace o r lo cat io n"; t his is als o t he m e aning o f t he Gr e e k topo.
T hus , t he Lo ci s ys t e m , w hich has als o be e n calle d t he "T bp ical" s ys t e m ,
is t he s ys t e m t hat us e s p lace s o r lo cat io ns . T he Lo ci s ys t e m w as us e d
by Gr e e k and R o m an o r at o r s t o r e m e m be r lo ng s p e e che s w it ho ut no t e s .
O r at o r s v is ualize d o bje ct s t hat r e p r e s e nt e d t he t o p ics t o be co v e r e d in
t he ir s p e e che s , and t he n m e nt ally p lace d t he o bje ct s in diffe r e nt lo ca-
t io ns us ually p ar t s o f a building. T he y t he n m o v e d t hr o ugh t his building
m e nt ally w hile de liv e r ing t he s p e e ch, r e t r ie v ing t he o bje ct im age s fr o m
t he lo cat io ns as t he y cam e t o t he m . T his us e o f p lace s t o r e m e m be r
s p e e che s m ay be t he o r igin o f t he e xp r e s s io n, "in t he fir s t p lace ," and o f
t he r e fe r e nce t o "t o p ics " in s p e e che s .
How to Use It
T he Lo ci s ys t e m co ns is t s bas ically o f t w o s t e p s . Fir s t , m e m o r ize
( o v e r le ar n) a s e r ie s o f m e nt al im age s o f fam iliar lo cat io ns in s o m e nat ur al
o r lo gical o r de r . T his s e r ie s o f lo cat io ns is yo ur m e nt al filing s ys t e m ,
w hich yo u can us e o v e r again fo r diffe r e nt lis t s o f it e m s . T his is an
im p o r t ant fe at ur e , be caus e t he s ys t e m w o uld har dly be w o r t h t he e ffo r t
if yo u had t o m e m o r ize a ne w s e t o f lo cat io ns e v e r y t im e yo u w ant e d t o
m e m o r ize a ne w fis t o f it e m s ; yo u w o uld hav e t w ice as m uch t o le ar n
e ach t im e . S e co nd, as s o ciat e a v is ual im age o f e ach it e m t o be r e m e m -
be r e d w it h a lo cat io n in t he s e r ie s ; do t his by v is ually p lacing t he it e m s ,
in t he o r de r t he y ar e t o be r e m e m be r e d, in t he lo cat io ns as yo u t ak e an
im aginar y w alk p as t t he lo cat io ns . Lo cat io ns hav e t he adv ant age s o f be ing
co ncr e t e ( t hus e as y t o v is ualize ) and o f be ing le ar ne d in a nat ur al s e r ial
o r de r .
146
Y O U R ME MO R Y
Le t us co ns ide r an e xam p le . Pict ur e in yo ur m ind e ach o f t he
fo llo w ing lo cat io ns in a ho us e w it h w hich yo u ar e v e r y fam iliar . T he fir s t
lo cat io n is t he fr o nt w alk t hat le ads up t o t he ho us e . T he s e co nd lo cat io n
is t he fr o nt p o r ch. T he t hir d lo cat io n is t he fr o nt do o r . T he fo ur t h
lo cat io n is t he co at clo s e t w he r e yo u hang yo ur co at aft e r e nt e r ing t he
ho us e ( o r t he co r ne r w he r e yo u t hr o w it ). T he fift h lo cat io n is t he ne xt
lo gical p lace t o go t he r e fr ige r at o r . Pict ur e yo ur s e lf t ak ing a w alk up
t he fr o nt w alk , o nt o t he p o r ch, t hr o ugh t he do o r , t o t he clo s e t , and t he n
t o t he r e fr ige r at o r . Mak e s ur e yo u s e e e ach o f t he s e lo cat io ns in yo ur
m ind as cle ar ly as p o s s ible w hile t ak ing yo ur m e nt al w alk .
N o w s up p o s e yo u w ant t o us e t he s e lo cat io ns t o r e m e m be r t he
s am e fiv e it e m s w e dis cus s e d in chap t e r 9: p ap e r , t ir e , do ct o r , r o s e , and
ball. ( As I no t e d in chap t e r 9, it m ay no t be w o r t h t he e ffo r t t o le ar n a
s ys t e m fo r o nly 5 it e m s , but t he p r o ce dur e is t he s am e fo r 50 it e m s .)
Y o u m ight p r o ce e d as fo llo w s : As s o ciat e paper w it h yo ur fr o nt w alk ; yo u
m ight s e e it m ade o f p ap e r ( w hich yo u can he ar cr ink ling unde r yo ur fe e t
as yo u w alk o n it ), o r s e e yo ur ne w s p ap e r co m ing do w n t he w alk t o m e e t
yo u. As s o ciat e tire w it h p o r ch; yo u m ight s e e t ir e s r o lling o ff yo ur p o r ch,
o r s e e yo ur p o r ch m ade o f t ir e s . As s o ciat e doctor w it h do o r ; yo u m ight
s e e a do ct o r hanging o n t he do o r k no b, o r s t uck in t he do o r w ay. As s o ciat e
rose w it h fr o nt clo s e t ; yo u m ight s e e t he clo s e t co m p le t e ly e m p t y e xce p t
fo r a r o s e bus h gr o w ing fr o m t he s he lf, o r s e e a lar ge r e d r o s e hanging
fr o m a co at hange r . Finally, as s o ciat e ball w it h r e fr ige r at o r ; yo u m ight
s e e yo ur r e fr ige r at o r in t he s hap e o f a giant ball, o r hundr e ds o f balls
r o lling o ut o f t he r e fr ige r at o r w he n yo u o p e n t he do o r .
N o w t ak e a m e nt al w alk t hr o ugh t he s e fiv e lo cat io ns and t r y
r e t r ie v ing t he fiv e it e m s . Y o u w ill p r o bably find t his t as k t o be r at he r
e as y. T he Lo ci s ys t e m e nable s yo u t o change a fr e e - r e call t as k in t hr e e
w ays t o he lp r e call:
1. T he t as k is change d t o an aide d- r e call t as k be caus e yo u can us e t he
lo cat io ns as aids t o cue yo ur s e lf.
2. T he t as k inco r p o r at e s p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning, w it h t he lo cat io n
s e r v ing as t he fir s t w o r d in e ach p air and t he it e m s e r v ing as t he
s e co nd w o r d.
3. T he t as k inco r p o r at e s s e r ial le ar ning be caus e t he lo cat io ns ar e
o r ganize d in a nat ur al s e r ial o r de r .
I t is no t difficult t o co ns t r uct s e v e r al e xt e ns iv e m e nt al file s o f
lo cat io ns . I n t he ho us e yo u co uld co nt inue t o t he liv ing r o o m , t o t he
be dr o o m , and t he n o n t o e ach r o o m in yo ur ho us e ; t he n yo u co uld go
do w ns t air s , o ut int o t he yar d, e t c. Y o u co uld incr e as e t he num be r o f lo ci
in yo ur s e r ie s by v is ualizing t w o o r t hr e e dis t inct iv e lo cat io ns in e ach
r o o m ( fo r e xam p le , t he r e fr ige r at o r , t able , and s ink in t he k it che n; t he
co uch, w indo w , and t e le v is io n in t he liv ing r o o m ; and t he be d, dr e s s e r ,
and clo t he s clo s e t in t he be dr o o m ). O t he r buildings co uld als o be us e d,
s uch as a fam iliar s cho o l building, o ffice building, o r s t o r e . N o r ar e yo u
lim it e d t o buildings . Y o u co uld t ak e a w alk t hr o ugh yo ur ne ighbo r ho o d,
o r do w nt o w n, and co ns t r uct a file o f m e nt al lo cat io ns . A fam iliar go lf
co ur s e has at le as t 36 r e ady- m ade lo cat io ns ( 18 t e e s and 18 gr e e ns ). Y o u
co uld als o us e diffe r e nt p ar t s o f yo ur o w n bo dy, o r o f yo ur aut o m o bile ,
fo r lo ci.
Other Features
T he char act e r is t ics o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m hav e be e n analyze d in s o m e de t ail
t o e xp lain how and why it w o r k s . ( R e s e ar ch o n how well it w o r k s is
dis cus s e d lat e r .) I n addit io n t o s o m e o f t he char act e r is t ics w e hav e s e e n
s o far , fiv e m o r e fe at ur e s ar e w o r t h no t ing:
2
1. T he Lo ci s ys t e m is s im ilar in unde r lying s t r uct ur e and o p e r a-
t io ns t o m o s t m ne m o nic t e chnique s . Fo r e xam p le , it is bas e d o n t he
s am e p r incip le s , and s har e s e s s e nt ially t he s am e s t e p s , as o t he r m ne -
m o nics lik e t he Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic in chap t e r 7 and t he nam e - face
m ne m o nic t e chnique s in chap t e r 13.
2. I n ancie nt t im e s it w as r e co m m e nde d t hat t he lo cat io ns be
w ide ly s p ace d. H o w e v e r , it ap p e ar s t o be m o r e im p o r t ant fo r t he lo ci t o
be distinct t han it is fo r t he m t o be distant, at le as t w it h r e s p e ct t o ho w
fas t it e m s can be r e t r ie v e d. C o lle ge s t ude nt s le ar ne d a fis t o f 12 co ncr e t e
w o r ds us ing 12 cam p us buildings as lo ci. T he y w e r e t he n t o ld diffe r e nt
lo cat io ns , o ne at a t im e , and w e r e t im e d o n ho w lo ng it t o o k t o find a
lo cat io n t hat w as e it he r o ne , t w o , o r t hr e e p o s it io ns aw ay fr o m t he
nam e d lo cat io n. T he s e ar ch t im e w as no t r e lat e d t o t he act ual p hys ical
dis t ance s be t w e e n t he lo ci, but was r e lat e d t o t he num be r o f lo ci co v e r e d.
I t t o o k t w ice as lo ng t o find a lo cat io n t w o p o s it io ns aw ay as a lo cat io n
o ne p o s it io n aw ay and t hr e e t im e s as lo ng fo r a lo cat io n t hr e e p o s it io ns
aw ay. T his finding indicat e s t hat p e o p le do no t s k ip o v e r lo ci t o ge t
dir e ct ly t o t he de s ir e d o ne , but p r o ce s s t he int e r v e ning lo ci o ne at a
t im e , s t e p by s t e p ( t he s am e w ay yo u go t hr o ugh yo ur chain o f as s o cia-
t io ns us ing t he Link s ys t e m ).
3. T he t im e it t ak e s t o r e t r ie v e an it e m o f info r m at io n w he n giv e n
t he lo cat io n is abo ut t he s am e fo r abs t r act it e m s as fo r co ncr e t e it e m s ,
but t he t im e t o r e t r ie v e a lo cat io n w he n giv e n t he it e m is s light ly lo nge r
fo r abs t r act it e m s t han fo r co ncr e t e it e m s ( in p r act ice , o f co ur s e , yo u
w ill be m o r e co nce r ne d w it h r e t r ie v ing it e m s w he n giv e n t he lo cat io ns ).
4. I t is im p o r t ant t o fo r m a go o d, s t r o ng as s o ciat io n be t w e e n e ach
it e m and it s co r r e s p o nding lo cat io n ( r e m e m be r t he s am e e m p has is w he n
as s o ciat ing p air s o f it e m s in t he Link s ys t e m ). I f p e o p le le ar n a s e r ie s o f
lo cat io ns but ar e no t t o ld ho w and w he n t o us e t he m , t he y s ho w no
m e m o r y im p r o v e m e nt w hat s o e v e r . T he lo cat io ns ar e e ffe ct iv e r e t r ie v al
cue s o nly if yo u co ns cio us ly as s o ciat e t he m w it h t he lis t it e m s w he n t he
it e m s ar e p r e s e nt e d. ( S im ilar ly, in r e m e m be r ing p air e d- as s o ciat e it e m s ,
im agining a co nt e xt fo r e ach p air has be e n fo und t o he lp r e m e m be r t he m
o nly if t he y ar e p ict ur e d as int e r act ing w it h t he co nt e xt .)
3
5. I t is no t ne ce s s ar y t hat o nly o ne it e m be as s o ciat e d w it h e ach
lo cat io n. Y o u co uld as s o ciat e m o r e t han o ne it e m w it h e ach lo cat io n if
yo u p ict ur e a gr and s ce ne s ho w ing int e r act io ns am o ng all t he it e m s and
t he lo cat io n. T he im p o r t ant p o int is t hat t he s e v e r al it e m s m us t be
simultaneously in m ind. T hus , fo r e xam p le , yo u co uld le ar n a lis t o f 40
it e m s us ing o nly 10 lo ci by as s o ciat ing 4 it e m s w it h e ach lo cat io n.
H o w e v e r , yo u m ay lo s e t he o r de r o f t he it e m s t hat ar e as s o ciat e d w it h
e ach lo cat io n. ( A w ay t o o v e r co m e t his lim it at io n is dis cus s e d lat e r in t he
chap t e r .)
I no t e d at t he be ginning o f t his chap t e r t hat a dis adv ant age o f t he
Link s ys t e m is t hat fo r ge t t ing o ne it e m affe ct s m e m o r y fo r t he fo llo w ing
it e m s ; w he n a p e r s o n do e s no t r e call a w o r d, it is co m m o n t hat t he ne xt
w o r d in t he s e que nce is als o m is s ing.
4
T he Lo ci s ys t e m has an adv ant age
o v e r t he Link s ys t e m in t his r e s p e ct : Fo r ge t t ing o ne it e m do e s no t affe ct
r e call o f s ubs e que nt it e m s in t he Lo ci s ys t e m , be caus e t he it e m s t o be
r e m e m be r e d ar e as s o ciat e d w it h an inde p e nde nt s e r ie s o f lo cat io ns
r at he r t han w it h e ach o t he r .
Lik e t he Link s ys t e m , t he Lo ci s ys t e m e nable s yo u t o r e m e m be r all
t he it e m s and t o r e m e m be r t he m in o r de r . O f co ur s e , bo t h s ys t e m s can
als o be us e d t o r e m e m be r it e m s w he r e t he o r de r is no t im p o r t ant . O ne
lim it at io n o f bo t h t he Link and Lo ci s ys t e m s is t hat t he y do no t e nable
yo u t o dir e ct ly r e t r ie v e an it e m at a p ar t icular p o s it io n o n t he lis t . Fo r
e xam p le , t o find t he t w e lft h it e m in t he Link s ys t e m yo u m us t p r o ce e d
t hr o ugh yo ur link s unt il yo u r e ach t he t w e lft h it e m . Lik e w is e , as w e s aw
e ar lie r in t his s e ct io n, a m e nt al w alk t hr o ugh a s e r ie s o f lo ci is als o a
s t e p - by- s t e p p r o ce s s in w hich t he lo ci ar e ide nt ifie d o ne at a t im e . T hus ,
fo r t he Lo ci s ys t e m yo u m us t w alk t hr o ugh yo ur m e nt al lo cat io ns unt il
yo u r e ach t he t w e lft h lo cat io n and t he n r e t r ie v e t he it e m fr o m t hat
lo cat io n. ( O f co ur s e , t he s am e lim it at io n ap p lie s t o any s e r ially o r de r e d
info r m at io n, e v e n info r m at io n t hat w e hav e le ar ne d v e r y t ho r o ughly. Fo r
e xam p le , can yo u nam e t he t w e lft h le t t e r o f t he alp habe t w it ho ut hav ing
t o co unt t hr o ugh t he le t t e r s ? Mo s t p e o p le canno t r e t r ie v e a le t t e r dir e ct ly
in t his m anne r .) An ancie nt t e chnique t o he lp r e m e m be r t he o r de r o f t he
lo cat io ns w ill als o he lp alle v iat e t his lim it at io n o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m : Giv e
s o m e dis t inguis hing m ar k t o , s ay, e v e r y fift h lo cat io n. Fo r e xam p le , yo u
m ight alw ays p ict ur e a hand ( w it h fiv e finge r s ) in t he fift h lo cat io n and a
10- do I I ar bill in t he t e nt h lo cat io n. T he n, w he n yo u w ant t o r e call t he
t w e lft h it e m , yo u can find t he t e nt h lo cat io n quick ly and hav e t o co unt
o nly t w o m o r e lo cat io ns fr o m t he r e .
HOW WELL DOES THE LOCI SYSTEM WORK?
I n chap t e r 3 s o m e o f t he am azing m e m o r y fe at s p e r fo r m e d by S , t he
R us s ian ne w s p ap e r r e p o r t e r , w e r e de s cr ibe d. T he fo llo w ing p as s age
de s cr ibe s o ne o f t he m e t ho ds S us e d t o p e r fo r m s uch fe at s :
W he n S r e ad t hr o ugh a lo ng s e r ie s o f w o r ds , e ach w o r d w o uld e licit a gr ap hic
im age . And s ince t he s e r ie s w as fair ly lo ng, he had t o find s o m e w ay o f
dis t r ibut ing t he s e im age s in a m e nt al r o w o r s e que nce . Mo s t o ft e n ( and t his habit
p e r s is t e d t hr o ugho ut his life ), he w o uld "dis t r ibut e " t he m alo ng s o m e r o adw ay
o r s t r e e t he v is ualize d in his m ind. . . . Fr e que nt ly he w o uld t ak e a m e nt al w alk
alo ng t hat s t r e e t . . . and s lo w ly m ak e his w ay do w n, "dis t r ibut ing" his im age s at
ho us e s , gat e s , and in s t o r e w indo w s . . . . T his t e chnique o f co nv e r t ing a s e r ie s
o f w o r ds int o a s e r ie s o f gr ap hic im age s e xp lains w hy S co uld s o r e adily r e p r o duce
a s e r ie s fr o m s t ar t t o finis h o r in r e v e r s e o r de r ; ho w he co uld r ap idly nam e t he
w o r d t hat p r e ce de d o r fo llo w e d o ne I 'd s e le ct e d fr o m t he s e r ie s . T o do t his he
w o uld s im p ly be gin his w alk , e it he r fr o m t he be ginning o r e nd o f t he s t r e e t , find
t he im age o f t he o bje ct I had nam e d and "t ak e a lo o k at " w hat e v e r hap p e ne d t o
be s it uat e d o n e it he r s ide o f it .
5
D o e s t hat p r o ce dur e s o und fam iliar ? O f co ur s e , it is e s s e nt ially t he
Lo ci s ys t e m . T he Lo ci s ys t e m is bas e d o n t he as s um p t io n t hat m e m o r y
fo r im agine d lo cat io ns w ill aid m e m o r y fo r it e m s as s o ciat e d w it h t ho s e
lo cat io ns . T hr e e line s o f r e s e ar ch r e le v ant t o t his as s um p t io n hav e be e n
co nduct e d:
1. R e s e ar ch has fo und t hat p e o p le can r e m e m be r t he lo cat io ns o f t hings
t he y hav e s e e n o r he ar d at le as t as e as ily as t he y can r e m e m be r t he
t hings t he m s e lv e s .
2. R e s e ar ch indicat e s t hat m e m o r y fo r lo cat io ns he lp s m e m o r y fo r
m at e r ial and e v e nt s as s o ciat e d w it h t he . lo cat io ns . Fo r e xam p le ,
r e m e m be r ing w he r e w e hav e s e e n a p e r s o n he lp s us r e call t he
p e r s o n's nam e . E v e n childr e n can us e p hys ical lo cat io ns t o aid
m e m o r y.
3. S e v e r al s t udie s o n t he Lo ci s ys t e m it s e lf hav e fo und t hat it can
s ignificant ly im p r o v e m e m o r y fo r lis t s o f it e m s .
C o ns ide r able r e s e ar ch up t o t he m id- 1970s alo ng all t hr e e line s
abo v e has be e n s um m ar ize d e ls e w he r e .
6
Le t us lo o k at s o m e r e ce nt
r e s e ar ch in e ach o f t he s e t hr e e ar e as .
Memory for Locations
H av e yo u e v e r had t he e xp e r ie nce o f no t be ing able t o r e m e m be r s p e cific
info r m at io n but be ing able t o r e m e m be r w he r e yo u s aw it ? Y o u m ight
r e m e m be r t hat it w as o n t he le ft p age , in t he up p e r r ight co r ne r o f t he
p age . Y o u m ay e v e n r e m e m be r w hat p ar t o f t he bo o k it w as in ( fo r
e xam p le , t o w ar d t he e nd o f t he bo o k ). A s im ilar e xp e r ie nce m ay o ccur
w he n w e s e e a p e r s o n w e hav e m e t be fo r e ; w e m ay be able t o r e m e m be r
w he r e w e m e t he r w it ho ut r e m e m be r ing he r nam e . S o m e t im e s w he n I .
s e e fo r m e r s t ude nt s o f m ine o n cam p us , I can p lace w hich clas s r o o m
t he y w e r e in and e v e n w he r e t he y s at in clas s be fo r e I can r e call t he ir
nam e s . T he s e e xp e r ie nce s illus t r at e w hat is m e ant by m e m o r y fo r
lo cat io ns .
T he r e hav e be e n s e v e r al r e ce nt r e s e ar ch s t udie s o n m e m o r y fo r
lo cat io ns and o n us ing lo cat io ns t o aid m e m o r y. S uch r e s e ar ch is r e le v ant
t o t he Lo ci s ys t e m be caus e t he bas is o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m lie s in
as s o ciat ing e v e nt s w it h dis t inct iv e im agine d lo cat io ns . Als o , go o d m e m -
o r y fo r lo cat io n o f p ict ur e s o n t he p age s o f a bo o k w as fo und t o be
p o s it iv e ly r e lat e d t o t he abilit y t o us e t he Lo ci s ys t e m e ffe ct iv e ly.
7
R e s e ar ch has indicat e d t hat lo cat io ns o f o bje ct s and o f p r int e d
m at e r ial o n a p age ar e r e m e m be r e d aut o m at ically. T hat is , w he n yo u ar e
s t udying t he de t ails o f an o bje ct yo u s e e o r t he co nt e nt o f m at e r ial yo u
r e ad, it s lo cat io n s e e m s t o be r e co r de d w it ho ut co ns cio us e ffo r t . T hus ,
fo r e xam p le , w he n p e o p le ar e t r ying t o r e m e m be r w hat a s p e ak e r s aid
o r s o m e t hing t he y r e ad, t he y can r e m e m be r w he r e t he s p e ak e r w as o r
w he r e t he r e ading m at e r ial w as o n t he p age e v e n t ho ugh t he y did no t t r y
co ns cio us ly t o r e co r d t hat lo cat io n dur ing t he o r iginal le ar ning.
8
R e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y fo r lo cat io ns has fo und s o m e diffe r e nce s
be t w e e n e lde r ly and yo ung adult s . Fo r e xam p le , bo t h e lde r ly and yo ung
adult s r e m e m be r e d t he p o s it io ns o f p ict ur e s o n a p age be t t e r t han t he
co r r e s p o nding w o r ds , but t he yo ung adult s did be t t e r o n bo t h k inds o f
r e m e m be r ing. Ano t he r s t udy als o fo und t hat e lde r ly p e o p le had le s s
accur at e r e call o f lo cat io n t han yo unge r adult s ; t he yo ung adult s r e m e m -
be r e d ur ban landm ar k s and t he ir lo cat io ns be t t e r t han t he e lde r ly did.
W he n t he y w e r e t r ying t o r e m e m be r t he landm ar k s , yo ung adult s
s e e m e d t o us e a m e nt al w alk m o r e t o r e call buildings , s ugge s t ing it m ay
be m o r e nat ur al fo r t he m . T his m ay be a p o s s ible w e ak ne s s in us ing t he
Lo ci s ys t e m as o p p o s e d t o t he Link s ys t e m fo r t he e lde r ly, alt ho ugh it
has be e n s ugge s t e d t hat t he y m ight us e t he Link s ys t e m t o he lp t he m
r e m e m be r t he r o ut e s in t he ir m e nt al lo ci.
9
Using Locations to Aid Memory
W e hav e no t e d t he s t o r y o f ho w S im o nide s us e d t he lo cat io ns o f p e o p le
t o r e call t he p e o p le t he m s e lv e s . S im ilar ly, lo cat io ns m ay p r o v ide us w it h
a s ys t e m at ic w ay o f s e ar ching m e m o r y fo r p e o p le . Fo r e xam p le , w he n
t r ying t o r e call t he nam e s o f m y co lle ague s it he lp s m e t o t ak e a m e nt al
w alk p as t t he ir o ffice s and p ict ur e e ach p e r s o n as I co m e t o his o ffice . I
hav e us e d a s im ilar ap p r o ach t o r e call t he nam e s o f all t he s t ude nt s in a
p ar t icular clas s ; I p r o ce e d m e nt ally do w n e ach r o w , p ict ur ing and nam ing
t he o ccup ant o f e ach s e at . T he s e ar e e xam p le s o f us ing lo cat io ns t o aid
m e m o r y.
W e s aw in chap t e r 5 t hat r e call can be affe ct e d by w he t he r it o ccur s
in t he s am e co nt e xt as t he o r iginal le ar ning; t he s e ct io n o n "t hink ing
ar o und it " in chap t e r 3 is als o r e le v ant t o t his s e ct io n. T his finding t hat
p hys ical lo cat io n can he lp r e call als o ap p lie s t o m e m o r y fo r v e r bal m at e r ial
o n a p age . O ne s t udy fo und a p o s it iv e co r r e lat io n be t w e e n ho w w e ll
p e o p le r e m e m be r e d k e y w o r ds fr o m p r o s e and ho w w e ll t he y r e m e m -
be r e d w he r e t he w o r ds w e r e o n t he p age . I n addit io n, cuing t he p e o p le
w it h a w o r d he lp e d t he m r e m e m be r it s p age lo cat io n, and cuing t he m
w it h t he p age lo cat io n he lp e d t he m r e m e m be r t he w o r d.
10
Placing w o r ds o n a p at t e r n o n diffe r e nt p ar t s o f a p age he lp s yo u
le ar n t he w o r ds be t t e r t han if t he y ar e jus t lis t e d in a v e r t ical co lum n,
be caus e yo u can us e t he lo cat io ns o n t he p at t e r n as cue s t o r e t r ie v e t he
w o r ds . O ne s t udy fo und t hat lis t s o f w o r ds ( including abs t r act t e r m s
fr o m a p s ycho lo gy t e xt bo o k ) t hat w e r e p lace d o n diffe r e nt v is ual p at t e r ns
w e r e r e calle d be t t e r t han w o r ds p lace d o n t he s am e p at t e r n. Many
le ar ning and no t e - t ak ing s t r at e gie s ( w e bbing, ne t w o r k ing, m ap p ing, flo w -
char t s , diagr am s , e t c.) hav e be e n de v e lo p e d t o m ak e us e o f t his v is ual
o r ganizat io n o r p at t e r ning o f w o r ds and no t e s o n t he p age . S uch s p at ially
ar r ange d no t e - t ak ing has be e n fo und t o w o r k be t t e r t han r e gular no t e -
t ak ing fo r s t ude nt s as yo ung as fo ur t h gr ade r s .
11
A s ur v e y o f s t ude nt s at t he U niv e r s it y o f Lo ndo n fo und t hat abo ut
half o f t he m had o ft e n us e d s uch a p lace - o n- a- p age m e t ho d.
12
O ne o f m y
m e m o r y s t ude nt s r e p o r t e d t hat in he r S p anis h clas s s he w r o t e r e gular
v e r bs o n t he le ft s ide o f t he p age and ir r e gular v e r bs o n t he r ight . W he n
t ak ing t he t e s t , s he w as able t o r e m e m be r w he t he r a v e r b w as r e gular
o r ir r e gular by t hink ing o f w hich s ide o f t he p age it w as o n. I us e d t he
s am e ap p r o ach t o he lp m y s o n le ar n a fift h- gr ade s p e lling lis t co nt aining
s e v e r al w o r ds e nding in - able o r - ible ( fo r e xam p le , indomitable and
reversible); w e w r o t e t he - able w o r ds o n t he le ft s ide o f t he p age and t he
- ible w o r ds o n t he r ight s ide .
R e s e ar ch us ing m ap s als o s ho w s t he p o w e r o f lo cat io n fo r he lp ing
m e m o r y. Pe o p le le ar ne d t he nam e s o f fict it io us p r o v ince s and cap it als
be t t e r w he n t he nam e s w e r e ar r ange d o n a m ap t han w he n t he y w e r e
jus t lis t e d. O t he r info r m at io n ar r ange d o n m ap s is als o r e calle d be t t e r .
Pe o p le he ar d a p as s age de s cr ibing e v e nt s o n an im aginar y is land. As t he y
lis t e ne d, s o m e s t udie d a m ap o f t he is land w it h fe at ur e s lo cat e d o n it ;
s o m e s t udie d a m ap o ut line w it h t he fe at ur e s lis t e d ne xt t o it ; and s o m e
s t udie d an o ut line w it ho ut any fe at ur e info r m at io n. Pe o p le w ho s aw t he
m ap r e calle d m o r e info r m at io n fr o m t he p as s age as w e ll as m o r e fe at ur e -
r e lat e d info r m at io n. I n ano t he r s t udy, p e o p le w ho cr e at e d t he ir o w n
m ap lik e r e p r e s e nt at io n w hile le ar ning a p as s age r e m e m be r e d m o r e t han
t ho s e w ho did no t . S uch findings s ho w t hat a k no w le dge in v is ual fo r m o f
lo cat io ns can he lp us r e m e m be r a r e lat e d m e s s age .
13
Effectiveness of the Loci System
T he r e s e ar ch dis cus s e d s o far s ho w s t hat w e can r e m e m be r t he lo cat io ns
o f t hings w e s e e and he ar , and t hat w e can us e t he s e lo cat io ns t o he lp us
r e m e m be r t he t hings t he m s e lv e s . C an t he s e t w o fact o r s be co m bine d t o
m ak e t he Lo ci s ys t e m e ffe ct iv e ? T he r e s e ar ch o n lo cat io n and m e m o r y
is int e r e s t ing and us e ful in it s e lf, but it p r o v ide s o nly indir e ct s up p o r t fo r
t he Lo ci s ys t e m . T he Lo ci s ys t e m inv o lv e s us ing im agine d lo cat io ns
r at he r t han lo cat io ns t hat ar e p hys ically p r e s e nt , and im agining t he t o -
be - r e m e m be r e d it e m s in t ho s e lo cat io ns w he r e t he it e m s m ay ne v e r hav e
be e n in r e alit y. R e ce nt s t udie s o n t he Lo ci s ys t e m it s e lf p r o v ide m o r e
dir e ct s up p o r t fo r it .
S e v e r al s t udie s hav e fo und t he Lo ci s ys t e m t o be e ffe ct iv e fo r
r e m e m be r ing w o r d lis t s unde r v ar io us co ndit io ns , including m e m o r y fo r
abs t r act no uns as w e ll as co ncr e t e no uns . O ne s t udy fo und t hat r e call
p e r fo r m ance w it h w e ll- le ar ne d lo ci is e quiv ale nt t o hav ing t he lo ci p hys i-
cally p r e s e nt . I n fact , r e call w as act ually hinde r e d if t he lo ci w e r e v is ible
dur ing le ar ning but no t dur ing r e call, w hich s ugge s t s t hat m e m o r ize d lo ci
hav e an adv ant age o v e r v is ible lo ci t hat m ight no t be t he r e dur ing r e call.
T he us e o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m is no t lim it e d t o w o r d lis t s o r lis t s o f s e p ar at e
it e m s . Fr e s hm e n in a co lle ge "S t udy S k ills " co ur s e w e r e t aught t o us e
t he Lo ci s ys t e m t o r e m e m be r t he m ain ide as in a p r o s e p as s age . T he y
r e calle d 50 p e r ce nt m o r e ide as fr o m a 2,200- w o r d p as s age t han did
s t ude nt s w ho w e r e t aught t r adit io nal s t udy s k ills .
14
Mo s t r e s e ar ch s t udie s o n t he Lo ci s ys t e m lik e t ho s e o n m o s t
o t he r m ne m o nics do no t giv e t he p ar t icip ant s m uch t r aining, and als o
m e as ur e t he ir p e r fo r m ance o n t he ir fir s t at t e m p t t o us e t he s ys t e m . I n
Mental Filing Systems: Loci Mnemonic 1 5 3
o ne s t udy p e o p le w ho w e r e p r o v ide d w it h m o r e ins t r uct io n and m o r e
p r act ice t han us ual p e r fo r m e d s ubs t ant ially be t t e r t han p e o p le w ho w e r e
m e r e ly giv e n t he us ual ins t r uct io n.
15
R e s e ar ch has als o de m o ns t r at e d t hat t he Lo ci s ys t e m can be us e d
e ffe ct iv e ly by s p e cial p o p ulat io ns , s uch as t he e lde r ly ( including us ing t he
s ys t e m t o r e m e m be r a gr o ce r y lis t w hile p ur chas ing gr o ce r ie s ), blind
adult s ( bo t h e lde r ly and yo ung), and br ain- dam age d p at ie nt s .
16
HOW CAN YOU USE THE LOCI SYSTEM?
All o f t he us e s o f t he Link s ys t e m dis cus s e d in chap t e r 9 ar e als o p o s s ible
us e s o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m r e m e m be r ing s ho p p ing lis t s , lis t s o f t hings t o
do , nat ur ally o r de r e d m at e r ial lik e t he T e n C o m m andm e nt s , lis t s o f
nam e s , s p e e che s , and s o o n. T he o nly diffe r e nce is t hat yo u as s o ciat e
e ach it e m w it h a lo cat io n r at he r t han w it h t he p r e v io us it e m . I n addit io n
t o all o f t he abo v e us e s , t he r e ar e s o m e fur t he r us e s fo r t he Lo ci s ys t e m .
A Mental Filing System
T he Lo ci s ys t e m can be us e d lit e r ally as a m e nt al filing s ys t e m . Fo r
e xam p le , do yo u e v e r t hink o f an ide a at a t im e w he n it is inco nv e nie nt t o
w r it e it do w n? Maybe yo u t hink o f s o m e t hing yo u ne e d t o do t o m o r r o w ,
o r o f an ide a fo r a s p e e ch yo u ar e p r e p ar ing, jus t as yo u ar e falling as le e p
at night ; but yo u do no t w ant t o ge t up and t ur n o n t he light t o hunt fo r
p ap e r and p e ncil t o w r it e t he ide a do w n. O r an ide a m ight co m e t o yo u
w he n yo u ar e in a m o v ie t he at e r w he r e it is t o o dar k t o w r it e , o r w hile
yo u ar e dr iv ing do w n t he s t r e e t ( yo ur p as s e nge r s m ight ge t a lit t le
ne r v o us if yo u le t go o f t he s t e e r ing w he e l t o w r it e ), o r in t he m iddle o f
do ing dis he s o r m o w ing t he law n, o r in any o t he r s it uat io n in w hich yo u
canno t im m e diat e ly w r it e an ide a do w n w he n it co m e s t o yo u. T he ne xt
m o r ning, o r aft e r t he m o v ie , o r at t he ne xt s t o p light , o r w he n t he dis he s
o r law n ar e do ne , yo u hav e lo s t t he ide a. Y o u m ight r e m e m be r t hat yo u
had an ide a, but yo u canno t r e m e m be r w hat it w as . O ne s o lut io n t o t his
p r o ble m is t o as s o ciat e t he ide a t o o ne o f yo ur lo cat io ns as s o o n as t he
ide a co m e s t o yo u. Y o u can r e t r ie v e it lat e r and w r it e it do w n fo r m o r e
p e r m ane nt s t o r age if yo u w is h.
S up p o s e , fo r e xam p le , t hat yo u us e a s e r ie s o f lo ci ar o und yo ur
ho us e . Y o u r e call as yo u ar e dr ift ing o ff t o s le e p t hat yo u m us t giv e yo ur
childr e n lunch m o ne y fo r s cho o l t o m o r r o w m o r ning. Y o u m ight p ict ur e
nick e ls , dim e s , and quar t e r s r o lling do w n yo ur fr o nt s ide w alk . W he n yo u
w ak e up in t he m o r ning and r e m e m be r t hat t he r e w as s o m e t hing yo u
ne e de d t o r e m e m be r , yo u can s e ar ch yo ur lo ci fo r it . O r s up p o s e t hat
w hile yo u ar e s it t ing in a dar k m o v ie t he at r e yo u r e m e m be r t hat yo u
ne e d t o p ut a le t t e r o ut fo r t he m ailm an w he n yo u ge t ho m e . Y o u m ight
p ict ur e le t t e r s clut t e r ing up yo ur fr o nt s ide w alk . W he n yo u ge t ho m e and
t hink , "N o w w hat w as it I ne e de d t o do be fo r e I go t o be d?" yo u can
s e ar ch yo ur lo ci and r e call t he t as k .
I f yo u w r it e t hings do w n in a no t e bo o k o r p ut t hings in a file cabine t
fo r m o r e p e r m ane nt s t o r age , yo u m us t s t ill r e m e m be r t o lo o k at yo ur
no t e bo o k o r file cabine t o ccas io nally if t he y ar e go ing t o do yo u any go o d.
Lik e w is e , us ing t he Lo ci s ys t e m as a filing s ys t e m in w hich yo u can
r e co r d it e m s fo r fut ur e r e fe r e nce r e quir e s t hat yo u r e m e m be r t o s e ar ch
t he lo ci. O ft e n t his is no t a p r o ble m ; yo u can r e m e m be r t hat yo u w ant e d
t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hingyo u jus t canno t r e m e m be r w hat it is . H o w e v e r ,
if yo u canno t e v e n r e m e m be r t hat yo u w ant e d t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hing,
o r if yo u us e t he Lo ci s ys t e m r e gular ly, t he n yo u m ay w ant t o ge t int o
t he habit o f hav ing a s e t t im e ( o r t im e s ) e ach day t o s e ar ch yo ur lo ci. Fo r
e xam p le , if yo u t ak e a fe w m inut e s t o r e v ie w yo ur lo ci be fo r e br e ak fas t ,
dur ing lunch, and/o r jus t be fo r e go ing t o be d, t he n yo u w ill no t ne e d t o
m ak e a s p e cial e ffo r t t o r e m e m be r t o s e ar ch yo ur lo ci.
Using the Same Loci Over and Over
I t w as no t e d t hat t he s am e lo ci can be us e d m o r e t han o nce fo r ne w lis t s .
T his p r e s e nt s a p o t e nt ial p r o ble m in p r act ical us e s o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m :
Le ar ning s e v e r al lis t s at t ache d t o t he s am e lo ci m ight le ad t o unw ant e d
int e r fe r e nce . Fo r e xam p le , s up p o s e yo u hav e a s e r ie s o f 20 lo ci and yo u
w ant t o le ar n t hr e e diffe r e nt lis t s o f 20 it e m s e ach. I f all t he it e m s ar e
as s o ciat e d w it h t he s am e s e t o f lo ci, yo u m ight hav e int e r fe r e nce as t o
w hich it e m s ar e o n w hich lis t
S uch int e r fe r e nce is t he bas is o f o ne o f t he m o s t fr e que nt que s t io ns
p e o p le as k w he n I am t e aching t he Lo ci s ys t e m : "I f I us e t he s am e lo ci
o v e r t o le ar n ne w m at e r ial, w o n't t he r e be s o m e co nfus io n be t w e e n t he
ne w and o ld m at e r ial?" I ans w e r : "Y e s , o f co ur s e . . . but t he r e w o n't be
ne ar ly as m uch int e r fe r e nce as yo u w o uld ge t if yo u t r ie d t o m e m o r ize
s e v e r al diffe r e nt s e t s o f m at e r ial mthout any s ys t e m ." I als o p o int o ut
t hat t his p r o ble m is no t as s e r io us in s it uat io ns w he r e yo u o nly w ant t o
r e m e m be r a lis t fo r a s ho r t t im e o r w he r e t he r e is e no ugh t im e ( fo r
e xam p le , a day o r t w o ) be t w e e n le ar ning t he t w o lis t s t o allo w s o m e
fo r ge t t ing o f t he fir s t lis t , be caus e w he n yo u p ut t he ne w lis t in t he
lo cat io ns it w ill w e ak e n t he o ld lis t .
I n addit io n, t he r e ar e t w o w ays t o r e duce s uch int e r fe r e nce . Fir s t ,
yo u can co ns t r uct m ult ip le s e t s o f lo cat io ns s o yo u do no t hav e t o us e
t he s am e s e t m any t im e s in clo s e s ucce s s io n. A s t ude nt co uld s e le ct a
s e t o f lo ci in o ne p ar t o f cam p us t o us e in m e m o r izing m at e r ial fo r o ne
clas s and lo ci in a diffe r e nt p ar t o f cam p us fo r m at e r ial fo r ano t he r clas s .
Pe o p le co uld s im ilar ly hav e o ne s e t o f lo ci ar o und t he ho us e , ano t he r
ar o und t he o ffice , and ano t he r o n a fam iliar ne ighbo r ho o d s t r e e t . T his
w ay, if yo u hav e t hr e e lis t s t o le ar n clo s e t o ge t he r , yo u co uld us e yo ur
ho m e lo ci fo r t he fir s t lis t , yo ur o ffice lo ci fo r t he s e co nd lis t , and yo ur
ne ighbo r ho o d lo ci fo r t he t hir d lis t . Y o u m ight e v e n us e e ach s e t o f lo ci
fo r s p e cific k inds o f m e m o r y s t o r age ; fo r e xam p le , yo ur ho m e lo ci co uld
be us e d t o r e m e m be r t hings t hat co nce r n yo ur ho m e and fam ily, yo ur
o ffice lo ci t o r e m e m be r t hings co nne ct e d w it h w o r k , and yo ur s cho o l lo ci
t o r e m e m be r t hings co nne ct e d w it h s cho o l. I f yo u us e t he Lo ci s ys t e m
e v e r y day, it m ight be w o r t h yo ur t im e t o co ns t r uct s e v e n s e t s o f lo ci s o
t hat yo u can us e a diffe r e nt s e t e v e r y day.
A s e co nd w ay t o r e duce int e r fe r e nce am o ng s e v e r al lis t s le ar ne d
w it h t he s am e lo ci is "p r o gr e s s iv e e labo r at io n"adding e ach s ubs e que nt
w o r d at a p ar t icular lo cat io n t o a p r o gr e s s iv e p ict ur e . R e im agine e ach
e ar lie r it e m in it s lo cat io n w he n yo u as s o ciat e t he ne w it e m by e labo r at ing
a gr and s ce ne o f int e r act ing o bje ct s . Fo r e xam p le , if yo ur fr o nt p o r ch
w e r e t he s e co nd lo cat io n in yo ur s e t o f lo ci, and t he s e co nd w o r d in e ach
o f t hr e e lis t s w e r e swing, hat, and fish, t he n t he s ce ne s m ight be : lis t
o ne a s w ing hanging fr o m yo ur p o r ch; lis t t w o a hat s w inging o n t he
s w ing o n yo ur p o r ch; lis t t hr e e a fis h w e ar ing a hat w hile s w inging o n
yo ur p o r ch. S e v e r al r e s e ar ch s t udie s hav e fo und t hat s uch p r o gr e s s iv e
e labo r at io n do e s he lp r e duce int e r fe r e nce am o ng diffe r e nt lis t s .
17
W hich o f t he s e t w o m e t ho ds o f r e ducing int e r lis t int e r fe r e nce
m ult ip le s e t s o f lo ci and p r o gr e s s iv e e labo r at io nis p r e fe r able ? T he
ans w e r de p e nds o n t he p e r s o n w ho is us ing t he m , but I r e co m m e nd t hat
t he p e r s o n w ho m ay m ak e fr e que nt us e o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m le ar n s e v e r al
diffe r e nt s e t s o f lo ci and us e t he m ult ip le - s e t s m e t ho d. T he be ne fit s o f
hav ing s e v e r al s e t s o f lo ci ar e p r o bably w o r t h t he e ffo r t it t ak e s t o le ar n
t he m .
Other Uses
Y o u m ay r e co gnize t hat t he m e t ho d o f p r o gr e s s iv e e labo r at io n is s o r t o f
a co m binat io n o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m and t he S t o r y o r Link s ys t e m . T he lo ci
ar e us e d t o s t ar t e ach s t o r y o r link , and a s t o r y o r link s e r v e s t o r e t r ie v e
t he it e m s in o r de r at e ach lo cat io n. N o t ice t hat t he it e m o r de r w o uld be
lo s t if t he it e m s at e ach lo cat io n w e r e jus t p ict ur e d in a s ingle p ho t o -
gr ap hic im age r at he r t han o r de r e d s e que nt ially us ing t he Link o r S t o r y
s ys t e m .
T he r e is ano t he r w ay in w hich t he Lo ci s ys t e m can be co m bine d
w it h t he Link o r S t o r y s ys t e m . A s e t o f 10 lo ci co uld be us e d t o
r e m e m be r 100 it e m s . Place t he fir s t it e m in t he fir s t lo cat io n; t he n us e
t he Link o r S t o r y s ys t e m t o as s o ciat e t he ne xt nine it e m s in o r de r ; t he n
p lace t he e le v e nt h it e m in t he s e co nd lo cat io n and link t he ne xt nine
it e m s o nt o it ; and s o o n, unt il yo u p lace t he nine t y- fir s t it e m in t he t e nt h
lo cat io n and link it e m s 92 t o 100 o nt o it . I n r e call, yo u t he n us e yo ur lo ci
t o cue yo u fo r t he fir s t it e m in e ach gr o up o f 10, and yo ur int e r - it e m
as s o ciat io ns ( link s ) t o r e call t he ne xt 9. Y o u can t hus r e call 100 it e m s
w it h no s ingle chain o f as s o ciat io ns lo nge r t han 10 it e m s .
T he s t ude nt s in m y m e m o r y co ur s e hav e t r ie d t his co m bining o f t he
Link and Lo ci s ys t e m s t o r e m e m be r a lis t o f 40 w o r ds . T he w o r ds w e r e
r e ad t o t he s t ude nt s o nce , w it h a 5- t o 10- s e co nd p aus e aft e r e ach w o r d.
S t ude nt s us e d 10 lo ci w it h fo ur w o r ds link e d at e ach o ne . T he fo llo w ing
ar e t he r e s ult s fo r a lit t le m o r e t han 100 s t ude nt s : Abo ut o ne - t hir d o f
t he s t ude nt s ( 34 p e r ce nt ) go t a p e r fe ct r e call s co r e o f 40, and abo ut o ne -
half o f t he s t ude nt s ( 52 p e r ce nt ) r e calle d at le as t 39 o f t he 40 w o r ds ; at
t he o t he r e nd o f t he p e r fo r m ance s cale , o nly 2 p e r ce nt o f t he s t ude nt s
r e calle d fe w e r t han 26 w o r ds .
T he e xp e r ie nce o f o ne p e r s o n w ho us e d 40 lo ci t o m e m o r ize a 40-
digit num be r m ay s ugge s t addit io nal w ays in w hich yo u co uld us e t he
Lo ci s ys e m ( alt ho ugh a m o r e e fficie nt w ay t o le ar n num be r s is de s cr ibe d
in chap t e r 12). H e as s o ciat e d s o m e t hing r e p r e s e nt ing e ach num be r w it h
e ach lo cat io n. Fo r e xam p le , t o as s o ciat e t he digit "1" w it h t he lo cat io n
"ice cr e am s t o r e ," he us e d, "I am r at he r a fat lit t le bo y s o I can hav e
o nly 1 ice cr e am co ne "; t o as s o ciat e "6" w it h "fir e s t at io n," he us e d,
"T he y t e ll m e t he r e is a 6- alar m fir e . I t m us t be v e r y unus ually e xcit ing,
fo r I had ne v e r he ar d o f as m any as 6 alar m s fo r a fir e be fo r e "; t o
as s o ciat e "2" w it h "t he m ar k e t ," he us e d, "I hav e be e n s e nt t o t he
m ar k e t t o ge t 2 bags o f p o t at o e s ."
18
I o ft e n giv e m y m e m o r y s t ude nt s a ho m e w o r k as s ignm e nt t o ap p ly
t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s t o s o m e t hing t he y w ant t o le ar n. T he v ar ie t y o f
p o s s ible us e s o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m is illus t r at e d by t he fo llo w ing e xam p le s
o f a fe w o f t he t hings s t ude nt s hav e le ar ne d w it h t he s ys t e m in r e s p o ns e
t o t his as s ignm e nt : e r r ands , 11 w e dding p r e p ar at io n it e m s , 11 o ld- car
m o de ls and ye ar s , 10 co m p any nam e s in a s t o ck p o r t fo lio , t he Bill o f
R ight s , 8 m ajo r Je w is h ho lidays , 30 p s ycho act iv e dr ugs , 16 m ain co m p o -
ne nt s o f ce r e br o s p inal fluid, and t he co unt r ie s o f W e s t e n E ur o p e .
As w it h t he Link s ys t e m , t he s e us e s o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m do no t
e xhaus t all t he p o s s ibilit ie s . T he y ar e int e nde d t o s ugge s t t he diffe r e nt
k inds o f p o s s ible ap p licat io ns o f t he s ys t e m . Y o u m ight adap t s o m e o f
t he s e s ugge s t io ns t o yo ur o w n ne e ds , o r e v e n be s t im ulat e d t o t hink up
s o m e addit io nal us e s fo r t he Lo ci s ys t e m .
Mental Fi l i ng Systems
Peg Mnemoni c
A
s w as no t e d in chap t e r 10, dir e ct r e t r ie v al o f an it e m at a ce r t ain
p o s it io n in a m e m o r ize d lis t ( fo r e xam p le , t he t w e lft h it e m ) is
difficult fo r bo t h t he Link and Lo ci s ys t e m s . T he y ar e bo t h de p e nde nt o n
s e que nt ial r e t r ie v al. T he Lo ci s ys t e m as s o ciat e s it e m s t o be le ar ne d w it h
p r e m e m o r ize d info r m at io n, l b us e t he s am e ap p r o ach in s uch a w ay t hat
yo u can r e t r ie v e an it e m dir e ct ly, yo u m ight as s o ciat e it e m s t o o t he r
info r m at io n t hat yo u alr e ady hav e m e m o r ize d and k no w v e r y w e ll: t he
num be r s e que nce . I f yo u co uld as s o ciat e t he fir s t it e m w it h num be r 1,
t he s e co nd it e m w it h num be r 2, and s o o n, t he n fo r r e call yo u co uld jus t
r e call w hat it e m w as as s o ciat e d w it h e ach num be r . I f yo u w ant e d t o
r e t r ie v e t he t w e lft h it e m dir e ct ly, yo u w o uld jus t t hink o f num be r 12 and
s e e w hat it e m w as as s o ciat e d w it h it . T he m ain p r o ble m w it h t his
s t r at e gy is t hat num be r s ar e abs t r act and t hus ar e har d t o as s o ciat e w it h
it e m s . But t he s t r at e gy w o uld be fe as ible if a w ay co uld be fo und t o m ak e
t he num be r s co ncr e t e , o r t o s ubs t it ut e s o m e t hing co ncr e t e fo r t he
num be r s . T his is w hat t he Be g s ys t e m do e s .
WHAT IS THE PEG SYSTEM?
T he Be g s ys t e m is a m e nt al filing s ys t e m co ns is t ing o f a s e r ie s o f
p r e m e m o r ize d co ncr e t e no uns . T he co ncr e t e no uns ar e no t ar bit r ar ily
1 5 7
s e le ct e d; r at he r , t he y ar e s e le ct e d in s uch a w ay as t o co r r e s p o nd
m e aningfully w it h num be r s .
Origin
T he Pe g s ys t e m can be t r ace d t o t he m id- 1600s , w he n H e nr y H e r ds o n
de v e lo p e d an e xt e ns io n o f t he Lo ci s ys t e m . H e r ds o n dis p e ns e d w it h t he
s p at ial lo cat io ns o f t he o bje ct s and m e r e ly us e d t he o bje ct s t he m s e lv e s .
E ach digit w as r e p r e s e nt e d by any o ne o f s e v e r al o bje ct s t hat r e s e m ble
t he num be r s ( fo r e xam p le , 1 = candle , 3 = t r ide nt , 8 = s p e ct acle s ,
0 = o r ange ).
A s ys t e m t hat us e d r hym ing s yllable s and w o r ds t o r e p r e s e nt t he
num be r s w as int r o duce d in E ngland ar o und 1879 by Jo hn S am br o o k .
1
T he no uns r hym e w it h t he num be r s t he y r e p r e s e nt s o t hat it is e as y t o
r e m e m be r w hat no un r e p r e s e nt s e ach num be r . T he fo llo w ing is a w ide ly
us e d v e r s io n o f t he Pe g s ys t e m bas e d o n r hym e s , indicat ing t he w o r d
t hat r e p r e s e nt s e ach num be r :
o ne - bun s ix- s t ick s
t w o - s ho e s e v e n-he av e n
t hr e e - t r e e e ight - gat e
fo ur - do o r nine - w ine
fiv e - hiv e t e n- he n
How to Use It
Mo s t p e o p le can le ar n t he s e r hym ing p e gw o r ds w it h lit t le e ffo r t . I n fact ,
m any p e o p le alr e ady k no w half o f t he m fr o m t he nur s e r y r hym e , "O ne -
t w o buck le m y s ho e , t hr e e - fo ur s hut t he do o r . . . " E ach o f t he p e gw o r d
o bje ct s s ho uld be p ict ur e d as v iv idly as p o s s ible . T he bun s ho uld be a
s p e cific k ind o f bun, s uch as a br e ak fas t bun, a dinne r r o ll, o r a ham bur ge r
bun. T he s ho e co uld be a m an's dr e s s s ho e , a w o m an's high- he e le d s ho e ,
a gym s ho e , o r a bo o t . T he t r e e co uld be a p ine t r e e in t he fo r e s t , a
C hr is t m as t r e e , o r a p alm t r e e .
T he Pe g s ys t e m ge t s it s nam e fr o m t he fact t hat t he p e gw o r ds
s e r v e as m e nt al p e gs o r ho o k s o n w hich t he p e r s o n "hangs " t he it e m s t o
be r e m e m be r e d. l b us e t he Pe g s ys t e m t o le ar n ne w m at e r ial, yo u
as s o ciat e t he ne w m at e r ial w it h e ach o f t he p e gw o r ds in o r de r . Fo r
e xam p le , t he fir s t fiv e p e gw o r ds co uld be us e d t o le ar n t he lis t w e hav e
us e d in t he las t t w o chat e r s p ap e r , t ir e , do ct o r , r o s e , ballas fo llo w s :
As s o ciat e paper w it h bun; s e e yo ur s e lf e at ing a bun m ade o f p ap e r , o r
r e ading t he e v e ning ne w s - bun. As s o ciat e tire w it h shoe; s e e yo ur s e lf
w e ar ing t ir e s o n yo ur fe e t , o r s e e a car t hat has fo ur s ho e s in t he p lace
o f t ir e s . As s o ciat e doctor w it h tree; s e e a do ct o r o p e r at ing o n a t r e e , o r
a do ct o r clim bing a t r e e . As s o ciat e rose w it h door, s e e a r o s e in t he p lace
o f t he do o r k no b, o r a r o s e bus h gr o w ing fr o m t he m iddle o f t he do o r .
As s o ciat e ball w it h hive; s e e a r o und be e hiv e in t he s hap e o f a ball, o r
balls r at he r t han be e s flying o ut o f t he hiv e . O f co ur s e , all t he co ns ide r a-
t io ns inv o lv ing e ffe ct iv e v is ual as s o ciat io ns t hat w e r e dis cus s e d in chap t e r
7 ar e r e le v ant in m ak ing t he s e as s o ciat io ns .
T o r e call t he it e m s in o r de r , yo u r e call t he p e gw o r ds and r e t r ie v e
t he it e m s as s o ciat e d w it h t he m . R e call o f it e m s o ut o f o r de r p r o ce e ds in
t he s am e m anne r . Fo r e xam p le , w hat w as t he fo ur t h it e m ? T hink o f
"do o r " and r e t r ie v e t he it e m as s o ciat e d w it h it . W hat w as t he t hir d it e m ?
R e t r ie v e t he it e m as s o ciat e d w it h "t r e e ."
Other Pegs
T he r hym ing Be g s ys t e m t hat w as jus t de s cr ibe d is o ne t hat is co m m o nly
us e d and t he o ne o n w hich m o s t r e s e ar ch has be e n do ne ; ho w e v e r , t he r e
ar e act ually a num be r o f Pe g s ys t e m s . T he y all hav e in co m m o n t he
char act e r is t ic o f us ing a co ncr e t e o bje ct t o r e p r e s e nt e ach num be r , but
t he r e ar e v ar io us w ays t o cho o s e t he o bje ct t hat r e p r e s e nt s e ach
num be r . T he s ys t e m dis cus s e d t o t his p o int us e s p e gw o r ds t hat r hym e
w it h t he num be r s . O t he r r hym e s hav e als o be e n us e d: o ne - gun, t w o -
glue , t hr e e - be e , fo ur - co r e , fiv e - k niv e s , s ix- p ick s , s e v e n- o v e n, e ight -
p lat e , nine - line , t e n- p e n. Pe gw o r ds t hat r e p r e s e nt o bje ct s t hat lo o k lik e
t he num be r s can als o be s e le ct e d: 1 = p e ncil, 2 = s w an ( t he cur v e o f
t he ne ck r e s e m bling t he digit 2), 8 = ho ur glas s , 10 = k nife and p lat e .
Pe gw o r ds can be s e le ct e d o n t he bas is o f m e aning als o ; o ne - m e ( t he r e is
o nly o ne m e ), t hr e e - p it chfo r k ( t hr e e p r o ngs ), fiv e - hand ( fiv e finge r s ),
nine - bas e ball ( nine p laye r s o n a t e am ). Pe g s ys t e m s o ft e n do no t include
a p e gw o r d fo r 0 ( ze r o ), but o n t he bas is o f r hym e yo u co uld us e "N e r o ,"
o n t he bas is o f lo o k - alik e s yo u co uld us e "do nut ," and o n t he bas is o f
m e aning yo u co uld us e an e m p t y "bo x ."
O ne lim it at io n o f t he Pe g s ys t e m is t hat it is difficult t o find go o d
p e gw o r ds t o r e p r e s e nt num be r s be yo nd 10. I t is har d t o find w o r ds , fo r
e xam p le , t hat r hym e w it h ( o r lo o k lik e ) t he num be r s 24 o r 37. H o w e v e r ,
it is p o s s ible t o find r hym ing w o r ds fo r t he num be r s fr o m 11 t o 20. Mo s t
o f t he m ar e v e r bs r e p r e s e nt ing an act io n t hat can be v is ualize d. T he
fo llo w ing ar e s o m e e xam p le s : e le v e n- le av e n, o r a fo o t ball e le v e n; t w e lv e -
s he lv e , o r e lf; t Jiir t e e n- t hir s t ing, o r hur t ing; fo ur t e e n- fo r ding, o r co ur t -
ing; fift e e n- fit t ing, o r lift ing; s ixt e e n- S is t ine , o r lick ing; s e v e nt e e n- le av -
e ning, o r de afe ning; e ight e e n- aiding, o r w ait ing; nine t e e n- k night ing, o r
p ining; t w e nt y- p le nt y, o r p e nny.
Ano t he r p o s s ible ap p r o ach t o ge ne r at e p e gw o r ds fo r t he num be r s
fr o m 11 t o 20 is t o us e r hym ing p e gw o r ds fo r 1 t o 10, and t he n t o us e
p e gw o r ds bas e d o n lo o k - alik e s o r m e aning t o r e p r e s e nt t he s e co nd digit
o f e ach num be r fr o m 11 t o 20 ( fo r e xam p le , 11 = p e ncil, 12 s w an,
13 = p it chfo r k , e t c.). Als o , s o m e p e o p le hav e t r ie d us ing t he r hym ing
p e gw o r d fo r e ach digit o f a t w o - digit num be r ( fo r e xam p le , 11 = bun-
bun, 12 = bun- s ho e , 13 = bun- t r e e ), but t his ap p r o ach can caus e s o m e
int e r fe r e nce due t o m any s im ilar v is ual im age s .
Alphabet Pegs
I t w as s ugge s t e d at t he be ginning o f t his chap t e r t hat num be r s w o uld
m ak e a go o d s e r ie s o f p e gs if t he y w e r e no t s o abs t r act be caus e t he y
ar e nat ur ally o r de r e d and yo u k no w t he m v e r y w e ll. T he r e is ano t he r
p o s s ible s o ur ce o f p e gs t hat als o co ns is t s o f info r m at io n t hat is nat ur ally
o r de r e d and t hat yo u k no w v e r y w e llt he alp habe t . T he alp habe t
p r o v ide s a r e ady- m ade s e r ie s o f 26 p r e m e m o r ize d p e gs . H o w e v e r , t he
le t t e r s hav e s o m e w hat t he s am e p r o ble m t hat num be r s hav e : T he y ar e
no t v e r y co ncr e t e and m e aningful. I f w e co uld m ak e t he m co ncr e t e , t he n
w e co uld us e t he alp habe t as a Pe g s ys t e m . O ne w ay t o do t his is t o
as s o ciat e a co ncr e t e w o r d w it h e ach le t t e r in s uch a w ay t hat t he w o r ds
ar e e as y t o le ar n.
E ach o f t he fo llo w ing alp habe t p e gw o r ds e it he r r hym e s w it h t he
le t t e r o f t he alp habe t it r e p r e s e nt s o r has t he le t t e r as t he init ial s o und
o f t he w o r d. T he fe w w o r ds t hat ar e no t co ncr e t e o bje ct s can be
v is ualize d by us ing s ubs t it ut e o bje ct s ( fo r e xam p le , e ffo r t a p e r s o n
w o r k ing; age an o ld p e r s o n).
A-hay N - he n
B- be e O - ho e
C - s e a P- p e a
D - de e d Q- cue
E - e v e R - o ar
F- e ffo r t S -as s
G- je e p T - t e a
H - age U -e w e
I - e ye V-v e al
J- jay
W - do uble yo u
K- k e y X-ax
L- e l Y - w ir e
M- he m Z- ze br a
A s e co nd alp habe t Pe g s ys t e m co uld be co m p ile d fr o m co ncr e t e
w o r ds t hat be gin w it h e ach le t t e r o f t he alp habe t but dp no t r hym e :
A-ap e
B-bo y
C - cat
D - do g
E - e gg
F- fig
G- go at
H - hat
I - ice
J- jack
K- k it e
L- lo g
M- m an
V- v ane
W - w ig
X- X r ay
Y -yak
Z- zo o
N - nut
O -o w l
P- p ig
Q- quilt
R - r o ck
S - s o ck
T -t qy
U - um br e lla
Alp habe t p e gw o r ds can be us e d in e xact ly t he s am e w ay as num be r
p e gw o r ds . T he o nly diffe r e nce is t hat if yo u do no t k no w t he num e r ical
p o s it io ns o f t he le t t e r s ( w hich m o s t p e o p le do no t ), t he alp habe t p e g-
w o r ds ar e no t am e nable t o dir e ct r e t r ie v al o f an it e m at a giv e n num be r e d
p o s it io n. T he alp habe t p e gw o r ds co uld als o be us e d in o t he r w ays . Fo r
e xam p le , if yo u w ant t o le ar n t he alp habe t back w ar d, yo u co uld link t he
w o r ds fr o m zebra t o hay o r zoo t o ape.
Peg and Loci Compared
T he r e ar e a num be r o f s im ilar it ie s be t w e e n t he Pe g s ys t e m and t he Lo ci
s ys t e m , and p e r fo r m ance o f t he t w o s ys t e m s has be e n fo und t o be
e quiv ale nt .
2
T he fo llo w ing ar e fo ur s im ilar it ie s :
1. I n bo t h t he Pe g s ys t e m and t he Lo ci s ys t e m it e m s t o be le ar ne d
ar e as s o ciat e d w it h p r e v io us ly m e m o r ize d co ncr e t e it e m s . T he s e p r e v i-
o us ly m e m o r ize d it e m s m ak e up t he m e nt al filing s ys t e m t o w hich ne w
it e m s ar e at t ache d. T he p e gw o r ds ar e us e d in e xact ly t he s am e w ay as
t he lo cat io ns ar e us e d in t he Lo ci s ys t e m . As w it h t he lo cat io ns in t he
Lo ci s ys t e m , t he p e gw o r ds can be us e d o v e r again t o le ar n ne w it e m s .
R e call is als o s im ilar fo r bo t h s ys t e m s ; yo u p r o ce e d t hr o ugh yo ur
lo cat io ns o r p e gw o r ds and r e t r ie v e t he it e m s as s o ciat e d w it h t he m .
2. I n t he Bag s ys t e m t he m e nt al filing s ys t e m co ns is t s o f a s e r ie s
o f co ncr e t e o bje ct s r at he r t han o f lo cat io ns , but lo cat io ns ar e m e r e ly
o bje ct s t hat ar e s p at ially o r de r e d. Fo r e xam p le , t he fiv e lo ci us e d in t he
e xam p le in t he p r e v io us chap t e r ar e a s ide w alk , a p o r ch, a do o r , a clo s e t ,
and a r e fr ige r at o r .
3. As w it h t he Lo ci s ys t e m , t he Pe g s ys t e m change s a fr e e - r e call
t as k t o aide d r e call v ia a p air e d- as s o ciat e t as k , w it h t he p e gw o r ds s e r v ing
as t he fir s t w o r d in e ach p air . T hus , t he Pe g s ys t e m and t he Lo ci s ys t e m
ar e e s s e nt ially t he s am e as p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning, e xce p t t hat t he
le ar ne r ge ne r at e s his o w n cue w o r ds r at he r t han hav ing t he m giv e n t o
him by s o m e o ne e ls e .
4. T he Pe g s ys t e m and t he Lo ci s ys t e m hav e s e v e r al adv ant age s
o v e r fr e e r e call. Fir s t , yo u hav e a de finit e and co ns is t e nt le ar ning
s t r at e gy; yo u k no w e xact ly w hat t o do w it h e ach it e m as yo u s t udy it
( t hat is , as s o ciat e it w it h a lo cat io n o r p e gw o r d). S e co nd, yo u hav e
de finit e p ige o nho le s ( p e gw o r ds o r lo cat io ns ) int o w hich t he it e m s can be
file d. T hir d, yo u hav e a s ys t e m at ic r e t r ie v al p lan t e lling yo u w he r e t o
be gin r e call, ho w t o p r o ce e d s ys t e m at ically fr o m o ne it e m t o t he ne xt ,
and ho w t o m o nit o r t he ade quacy o f r e call. ( Y o u can t e ll ho w m any it e m s
yo u hav e fo r go t t e n, and w hich o ne s .) T hus , bo t h s ys t e m s o v e r co m e o ne
o f t he m ajo r p r o ble m s in fr e e r e callho w t o r e m ind yo ur s e lf o f all t he
t hings yo u ar e s up p o s e d t o r e call.
Alt ho ugh t he Pe g and Lo ci s ys t e m s ar e s im ilar , t he y hav e at le as t
t hr e e s ignificant diffe r e nce s . Fir s t , as has be e n no t e d, t he Pe g s ys t e m
has t he adv ant age o f p e r m it t ing dir e ct r e t r ie v al. I f yo u w ant t o k no w
w hat t he e ight h it e m is w it ho ut go ing t hr o ugh t he fir s t s e v e n, yo u m e r e ly
t hink o f "gat e " and s e e w hat is as s o ciat e d w it h it . S e co nd, t he Lo ci
s ys t e m has t he adv ant age o f allo w ing a lar ge num be r o f m e nt al im age s
t o m ak e up t he m e nt al filing s ys t e m : T he r e is r e ally no lim it t o t he
num be r o f lo cat io ns yo u can us e , but it is difficult t o find a lar ge num be r
o f p e gw o r ds t hat r hym e w it h o r lo o k lik e t he num be r s gr e at e r t han 10
and e s p e cially gr e at e r t han 20. A t hir d p o s s ible diffe r e nce is s ugge s t e d
by co m m e nt s o f s o m e o f m y m e m o r y s t ude nt s : T he Lo ci s ys t e m m ay be
a lit t le e as ie r t o le ar n and us e . S o m e o f m y s t ude nt s w ho hav e us e d bo t h
s ys t e m s r e p o r t t hat t he Lo ci s ys t e m s e e m s a lit t le m o r e nat ur al ( at le as t
at fir s t ) be caus e it us e s k no w le dge t hat t he y alr e ady hav e , r at he r t han
r e quir ing t he m t o le ar n a ne w s e t o f ar bit r ar y as s o ciat io ns be t w e e n
p e gw o r ds and num be r s , and t he n m ak e up im age s fo r t he p e gw o r ds .
HOW WELL DOES THE PEG SYSTEM WORK?
S o m e p s ycho lo gis t s de s cr ibe d an int e r e s t ing e xp e r ie nce in t e aching t he
Pe g s ys t e m t o a s k e p t ical fr ie nd. T he y t o ld him t he p e gw o r ds and t o ld
him ho w t o us e t he m . T he n, de s p it e his p r o t e s t at io ns t hat it w o uld ne v e r
w o r k be caus e he w as t o o t ir e d, t he y gav e him a lis t o f 10 w o r ds t o le ar n.
T he w o r ds w e r e r e ad o ne at a t im e , and aft e r r e ading t he w o r d, w e w ait e d unt il
he anno unce d t hat he had t he as s o ciat io n. I t t o o k abo ut fiv e s e co nds o n t he
av e r age t o fo r m t he co nne ct io n. Aft e r t he s e v e nt h w o r d he s aid t hat he w as s ur e
t he fir s t s ix w e r e alr e ady fo r go t t e n. But w e p e r s e v e r e d.
Aft e r o ne t r ial t hr o ugh t he lis t w e w ait e d a m inut e o r t w o s o t hat he co uld
co lle ct him s e lf and as k any que s t io ns t hat cam e t o m ind. T he n w e s aid, "W hat is
num be r e ight ?"
H e s t ar e d blank ly, and t he n a s m ile cr o s s e d his face , "I 'll be dam m e d," he
s aid, "I t 's a lam p ."
"And w hat num be r is a cigar e t t e ?"
H e laughe d o ut r ight no w , and t he n gav e t he co r r e ct ans w e r .
"And t he r e is no s t r ain," he s aid, "abs o lut e ly no s w e at ."
T he y t he n p r o ce e de d t o de m o ns t r at e , t o his am aze m e nt , t hat he co uld in
fact nam e e v e r y w o r d co r r e ct ly.
3
Research Evidence
I t w as no t e d in t he p r e v io us s e ct io n t hat t he Pe g s ys t e m is s im ilar t o
p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning, e xce p t t hat t he le ar ne r s p r o v ide t he ir o w n
p e gw o r ds r at he r t han hav ing t he m giv e n t o t he m by s o m e o ne e ls e . T his
m e ans t hat t he r e s e ar ch t hat s ho w s t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f v is ual im age r y
in p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning als o s ugge s t s t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f t he Be g
s ys t e m . As w e le ar ne d in chap t e r 4, t he r e ar e num e r o us s t udie s s ho w ing
t hat v is ual im age r y aids le ar ning and m e m o r y in p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar n-
ing.
S e v e r al r e s e ar ch s t udie s w e r e do ne o n t he Pe g s ys t e m fr o m t he
m id- 1960s t o t he 1970s . T he findings fr o m t ho s e s t udie s , w hich m o s t ly
us e d w o r d lis t s , include t he fo llo w ing: C o lle ge s t ude nt s t yp ically r e call
abo ut 7 o f 10 w o r ds w it ho ut t he Pe g s ys t e m , and 9 o r m o r e w it h t he Pe g
s ys t e m ; p e o p le hav e be e n able t o us e t he Pe g s ys t e m e ffe ct iv e ly o n lis t s
o f up t o 40 w o r ds ; t he Pe g s ys t e m is e ffe ct iv e at a p r e s e nt at io n r at e o f 4
t o 5 s e co nds p e r w o r d o r at a s lo w e r r at e , but no t at a r at e as fas t as 2
s e co nds p e r w o r d; p e o p le can e ffe ct iv e ly le ar n up t o s ix co ns e cut iv e lis t s
o f 10 w o r ds w it h t he s am e p e gw o r ds ; alp habe t p e gw o r ds as w e ll as
num e r ical p e gw o r ds ar e e ffe ct iv e ; co ncr e t e w o r ds ar e le ar ne d be t t e r
t han abs t r act w o r ds , but abs t r act w o r ds can als o be le ar ne d us ing
s ubs t it ut e w o r ds ; r e s ult s ar e m ixe d o n ho w w e ll abs t r act p e gw o r ds w o r k ,
s o it is p r o bably be s t t o us e co ncr e t e p e gw o r ds .
4
S ince t he m id- 1970s , s e v e r al addit io nal s t udie s hav e s up p o r t e d t he
e ar lie r r e s e ar ch in s ho w ing t he Pe g s ys t e m t o be effective in le ar ning
lis t s o f w o r ds unde r v ar io us co ndit io ns . H o w e v e r , in o ne s t udy p e o p le
us e d t he p e gw o r ds t o m e m o r ize e it he r r ando m no uns o r no uns fr o m a
cat e go r ize d lis t . T he p e gw o r ds w o r k e d be t t e r w it h t he r ando m no uns
t han w it h t he cat e go r ize d no uns be caus e t he cat e go r ie s s e e m e d t o
int e r fe r e w it h t he us e o f t he p e gw o r ds . T his finding s ugge s t s t hat yo u
m ay no t w ant t o us e t he Pe g s ys t e m w he n t he r e is s o m e m e aningful w ay
t o gr o up t he it e m s t o us e o r ganizat io n.
5
T he abo v e s t udie s w e r e do ne o n co lle ge s t ude nt s . A r e ce nt s t udy
had junio r high s cho o l s t ude nt s , half o f w ho m w e r e le ar ning dis able d,
le ar n t he Pe g s ys t e m and t he n us e it t o le ar n fo ur 10- w o r d lis t s . T he
s t ude nt s w ho us e d t he Pe g s ys t e m r e calle d m o r e t han t w ice as m any
w o r ds as t he s t ude nt s w ho w e r e no t t aught t he Pe g s ys t e m , im m e diat e ly
aft e r le ar ning as w e ll as o ne w e e k and e v e n fiv e m o nt hs lat e r .
6
Ail o f t he r e s e ar ch de s cr ibe d s o far s ho w s t hat t he Pe g s ys t e m can
be e ffe ct iv e in r e m e m be r ing w o r d lis t s , but w hat abo ut r e m e m be r ing
m o r e co m p le x m at e r ial s uch as co nce p t s o r ide as ? O ne s t udy fo und t hat
t he Pe g s ys t e m no t o nly can he lp r e m e m br ance be t t e r but can e v e n he lp
in fo r m ing co nce p t s in a t as k r e quir ing high m e m o r y de m ands . Als o , in
s e v e r al s t udie s p e o p le us e d t he Pe g s ys t e m t o r e m e m be r ide as in t he
fo r m o f s ayings . S o m e o f t he s ayings w e r e co ncr e t e ( fo r e xam p le , "D o n't
r o ck t he bo at ") and o t he r s w e r e abs t r act ( fo r e xam p le , "H is t o r y r e p e at s
it s e lf"). C o lle ge s t ude nt s us ing t he Pe g s ys t e m r e m e m be r e d m o r e
s ayings fr o m lis t s o f 10 t o 15 s ayings t han did s t ude nt s no t us ing t he
s ys t e m . T he y als o r e p o r t e d t hat it t o o k le s s e ffo r t t o r e m e m be r t he
s ayings t han s t ude nt s no t us ing t he p e gw o r ds r e p o r t e d. C hildr e n in t he
fo ur t h gr ade and m iddle - age d and e lde r ly adult s als o r e m e m be r e d m o r e
s ayings us ing t he Pe g s ys t e m .
7
I n addit io n t o t he s e r e s e ar ch s t udie s o n m e m o r y fo r s ayings , I hav e
als o t e s t e d t he s t ude nt s in m y m e m o r y clas s e s w it h t he s ayings . I hav e
t he m t r y t o r e m e m be r a lis t o f 10 num be r e d s ayings in co r r e ct num e r ical
o r de r at t he be ginning o f t he s e m e s t e r , and again lat e r us ing t he Pe g
s ys t e m . T he fo llo w ing ar e t he r e s ult s fo r ne ar ly 200 s t ude nt s in s e v e r al
clas s e s : T he p e r ce nt age o f s t ude nt s w it h p e r fe ct r e call o f all 10 s ayings
do uble d w he n t he Pe g s ys t e m w as us e d ( fr o m 20 p e r ce nt t o 40 p e r ce nt );
t he p e r ce nt age r e calling at le as t 9 o f 10 s ayings incr e as e d e v e n m o r e
dr am at icallyfr o m 28 p e r ce nt t o 62 p e r ce nt . At t he o t he r e nd o f t he
p e r fo r m ance s cale , t he p e r ce nt age o f s t ude nt s r e calling fiv e o r fe w e r
s ayings de cr e as e d fr o m 22 p e r ce nt t o 2 p e r ce nt .
I hav e als o t aught t he Pe g s ys t e m as p ar t o f a s ho r t m e m o r y co ur s e
fo r e lde r ly adult s . O ne clas s co ns is t e d o f 28 s t ude nt s be t w e e n t he age s
o f s ixt y- t w o and s e v e nt y- nine . Be fo r e le ar ning t he Pe g s ys t e m , t he y
r e calle d an av e r age o f 5.2 o f 10 s ayings ; t he ir av e r age incr e as e d t o 7.9
w he n t he y us e d t he Pe g s ys t e m . T he p e r ce nt age o f s t ude nt s r e calling at
le as t 9 o f 10 s ayings incr e as e d fr o m 11 p e r ce nt w it ho ut us ing t he Pe g
s ys t e m t o 50 p e r ce nt w he n us ing t he s ys t e m . T he s t ude nt s in t he ir
s e v e nt ie s p e r fo r m e d jus t as w e ll as t he s t ude nt s in t he ir s ixt ie s . Mo s t
s t ude nt s als o r at e d t he Pe g s ys t e m as t he m o s t int e r e s t ing and w o r t h-
w hile p ar t o f t he co ur s e .
8
Schoolwork
W e hav e s e e n t hat t he Pe g s ys t e m can be us e d e ffe ct iv e ly o n w o r d lis t s
and e v e n o n m o r e co m p le x m at e r ial. C an it he lp in le ar ning t he k inds o f
m at e r ial s t ude nt s m us t le ar n in s cho o l? A r e ce nt bo o k o n s t udy s k ills
gav e a ne gat iv e ans w e r t o t his que s t io n. I t s t at e d t hat t he Pe g s ys t e m
"has t w o im p o r t ant lim it at io ns w it h r e gar d t o s cho o lw o r k . Fir s t , it can
be us e d w it h o nly o ne lis t o f it e m s fo r o nly o ne e xam at a t im e . S e co nd,
no p e r m ane nt k no w le dge is gaine d, fo r it e m s s o m e m o r ize d ar e quick ly
fo r go t t e n."
9
Le t us lo o k at a fe w r e ce nt r e s e ar ch s t udie s t hat hav e
inv e s t igat e d t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f p e gw o r ds in t he clas s r o o m .
T he Pe g s ys t e m w as us e d t o t e ach t he har dne s s le v e ls o f m ine r als
t o le ar ning- dis able d high s cho o l s t ude nt s and t o junio r high s cho o l
s t ude nt s . T he y fir s t le ar ne d a s ubs t it ut e w o r d fo r e ach m ine r al, and t he n
s aw an int e r act ing p ict ur e as s o ciat ing t he s ubs t it ut e w o r d w it h t he
ap p r o p r iat e p e gw o r d ( fo r e xam p le , p yr it e is har dne s s le v e l s ix s o t he
p ict ur e s ho w e d a pie be ing s up p o r t e d by sticks). S t ude nt s als o le ar ne d
t he co lo r s and us e s o f t he m ine r als . T he y als o le ar ne d t he r e as o ns fo r
e xt inct io n o f p r e his t o r ic r e p t ile s in o r de r o f p laus ibilit y. Fo r all t he s e
t as k s , t he Ps g s ys t e m w as m o r e e ffe ct iv e t han t r adit io nal ins t r uct io n.
10
E ight h- gr ade s t ude nt s us e d t he Pe g and Lo ci s ys t e m s t o le ar n t he
nam e s o f t he U .S . p r e s ide nt s . T he y us e d t he p e gw o r ds fo r t he num be r s
fr o m 1 t o 10. S e as o nal lo ci r e p r e s e nt e d de cade s o f num be r s ; 1- 10 w as a
s p r ing gar de n s ce ne , 11- 20 a s um m e r be ach s ce ne , 21- 30 a fall fo o t ball
s ce ne ; and 31- 40 a w int e r s no w s ce ne . Pr e s ide nt s ' nam e s w e r e r e p r e -
s e nt e d by s ubs t it ut e w o r ds , and t he as s o ciat io ns w e r e p r e s e nt e d in
p ict ur e s . T w o s am p le as s o ciat io ns ar e : T yle r ( t ie )- 10 ( he n)- gar de n, and
Gar fie ld ( guar d)- 20 ( he n)- be ach. T he s t ude nt s als o le ar ne d bio gr ap hical
info r m at io n o n t he p r e s ide nt s . T his co m bine d Ke yw o r d- Lo ci- Pe g s ys t e m
has be e n e xp ande d fo r e xt r e m e cas e s t o le ar n up t o 260 it e m s , us ing
alp habe t s ce ne s fr o m an airplane s ce ne t o a zoo s ce ne ( 10 p e gw o r ds x
26 alp habe t lo ci = 260 it e m s o f o r de r e d info r m at io n).
11
S ixt h- gr ade s t ude nt s w ho w e r e t r aine d o v e r s e v e r al days in t he us e
o f t he Pe g s ys t e m us e d it t o le ar n a lis t o f nam e s and r e cip e ingr e die nt s .
I n ano t he r s t udy, le ar ning- dis able d s t ude nt s in t he s ixt h t o e ight h gr ade s
us e d t he Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic ( s ubs t it ut e w o r ds ) and t he Pe g s ys t e m t o
le ar n info r m at io n o n dino s aur s . I n bo t h s t udie s , s t ude nt s w ho us e d t he
Pe g s ys t e m r e m e m be r e d t he info r m at io n be t t e r t han t ho s e w ho did no t
us e it .
12
O t he r s t udie s s ho w t hat t he Pe g s ys t e m can als o be us e d t o
r e m e m be r ho w t o do s o m e t hing. C o lle ge s t ude nt s and high s cho o l
s t ude nt s w e r e t aught 10 s t e p s t o p r e p ar e a dais y w he e l p r int e r fo r
o p e r at io n. ( Fo r e xam p le , s t e p 1o p e n clam p s o n s ide o f p r int e r ; s t e p
2p ut e nd o f p ap e r o v e r t he s p r o ck e t s ; s t e p 6s e t dip s w it ch t o
"fe e d"; and s t e p 10p us h s e lf- t e s t s w it ch.) Fo r bo t h age gr o up s ,
s t ude nt s w ho us e d t he Pe g s ys t e m s p e nt le s s t im e le ar ning t he s t e p s ,
r e m e m be r e d m o r e s t e p s in o r de r , and fo llo w e d m o r e s t e p s co r r e ct ly in
act ually p r e p ar ing t he p r int e r ( w he t he r t he s t e p s w e r e p r e s e nt e d o r ally
o r in w r it ing).
13
W e hav e s e e n t hat t he Pe g s ys t e m can be us e d by s p e cial p o p ula-
t io ns , s uch as yo ung childr e n, le ar ning- dis able d childr e n, and e lde r ly
adult s . I n addit io n, t he Pe g s ys t e m has be e n p r o fit ably us e d by an
am ne s iac p at ie nt t o he lp r e m e m be r t hings t o do aft e r ge t t ing up in t he
m o r ning, and has be e n inco r p o r at e d in a t r aining p r o gr am fo r r e habilit at -
ing m e m o r ie s o f p e o p le w it h br ain dam age .
14
HOW CAN YOU USE THE PEG SYSTEM?
T he Pe g s ys t e m can be us e d fo r any o f t he us e s s ugge s t e d fo r t he Link
and Lo ci s ys t e m s , including le ar ning lis t s , nat ur ally o r de r e d m at e r ial,
nam e s , and s p e e che s , o r as a m e nt al filing s ys t e m fo r t e m p o r ar y s t o r age
w he n it is inco nv e nie nt t o w r it e s o m e t hing do w n, o r as a m e nt al filing
s ys t e m fo r m o r e p e r m ane nt s t o r age o n a r e gular day- t o - day bas is .
Remembering Ideas
T he Pe g s ys t e m can als o be us e d fo r t as k s fo r w hich dir e ct acce s s is
de s ir able . Fo r e xam p le , I us e d t he Pe g s ys t e m t o t e ach t he T e n C o m -
m andm e nt s t o m y t w o daught e r s ( w ho had jus t t ur ne d fiv e and s e v e n
ye ar s o ld) s o t hat t he y co uld r e call t he m o ut o f o r de r as w e ll as in o r de r .
T he fir s t s t e p w as t o t e ach t he m t he Pe g s ys t e m . Bo t h gir ls w e r e able
t o r e call all t he p e gw o r ds aft e r t w o t im e s t hr o ugh t he lis t . T he s e co nd
s t e p w as t o t e ach t he m ho w t o us e t he p e gw o r ds . I gav e t he m a lis t o f
10 it e m s t o m e m o r ize and co ache d t he m in fo r m ing v is ual as s o ciat io ns
be t w e e n t he p e gw o r ds and t he it e m s . Bo t h gir ls r e calle d all 10 it e m s
aft e r t he lis t w as p r e s e nt e d, and r e calle d 9 o f t he 10 it e m s t he fo llo w ing
day. T he y w e r e giv e n addit io nal p r act ice w it h a s e co nd lis t o f 10 it e m s ,
and again r e calle d all 10 it e m s o n im m e diat e r e call. W he n t e s t e d t he ne xt
day, t he y e ach ne e de d p r o dding"W hat is t he p e gw o r d?" and "W hat is
( p e gw o r d) do ing?"o n t w o it e m s .
T he final s t e p w as t o us e t he p e gw o r ds t o le ar n t he T e n C o m m and-
m e nt s . A co ncr e t e it e m r e p r e s e nt ing e ach co m m andm e nt w as as s o ciat e d
us ing v is ual im age r y w it h t he co r r e s p o nding p e gw o r d. Fo r e xam p le , an
im age o f t he gir ls ' p ar e nt s ho lding a be e hiv e ( fiv e - hiv e ) r e p r e s e nt e d t he
Fift h C o m m andm e nt ( "H o no r t hy fat he r and t hy m o t he r ") and a t hie f
s t e aling a gat e ( e ight - gat e ) r e p r e s e nt e d t he E ight h C o m m andm e nt
( "T ho u s halt no t s t e al".) Bo t h gir ls le ar ne d all 10 o f t he co m m andm e nt s
in o r de r and o ut o f o r de r , and w e r e e v e n able t o r e call t he m in a s ur p r is e
t e s t t w o m o nt hs lat e r . N o t o nly w as t he s ys t e m e ffe ct iv e but it w as fun
fo r t he gir ls , and t he y w e r e anxio us t o ap p ly it t o le ar ning ne w t hings .
15
A fe w ye ar s lat e r I t r ie d t he s am e e xp e r im e nt w it h m y s o n w he n he
w as s t ill fo ur ye ar s o ld, and r e ce nt ly I t r ie d it w it h m y yo unge s t daught e r
w he n s he w as s t ill t hr e e ye ar s o ld ( abo ut a m o nt h be fo r e he r fo ur t h
bir t hday). O f co ur s e , it t o o k a lit t le m o r e p r act ice , but t he fo ur - and
t hr e e - ye ar - o lds w e r e als o able t o us e t he Be g s ys t e m fo r t his t as k . I did
no t as k t he t hr e e - ye ar - o ld t o p r act ice us ing t he p e gw o r ds o n w o r d lis t s ,
and als o did no t r e quir e he r t o le ar n t he e xact w o r ds o f s o m e o f t he T e n
C o m m andm e nt s , but o nly t he ide as . ( Fo r e xam p le , ins t e ad o f "T ho u
s halt no t be ar fals e w it ne s s " s he le ar ne d, "D o n't lie .")
N ine m o nt hs lat e r I quizze d m y fo ur - ye ar - o ld daught e r o n he r
m e m o r y o f t he p e gw o r ds . T he r e had be e n no r e v ie w , o r e v e n m e nt io n,
o f e it he r t he p e gw o r ds o r t he T e n C o m m andm e nt s dur ing t hat t im e . I
s t ar t e d by as k ing he r if s he co uld r e m e m be r t hat a lo ng t im e ago s he
le ar ne d s o m e r hym ing w o r ds t hat s o und lik e t he num be r s fr o m 1 t o 10.
H e r fir s t r e s p o ns e w as , "H uh? I do n't k no w w hat yo u'r e t alk ing abo ut ."
T he n, aft e r a fe w s e co nds , "O h, ye ah, no w I r e m e m be r s ix- s t ick s ." I
s aid, "T hat 's r ight ! N o w I w ant yo u t o s ay as m any o f t he r hym ing w o r ds
as yo u can r e m e m be r . S ay e ach num be r fir s t , t he n t he r hym ing w o r d
t hat go e s w it h.it ."
S he r e calle d 7 o f t he 10 p e gw o r ds co r r e ct ly, dr aw ing a blank fo r
num be r s 3 and 9, and r e calling "de n" ( r at he r t han "he n") fo r 10. I t he n
m ade t he que s t io ns m ult ip le - cho ice fo r t ho s e t hr e e num be r s , t e lling he r
fo ur w o r ds t hat r hym e d w it h e ach num be r . S he co r r e ct ly r e co gnize d t he
p e gw o r ds fo r 3 and 9, but s t ill cho s e "de n" fo r 10.
Abo ut a w e e k lat e r I t e s t e d he r m e m o r y fo r t he T e n C o m m and-
m e nt s . S he . w as no t able t o r e m e m be r any o f t he m w it ho ut p r o m p t ing,
but r e m e m be r e d fo ur o f t he m w he n I de s cr ibe d t he as s o ciat io ns w e had
us e d. Aft e r o ne r e v ie w s he w as able t o r e call all 10 o f t he co m m andm e nt s
w it ho ut p r o m p t ing, and did it again t hr e e days lat e r w it h no fur t he r
r e v ie w .
T he s ignificance o f t his dis cus s io n o n t he T e n C o m m andm e nt s do e s
no t lie in k no w ing t he co m m andm e nt s as m uch as it do e s in s ho w ing ho w
t he Be g s ys t e m can be us e d t o le ar n ide as , m o s t o f w hich ar e r at he r
abs t r act . A s t ude nt in m y m e m o r y clas s r e lat e d an e xp e r ie nce w hich
s ho w s t hat t he Be g s ys t e m can he lp w it h t his k ind o f t as k e v e n w he n t he
us e r do e s no t be lie v e it w ill w o r k . Aft e r t e aching his w ife t he T e n
C o m m andm e nt s us ing t he p r o ce dur e de s cr ibe d abo v e , t he s t ude nt r e -
p o r t e d, "S he w as am aze d t hat t he y co uld be le ar ne d s o e as ily. Pr e v io us
t o t his e xp e r im e nt s he had t o ld m e t hat s he co uldn't do it . S he als o had
m e nt io ne d t hat it s e e m e d lik e m o r e w o r k [hav ing t o m e m o r ize p e g-
w o r ds ] , but s he do e s n't fe e l t hat w ay no w ."
Remembering Numbers
A us e o f t he Pe g s ys t e m t hat go e s be yo nd t he Lo ci s ys t e m is fo r le ar ning
num be r s . ( T he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m in t he ne xt chap t e r is e v e n m o r e e fficie nt
fo r le ar ning num be r s ). Y o u can r e m e m be r a lo ng num be r by link ing t he
p e gw o r ds t o ge t he r . Fo r e xam p le , t he 10- digit num be r 1639420574 co uld
be r e m e m be r e d by us ing t he Link s ys t e m t o r e m e m be r bun- s t ick s - t r e e -
w ine , and s o o n. Y o ur cap acit y fo r a s t r ing o f num be r s can be e xt e nde d
far be yo nd t he s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y s p an o f abo ut s e v e n digit s , w hich w as
dis cus s e d in chap t e r 2 ( as lo ng as t he digit s ar e p r e s e nt e d s lo w ly e no ugh
fo r yo u t o m ak e as s o ciat io ns ).
T he Pe g s ys t e m co uld be us e d t o r e m e m be r t he 12- digit num be r
r e p r e s e nt ing a cale ndar ye ar ( s e e chap t e r 7); t he num be r fo r 1988 ( 376-
315- 374- 264) co uld be r e m e m be r e d by link ing t r e e - he av e n- s t ick s - t r e e ,
and s o o n. T his m e t ho d has a dis adv ant age o f r e quir ing s e que nt ial
r e t r ie v al ( t o r e m e m be r t he digit fo r S e p t e m be r , fo r e xam p le , yo u m us t
r e m e m be r t hat S e p t e m be r is t he nint h m o nt h, and t he n r un t hr o ugh t he
num be r unt il yo u r e ach t he nint h digit ). A m o r e e fficie nt m e t ho d w o uld
be t o m ak e up a s ubs t it ut e w o r d fo r e ach m o nt h, bas e d e it he r o n r hym e
o r m e aning ( fo r e xam p le , Januar y = jam , Fe br uar y = v ale nt ine , Ap r il
= ap e , S e p t e m be r = s ce p t e r ). T he n as s o ciat e t he p e gw o r d fo r e ach
digit w it h t he p e gw o r d fo r t he co r r e s p o nding m o nt h as p air e d as s o ciat e s
( jam - t r e e , v ale nt ine - he av e n, ap e - t r e e , s ce p t e r - do o r ). N o w t o find t he
k e y digit fo r S e p t e m be r yo u do no t hav e t o r un t hr o ugh t he num be r
s e que nt ially unt il yo u r e ach t he nint h digit ; yo u can dir e ct ly r e call
S e p t e m be r - s ce p t e r - do o r - fo ur .
T he Pe g s ys t e m can be us e d t o co unt t hings in any k ind o f a
r e p e t it io us t as k in w hich yo u m ay lo s e co unt o f ho w m any t im e s yo u hav e
do ne it . Fo r e xam p le , I us e t he p e gw o r ds t o co unt lap s ar o und t he t r ack
w he n I jo g. O ne t r ack w he r e I r un is an indo o r t r ack t hat is o ne - fift h o f a
m ile ar o und. T his m e ans t hat t o r un t w o m ile s , fo r e xam p le , I m us t cir cle
t he t r ack 10 t im e s . Aft e r r unning fo r a w hile , it is e as y t o lo s e t r ack ( p un
int e nde d) o f ho w m any lap s I hav e co m p le t e d. T o he lp m e o v e r co m e t his
p r o ble m , I p ict ur e m ys e lf jum p ing o v e r a bun as I co m p le t e m y fir s t lap ,
jum p ing o v e r a s ho e as I co m p le t e lap t w o , r unning int o a t r e e at t he e nd
o f lap t hr e e , and s o o n. Ano t he r day I m ight p ict ur e t he ap p r o p r iat e it e m
Mental Filing Systems: Phonetic Mnemonic 169
s it t ing o ff t o t he s ide o f t he t r ack as I co m p le t e e ach lap , o r p ict ur e e ach
it e m dam age d in s o m e w ay ( s quas he d bun, br o k e n s ho e , s aw e d t r e e ,
e t c.), o r p ict ur e e ach it e m o n fir e . Var ying t he im age s fr o m day t o day
he lp s r e duce int e r fe r e nce fr o m t he p r e v io us day s o t hat I can t e ll t hat I
am co unt ing t o day's lap s r at he r t han ye s t e r day's lap s . O f co ur s e , t he
p r o ce dur e co uld be adap t e d t o co unt r e p e t it io ns in any k ind o f a r o ut ine
t as k ; o ne o f m y m e m o r y s t ude nt s us e d t his p r o ce dur e t o k e e p t r ack o f
s w im m ing lap s and ano t he r o ne k e p t t r ack o f r e p e t it io ns in p r act icing
p iano e xe r cis e s .
Using the Same Pegwords Over and Over
A que s t io n w as r ais e d in chap t e r 10 r e gar ding p o s s ible int e r fe r e nce fr o m
us ing t he s am e lo ci t o le ar n s e v e r al diffe r e nt lis t s . T his is s ue is als o
r e le v ant t o us ing t he s am e p e gw o r ds fo r s e v e r al lis t s . R e s e ar ch e v ide nce
s ho w s t hat t he r e w ill be s o m e int e r fe r e nce , but no t as m uch as w he n
yo u do no t us e any s ys t e m . Fo r e xam p le , in o ne s t udy s o m e p e o p le us e d
t he Pe g s ys t e m t o le ar n s ix co ns e cut iv e lis t s o f 10 it e m s e ach, and o t he r
p e o p le le ar ne d t he lis t s w it ho ut t he Pe g s ys t e m . T he av e r age r e call o f all
s ix lis t s fo r t he p e o p le us ing t he Pe g s ys t e m w as 63 p e r ce nt ; it w as 22
p e r ce nt fo r t he o t he r p e o p le . I n addit io n, p e o p le us ing t he Pe g s ys t e m
r e calle d w o r ds e qually w e ll fr o m all s ix lis t s , w he r e as t he o t he r s r e calle d
m o s t o f t he ir w o r ds fr o m t he las t t w o lis t s p r e s e nt e d.
16
C hap t e r 10 dis cus s e d t w o p o s s ible w ays o f r e ducing int e r fe r e nce
am o ng diffe r e nt lis t s t hat ar e le ar ne d in clo s e s ucce s s io n w it h t he Lo ci
s ys t e m . Fir s t , yo u can co ns t r uct s e v e r al diffe r e nt s e t s o f lo ci s o yo u w ill
no t hav e t o us e t he s am e o ne s as o ft e n. S e co nd, yo u can us e p r o gr e s s iv e
e labo r at io n. T he s e t w o m e t ho ds can als o he lp r e duce int e r fe r e nce t hat
m ay co m e fr o m us ing t he Pe g s ys t e m o n s e v e r al s ucce s s iv e lis t s . Y o u
co uld e it he r co ns t r uct s e v e r al s e t s o f p e gw o r ds ( p e r hap s o ne bas e d o n
r hym e s , o ne o n lo o k - alik e s , o ne o n m e aning, and o ne o n t he alp habe t ),
o r yo u co uld at t ach m o r e t han o ne it e m t o e ach p e gw o r d by us ing
p r o gr e s s iv e e labo r at io n. ( O ne s t udy o n p r o gr e s s iv e e labo r at io n t hat w as
cit e d in chap t e r 10 fo und e quiv ale nt r e s ult s fo r t he Lo ci and Pe g
s ys t e m s .)
17
Other Uses
As w it h t he Link and Lo ci s ys t e m s , t he Pe g s ys t e m can als o be us e d in
s cho o l s e t t ings . W e hav e s e e n s o m e r e s e ar ch o n t he us e o f t he Pe g
s ys t e m by s t ude nt s in s cho o l. E xp e r ie nce s r e p o r t e d by s o m e o f m y
m e m o r y s t ude nt s s ugge s t addit io nal ide as fo r p o s s ible ap p licat io ns o f t he
Pe g s ys t e m . O ne s t ude nt t o o k an e xam o n lo gar it hm s in a p r e calculus
m at h clas s and r e p o r t e d t hat he "e m e r ge d daze d, co nfus e d, and w it h a
s co r e o f 73 p e r ce nt . " T he e xam co ns is t e d o f 11 t yp e s o f p r o ble m s , and
e ach co uld be s o lv e d e as ily if t he k e y m anip ulat io n co uld be r e m e m be r e d.
T he s t ude nt us e d t he p e gw o r ds t o le ar n t he s e k e y t he o r e m s and r e t o o k
t he e xam . H e r e p o r t e d, "T he r e w as n't any p r o ble m o r p e r p le xit y in
r e t ak ing t he e xam , and I e m e r ge d t his t im e w it h a 92 p e r ce nt ."
Ano t he r s t ude nt us e d t he Pe g s ys t e m t o p r e p ar e fo r an o p e n- bo o k
t e s t o n t he co nt e nt o f abo ut 50 Bible s cr ip t ur e s t hat had be e n m ar k e d in
clas s . S he link e d all t he s cr ip t ur e s in e ach chap t e r t o ge t he r , and t he n
us e d p e gw o r ds fo r chap t e r num be r s and as s o ciat e d t he m w it h t he fir s t
s cr ip t ur e in e ach link o f as s o ciat io ns . S he t he n link e d t he chap t e r
p e gw o r ds t o ge t he r t o r e m e m be r w hich chap t e r s had s cr ip t ur e s m ar k e d.
S he go t 98 p e r ce nt o n t he t e s t and r e p o r t e d: "T he t e s t w as t im e d and
t he m ajo r it y o f t he clas s did no t finis h in t he t im e lim it . I had no difficult y
finis hing; in fact , I e v e n had t im e t o lo o k o v e r t he t e s t t o m ak e s ur e I did
no t w ant t o change any o f m y ans w e r s ."
O ne s t ude nt us e d t he Pe g and Lo ci s ys t e m s t o he lp r e m e m be r t he
num e r ical de s ignat io ns fo r t he nine co m p o ne nt s in t he r adio co m p as s
s ys t e m . S he w as at t e nding a t e chnical s cho o l in w hich s t ude nt s had t o
le ar n m any diffe r e nt nav igat io nal s ys t e m s . E ach s ys t e m has s e v e r al
co m p o ne nt s and e ach co m p o ne nt has a num be r o f de s ignat io ns . T he Pe g
s ys t e m he lp e d he r r e m e m be r t he num be r s , and t he Lo ci he lp e d he r
r e m e m be r w hich co m p o ne nt s go w it h w hich s ys t e m s .
Ano t he r s t ude nt w as e m p lo ye d in t r aining m e nt ally and e m o t io nally
handicap p e d p e o p le t o do cus t o dial w o r k , t o p r e p ar e t he m fo r jo b
p lace m e nt . O ne cus t o dial jo b t he y le ar ne d t o do w as cle aning lav at o r ie s ,
w hich inv o lv e d 14 s t e p s . My s t ude nt fir s t us e d t he Pe g s ys t e m t o le ar n
t he s t e p s him s e lf s o t hat he co uld t e ach t he m m o r e e ffe ct iv e ly; he t he n
us e d t he p e g s ys t e m t o he lp his t r aine e s le ar n t he s t e p s . H e r e p o r t e d
t hat de v e lo p m e nt ally dis able d and e m o t io nally handicap p e d t r aine e s w e r e
s ucce s s ful in m e m o r izing t he s t e p s , and t hat t he ir qualit y r at e acco r ding
t o co m p e t it iv e s t andar ds incr e as e d fr o m ap p r o xim at e ly 20 p e r ce nt t o
m o r e t han 80 p e r ce nt o f co m p e t it iv e no r m s .
O t he r e xam p le s o f us e s o f t he Pe g s ys t e m r e p o r t e d by m y m e m o r y
s t ude nt s include le ar ning s uch v ar ie d m at e r ials as 6 t r igo no m e t r y func-
t io ns , 13 p r incip le s o f m o t iv at io n, cam p us building nam e s , 18 k inds and
s ym p t o m s o f s ho ck , 12 fo o d gr o up s fo r a die t , 10 s ho r t s t o r ie s and
aut ho r s , t he num be r s fr o m 1 t o 10 in Jap ane s e , 10 p o int s t o r e m e m be r
fo r a de nt al- s cho o l int e r v ie w , 11 p e r io ds o f his t o r y in e v o lut io n, 20 m o s t
im p o r t ant e v e nt s in U .S . his t o r y, and 8 aids in ho r s e back r iding. Ano t he r
ap p licat io n fo r t he Pe g s ys t e m had be e n de v e lo p e d in t he m ilit ar y t o
Mental Filing Systems: Phonetic Mnemonic 1 7 1
t e ach ne w r e cr uit s t he 11 "o r de r s t o s e nt r ie s " co m p r is ing t he dut ie s t hat
a s e nt r y m us t be able t o r e call by num be r .
18
Lik e t he Lo ci s ys t e m , t he Pe g s ys t e m can be co m bine d w it h t he
Link s ys t e m t o r e m e m be r as m any as 100 it e m s . As s o ciat e t he fir s t it e m
w it h "bun" and link t he ne xt nine it e m s ; as s o ciat e t he e le v e nt h it e m w it h
"s ho e " and link t he ne xt nine it e m s , and s o o n. U s ing t his ap p r o ach, yo u
do no t hav e any link lo nge r t han 10 w o r ds , and yo u us e t he p e gw o r ds t o
cue yo u fo r t he fir s t w o r d in e ach link .
Y o u co uld us e t he p e gw o r ds as a m e nt al filing s ys t e m fo r k e e p ing
t r ack o f daily ap p o int m e nt s . Fo r e xam p le , if yo u ne e d t o go t o t he de nt is t
t o day at 10:00 and t ak e yo ur car in fo r an o il change at 3:00, yo u co uld
as s o ciat e "de nt is t - he n" and "o il- t r e e ." I f yo u m ade up a s ubs t it ut e w o r d
fo r e ach day o f t he w e e k ( fo r e xam p le , Mo nday = m o ne y, W e dne s day
= w indy), yo u co uld co ns t r uct a m e nt al filing s ys t e m fo r k e e p ing t r ack
o f w e e k ly ap p o int m e nt s . T hus , if yo u ne e d t o go t o t he de nt is t ne xt
Mo nday at 10:00 and t ak e yo ur car in fo r an o il change o n W e dne s day at
3:00, yo u co uld as s o ciat e "de nt is t - m o ne y- he n" and "o il- w indy- t r e e ."
Addit io nal p r act ical ap p licat io ns o f t he Pe g s ys t e m can be fo und in
p o p ular m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k s , s uch as t ho s e r e fe r e nce d at t he e nd o f
chap t e r 9.
Mental Fi l i ng Systems:
Phoneti c Mnemoni c
T
he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m is t he m o s t s o p his t icat e d and m o s t v e r s at ile o f
t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s dis cus s e d in t his bo o k . I t is als o t he m o s t
co m p le x and t hus r e quir e s t he m o s t s t udy and e ffo r t t o m as t e r . H o w e v e r ,
fo r us e as a m e nt al filing s ys t e m , t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m o v e r co m e s a
lim it at io n o f t he Pe g s ys t e m by allo w ing co ns t r uct io n o f m o r e t han 10 t o
20 p e gw o r ds . At t he s am e t im e it r e t ains t he Pe g s ys t e m 's adv ant age o f
dir e ct r e t r ie v al. I n addit io n, t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m e nable s us t o r e m e m be r
num be r s be t t e r by m ak ing t he m m e aningful.
WHAT IS THE PHONETIC SYSTEM?
T he s ys t e m dis cus s e d in t his chap t e r has be e n r e fe r r e d t o by s uch t e r m s
as figure-alphabet, digit-letter, number-alphabet, hook, number-consonant,
and number-to-sound. O f t he s e m any t e r m s , t he m o s t de s cr ip t iv e is t he
las t o ne , t he num be r - t o - s o und s ys t e m . T he o t he r labe ls ar e m o r e
de s cr ip t iv e o f o lde r v e r s io ns o f t he s ys t e m . T he r e as o n w hy I hav e
cho s e n t o call t he s ys t e m t he "Pho ne t ic s ys t e m " w ill be co m e cle ar as it
is de s cr ibe d.
1 7 2
I n t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m e ach o f t he digit s fr o m 0 t o 9 is r e p r e s e nt e d
by a co ns o nant s o und; t he s e co ns o nant s o unds ar e t he n co m bine d w it h
v o w e ls t o co de num be r s int o w o r ds , w hich ar e m o r e m e aningful and t hus
e as ie r t o r e m e m be r t han num be r s .
Origin
T he o r igin o f t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m has be e n t r ace d back m o r e t han 300
ye ar s t o 1648, w he n W inck e lm an ( als o s p e lle d Wenusheimo r Wennsshein
in s o m e s o ur ce s ) int r o duce d a digit - le t t e r s ys t e m in w hich t he digit s
w e r e r e p r e s e nt e d by le t t e r s o f t he alp habe t . T he s e le t t e r s w e r e t he n
us e d t o fo r m w o r ds t o r e p r e s e nt a giv e n num be r s e que nce . R ichar d
Gr e y p ublis he d a r e fine m e nt o f W inck e lm an's digit - le t t e r s ys t e m in
1730.
1
I n t he s e e ar ly s ys t e m s t he digit s w e r e r e p r e s e nt e d by bo t h co ns o n-
ant s and v o w e ls , and t he le t t e r s r e p r e s e nt ing e ach digit w e r e s e le ct e d
ar bit r ar ily. I n 1813, Gr e go r v o n Fe inaigle de s cr ibe d a fur t he r r e fine m e nt
o f t he s ys t e m . I n his s ys t e m t he digit s w e r e r e p r e s e nt e d by co ns o nant s
o nly; v o w e ls had no num e r ical v alue . I n addit io n, t he co ns o nant s r e p r e -
s e nt ing e ach digit w e r e no t s e le ct e d ar bit r ar ily; r at he r , t he y w e r e
s e le ct e d o n t he bas is o f t he ir s im ilar it y t o , o r as s o ciat io n w it h, t he digit s
t he y r e p r e s e nt e d ( fo r e xam p le , "t " = 1 be caus e it r e s e m ble s t he digit
1, "n" = 2 be caus e it has t w o do w ns t r o k e s ; "d" = 6 be caus e it
r e s e m ble s a r e v e r s e d 6). W o r ds w e r e t he n fo r m e d t o r e p r e s e nt num be r s
by ins e r t ing v o w e ls ; t hus 6 co uld be r e p r e s e nt e d by aid, and 16 co uld be
r e p r e s e nt e d by tide.
2
Fur t he r m o dificat io ns o f t he digit - co ns o nant s ys t e m w e r e m ade by
m ne m o nis t s dur ing t he 1800s . I n 1844, Fr ancis Fauv e l- Go ur aud p ublis he d
an at t e m p t e d clas s ificat io n o f all t he w o r ds in t he E nglis h language t hat
co uld r e p r e s e nt num be r s up t o 10,000. By t he e nd o f t he nine t e e nt h
ce nt ur y t he digit - co ns o nant s ys t e m had e v o lv e d int o it s p r e s e nt fo r m .
D ur ing t he 1890s it w as br ie fly de s cr ibe d in W illiam Jam e s 's clas s ic
p s ycho lo gy t e xt bo o k , and m o r e t ho r o ughly de s cr ibe d by Lo is e t t e as t he
s ys t e m o f "analyt ic s ubs t it ut io ns ." T he digit s w e r e r e p r e s e nt e d no t by
co ns o nant s t he m s e lv e s but by co ns o nant sounds. T his v e r s io n o f t he
s ys t e m has r e m aine d e s s e nt ially unchange d in m e m o r y bo o k s and co m -
m e r cial co ur s e s dur ing t he t w e nt ie t h ce nt ur y.
3
Description
T he fo llo w ing dis p lay s um m ar ize s t he digit - s o und e quiv ale nt s t hat ar e
t he bas is o f t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m :
Digit Consonant Sound
1 t , t h, d
Memory Aid
"t " has o ne do w ns t r o k e
t w o do w ns t r o k e s
t hr e e do w ns t r o k e s
las t s o und fo r t he w o r d fourin s e v e r al
language s
R o m an num e r al fo r 50 is "L"
r e v e r s e d s cr ip t "j" r e s e m ble s 6( 1.)
"k " m ade o f t w o 7's ( X)
s cr ip t "f " r e s e m ble s 8 ( I )
"p " is m ir r o r im age o f 9
"z" fo r "ze r o "
2 n
3 m
4 r
5 1
6 j, s h, ch, s o ft g
7 k , q, har d c, har d g
8 f, v
9 p , b
0 z, s , s o ft c
T he r e ar e s e v e r al adv ant age s t o t he w ay t he co ns o nant s o unds hav e
be e n s e le ct e d t o r e p r e s e nt t he digit s in t he dis p lay abo v e :
1. T he digit - s o und e quiv ale nt s ar e no t t o o har d t o le ar n ( s e e t he
m e m o r y aids in t he dis p lay).
2. T he s o unds ar e m ut ually e xclus iv e : E ach digit is r e p r e s e nt e d by o nly
o ne s o und o r fam ily o f s im ilar s o unds .
3. T he s o unds ar e e xhaus t iv e : All t he co ns o nant s o unds in t he E nglis h
language ar e include d, e xce p t fo r "w , " "h," and "y ," w hich yo u can
e as ily r e m e m be r by t he w o r d why ( t he le t t e r h has v alue o nly as it
change s t he s o unds o f o t he r co ns o nant s t h, ch, p h, s h).
All o f t he digit s e xce p t 2, 3, 4, and 5 ar e act ually r e p r e s e nt e d by
families o f s im ilar s o unds r at he r t han by a s ingle s o und. T he m e m o r y
aids in t he dis p lay abo v e can he lp in r e m e m be r ing t he p r im ar y le t t e r ( t he
o ne lis t e d fir s t ) fo r e ach digit . H e r e ar e s o m e p hr as e s and s e nt e nce s
( acr o s t ics ) t hat can he lp in r e m e m be r ing all o f t he s o unds t hat go
t o ge t he r in e ach fam ily: fo r 1t r ain t he do g; fo r 6Jack s ho uld chas e
giant s ; fo r 7k ings and cjue e ns co unt go ld; fo r 8fun"v acat io n; fo r 9
p r e t t y baby; fo r 0ze r o is a cip he r .
I t is im p o r t ant t o r e alize t hat in t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m it is t he
co ns o nant sounds t hat ar e im p o r t ant , no t t he le t t e r s t he m s e lv e s . T his is
w hy I hav e cho s e n t o call it t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m . T o unde r s t and w hy
ce r t ain s o unds ar e gr o up e d t o ge t he r , s ay t he fo llo w ing w o r ds alo ud and
p ay clo s e at t e nt io n t o ho w s im ilar ly t he unde r line d s o unds in e ach gr o up
Mental Filing Systems: Phonetic Mnemonic
1 7 5
ar e fo r m e d w it h yo ur m o ut h and t o ngue : fo r 1t o e , t ho ugh, do e ; fo r
6jaw , s ho w , cho w , ge m ; fo r 7k e y, guo , co w , go ; fo r 8fo e , v o w ;
fo r 9p ay, bay; fo r 0ze r o , s ue , ce ll. Act ually, t he r e ar e o nly t hr e e
s o unds fo r 6 be caus e "s o ft g" is t he s am e as "j ," t w o s o unds fo r 7
be caus e "har d c" and "q" ar e t he s am e as "k ," and t w o s o unds fo r 0
be caus e "s o ft c" is t he s am e as "s ."
T he e m p has is o n s o unds is im p o r t ant be caus e diffe r e nt le t t e r s o r
le t t e r co m binat io ns can t ak e o n t he s am e s o unds . Fo r e xam p le , t he "s h"
s o und can be m ade by t he le t t e r s s ( s ugar ), c ( o ce an), ci ( gr acio us ), and
ti ( r at io ). N o t o nly can diffe r e nt le t t e r s t ak e o n t he s am e s o und, but t he
s am e le t t e r can t ak e o n diffe r e nt s o unds . Fo r e xam p le , s o und t he t in
ratiov e r s us patio;t he cin acev e r s us act;t he gin agev e r s us ago; t he gh
in ghost v e r s us tough;t he chin churchv e r s us chronic;t he ngin sing
v e r s us singe; and t he s in sorev e r s us sure. T he le t t e r x t ak e s o n t w o
co ns o nant s o unds ( "k " and "s ") as it is p r o no unce d in m o s t w o r ds ( ax),
but it can als o be s o unde d as "z" ( xylo p ho ne ).
W he n a r e p e at e d co ns o nant m ak e s o nly o ne s o und it co unt s as o nly
o ne digit ( but t o n = 912 no t 9112, and acco unt = 721 no t 7721), but
w he n a r e p e at e d co ns o nant m ak e s t w o diffe r e nt s o unds it co unt s as t w o
digit s ( acce nt = 7021). A s ile nt co ns o nant is dis r e gar de d; it has no v alue
if yo u do n't he ar it w he n p r o no uncing a w o r d: lim b = 53 no t 539 ( but
lim be r = 5394); bo ught = 91 no t 971; lo iife = 28 no t 728; co uld = 71
no t 751; s ce ne = 02 no t 072 ( but s can = 072). T w o diffe r e nt co ns o nant s
t o ge t he r r e p r e s e nt o nly o ne digit if t he y fo r m o nly o ne s o und ( t ack =
17 no t 177; acquaint = 721 no t 7721).
T w o s p e cial co m binat io n s o unds ar e no t include d in t he dis p lay
abo v e . O ne is t he "zh" s o und ( as in m e as ur e , v is io n, azur e ), w hich is
v e r y s im ilar t o t he "s h" s o und and is us ually t r e at e d t he s am e ( r e p r e -
s e nt ing 6). T he o t he r is t he "ng" s o und ( as in s ing and s ang, w hich is
us ually t r e at e d t he s am e as "har d g" ( r e p r e s e nt ing 7). H o w e v e r , s o m e
p e o p le t r e at "ng" as t w o diffe r e nt s o unds , "n" and "g" ( r e p r e s e nt ing 27).
T he im p o r t ant co ns ide r at io n, as w it h t he o t he r e xam p le s , is t hat yo u go
by w hat you he ar and t hat yo u be co ns is t e nt . W hiche v e r m e t ho d yo u
p r e fe r , r e m e m be r t hat it is t he s o und t hat is im p o r t ant : angle = 75;
ange l = 265; e ngage - 276.
By no w yo u can ap p r e ciat e w hat I m e ant w he n I s aid t hat t he
Pho ne t ic s ys t e m is m o r e co m p le x t han t he o t he r m ne m o nic s ys t e m s ,
and t hus t ak e s m o r e e ffo r t t o le ar n. Y o u w ill ne e d t o s p e nd s o m e t im e
s t udying t his s e ct io n. H o w e v e r , I be lie v e t hat t he m any p o t e nt ial us e s o f
t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m jus t ify t he e ffo r t e xp e nde d in le ar ning it . T he
s o unds r e p r e s e nt ing e ach digit s ho uld be le ar ne d t ho r o ughly.
Many o f t he e xam p le s alr e ady dis cus s e d, p lus o t he r s t hat w ill he lp
illus t r at e t he diffe r e nce s be t w e e n s o und and le t t e r , ar e co nt aine d in t he
fo llo w ing dis p lay. T his dis p lay s ho w s e xam p le s o f diffe r e nt co ns o nant s
and co ns o nant co m binat io ns t hat can r e p r e s e nt e ach digit . ( I t include s
co ns o nant co m binat io ns t hat m ak e a unique s o und, but do e s no t include
num e r o us co ns o nant co m binat io ns in w hich o ne o f t he co ns o nant s is
s im p ly s ile nt , s uch as de bt , p s alm , is land, and m ne m o nic.
Examples
t o t ( 11), le t t e r ( 514)
t he n ( 12), t hin ( 12)
did ( 11),ladde r ( 514)
no o n ( 22), w inne r ( 24)
m um m y ( 33)
r o ar ( 44), bar r e l ( 945), co jo ne l ( 7425)
My ( 55)
judge ( 66), gr adual ( 7465)
s he ( 6), r at io ( 46), o ce an ( 62), anxio us ( angs hus = 760),
s p e cial ( 0965), t is s ue ( 16), e m uls io n ( 3562), fas cis m ( 8603),
m achine ( 362), s ur e ( 64)
cho o s e ( 60), w it ch ( 6), co ns cio us ( 7260), ce llo ( 65), C ze ch ( 67)
ge m ( 63), e xagge r at e ( 70641)
k it e ( 71), back ( 97), chao s ( 70), xe r o x ( ze r o k s = 0470)
cp it ( 71), acguit ( 71)
co w ( 7), acco unt ( 721)
gagge d ( 771), e xam ( e gzam = 703)
fo o d ( 81), o ff ( 8), gho ne ( 82), co ugh ( 78)
o v e n ( 82), s av v y ( 08), o f ( 8), S t e p he n ( 0182)
go gp e d ( 991)
bo bbe d ( 991)
zo o ( 0), buzz ( 90), xe r o x ( ze r o k s = 0470), s cis s o r s ( 0040),
s ue ( 0), t o s s e d ( 101), s cis s o r s ( 0040), p r e t ze l ( 94105), xe r o x
( ze r o k s ) = 0470)
cir cus ( 0470)
How to Use It
Aft e r t he co ns o nant s o unds r e p r e s e nt ing e ach digit hav e be e n t ho r o ughly
le ar ne d, t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m can t he n be us e d in t w o ge ne r al ar e as :
w o r ds can be co ns t r uct e d t o s e r v e as a m e nt al filing s ys t e m fo r us e in
t he s am e w ay as t he Lo ci and Pe g s ys t e m s , and any num e r ical info r m a-
t io n can be co de d int o w o r ds t o m ak e it e as ie r t o le ar n.
Digit Sound
1 t
t h
d
2 n
3 m
4 r
5 1
6 j
s h
ch
s o ft g
7 k
q
har d c
har d g
8 f
v
9 p
b
0 z
s
c
Mental filing system. T he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m can be us e d t o co ns t r uct
w o r ds t o s e r v e as a m e nt al filing s ys t e m jus t lik e t he Lo ci and Pe g
s ys t e m s . T o k e e p it s t r aight w he t he r I am t alk ing abo ut t he Pe g s ys t e m
o r t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m , I w ill r e fe r t o t he Pe g s ys t e m w o r ds as
"p e gw o r ds " and t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m w o r ds as "k e yw o r ds " ( no t t o be
co nfus e d w it h t he Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic in chap t e r 7). T he k e yw o r ds ar e
co ns t r uct e d by co m bining v o w e ls w it h t he co ns o nant s . Fo r e xam p le ,
t he r e ar e m any w o r ds t hat co uld r e p r e s e nt t he num be r 1: doe, day, die,
tie, toe, tea, eat, hat, head, wade, and the. Fo r r e as o ns dis cus s e d in
chap t e r 7, it w o uld be be s t t o us e a co ncr e t e w o r d; t hus , toe w o uld be
be t t e r t han the. Als o , it w ill p r o bably w o r k be t t e r fo r m o s t p e o p le t o
cho o s e a k e yw o r d t hat be gins w it h t he co ns o nant s o und ( s uch as tea o r
doe) t han o ne t hat e nds w it h t he s o und ( s uch as eato r head).
W e s aw in t he las t chap t e r t hat o ne p r o ble m w it h t he Pe g s ys t e m is
t hat r hym ing o r lo o k - alik e p e gw o r ds ar e har d t o find fo r num be r s be yo nd
10 and e v e n har de r fo r num be r s be yo nd 20. T he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m do e s
no t hav e t his lim it at io n. T w o - digit num be r s ar e r e p r e s e nt e d by a k e yw o r d
t hat be gins w it h a co ns o nant s o und r e p r e s e nt ing t he fir s t digit and e nds
w it h a co ns o nant s o und r e p r e s e nt ing t he s e co nd digit . Fo r e xam p le , t he
num be r 13 co uld be r e p r e s e nt e d by tomb, dome, o r dime, and t he
num be r 25 co uld be r e p r e s e nt e d by nail, Nile, o r kneel. T he p r o ce dur e
fo r t hr e e - digit num be r s is t he s am e : fo r 145 yo u co uld us e trail, drill, o r
twirl. N um be r s o f m o r e t han t w o digit s ar e s o m e t im e s difficult t o
r e p r e s e nt by a s ingle w o r d, and m ay r e quir e t w o w o r ds o r a p hr as e . Fo r
e xam p le , 889 m ay be r e p r e s e nt e d by "iv y f o b," and 8890 by "fiv e ap e s ."
Ke yw o r ds fo r num be r s up t o 100 can e as ily be co ns t r uct e d by
co m bining co ns o nant s and v o w e ls . E xam p le s o f p o s s ible k e yw o r ds fo r
t he num be r s fr o m 1 t o 20 ar e t he fo llo w ing:
1 = t ie
2 = N o ah
3 = m a
4 = r ay
5 = law
6 = jay
7 = k e y
8 = fe e
9 = p ie
10 = t o e s
11 = t o t
12 = t in
13 = t o m b
14 = t ir e
15 = t o w e l
16 = t is s ue
17 = t ack
18 = t affy
19 = t ub
20 = no s e
T he s am p le k e yw o r ds abo v e all s t ar t w it h t he p r im ar y digit fr o m t he
p r e v io us dis p lay, but t hat is no t e s s e nt ial ( fo r e xam p le , cow, dime, and
dishco uld be us e d fo r 7, 13, and 16, r e s p e ct iv e ly). S e v e r al p o s s ible
k e yw o r ds fo r e ach num be r fr o m 1 t o 100 ar e lis t e d in t he ap p e ndix.
( Addit io nal p ho ne t ic k e yw o r ds fo r e ach num be r up t o 1,000 hav e be e n
lis t e d e ls e w he r e ; and, as has be e n m e nt io ne d, s e v e r al k e yw o r ds fo r
m o s t num be r s up t o 10,000 w e r e lis t e d by Fauv e l- Go ur aud.)
4
Y o u s ho uld
cho o s e o ne k e yw o r d t hat yo u can v is ualize e as ily fo r e ach num be r and
us e it co ns is t e nt ly. T he k e yw o r ds s e r v e as yo ur m e nt al filing s ys t e m .
T he y ar e us e d in t he s am e w ay as t he lo cat io ns ar e us e d in t he Lo ci
s ys t e m and t he p e gw o r ds ar e us e d in t he Pe g s ys t e m . T hus , t he fir s t
it e m t o be le ar ne d w o uld be as s o ciat e d w it h tie, t he s e co nd it e m w it h
Noah, and t he t w e nt ie t h it e m w it h nose ( o r w hat e v e r k e yw o r ds yo u
s e le ct ). R e call als o p r o ce e ds t he s am e as w it h t he Lo ci and Pe g s ys t e m s .
Y o u t hink fir s t o f t he num be r , t he n t he k e yw o r d, and t he n t he it e m t hat
w as as s o ciat e d w it h t he k e yw o r d.
Y o u can e xp and yo ur bas ic 100- w o r d lis t t o 1,099 w o r ds by le ar ning
o nly 10 m o r e w o r ds . T he 10 w o r ds ar e adje ct iv e s t hat r e p r e s e nt t he
num be r s fr o m 1 t o 10; e xam p le s m ight be : w e t = 1, ne w = 2, m y = 3,
hair y = 4, o ily - 5, huge = 6, w e ak = 7, he av y = 8, hap p y = 9,
dizzy = 10. Fo r num be r s fr o m 101 t o 1,099 yo u w o uld us e yo ur r e gular
k e yw o r d t o r e p r e s e nt t he las t t w o digit s o f e ach num be r , and t he
adje ct iv e t o r e p r e s e nt t he fir s t digit ; fo r e xam p le , w e t t ie = 101, ne w
t ie = 201, hair y chin = 462, hap p y m o v ie = 938, and dizzy baby =
1,099.
Remembering numbers. T he s e co nd m ajo r ar e a in w hich t he Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m is us e ful is in co ding num e r ical info r m at io n int o w o r ds , s o t hat
t he info r m at io n w ill be m o r e m e aningful and e as ie r t o as s o ciat e . N um e r -
o us e xam p le s o f t his us e ar e p r e s e nt e d lat e r in t his chap t e r .
T he ap p e ndix lis t s s e v e r al p o s s ible k e yw o r ds fo r e ach num be r in
o r de r t o p r o v ide addit io nal k e yw o r ds s o t hat yo u can av o id us ing t he
s am e w o r d t o o m any t im e s in co ding a s e r ie s o f num be r s . Fo r e xam p le ,
yo u w ill hav e le s s int e r fe r e nce if yo u co de t he num be r 6149234949 by
link ing "s he e t - r o p e - gno m e - r ib- r o be " t han if yo u link e d "s he e t - r o p e -
gno m e - r o p e - r o p e ." Als o , if yo u w e r e m e m o r izing s e v e r al p ho ne num -
be r s , fo r e xam p le , t hat had t he num be r 72 in t he m , yo u w o uld lik e ly ge t
le s s int e r fe r e nce am o ng t he m if yo u us e d s e v e r al diffe r e nt w o r ds fo r 72
t han if yo u us e d t he s am e w o r d in all o f yo ur as s o ciat io ns .
HOW WELL DOES THE PHONETIC SYSTEM WORK?
Le s s r e s e ar ch has be e n do ne o n t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m t han o n t he Link ,
Lo ci, and Be g s ys t e m s fo r t he o bv io us r e as o n t hat it t ak e s m o r e t im e
and e ffo r t t o m as t e r t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m be fo r e it can be us e d. T hus , it
is har de r fo r a r e s e ar che r t o t e ach t he s ys t e m t o a gr o up o f p e o p le and
hav e t he m us e it e ffe ct iv e ly in t he s am e e xp e r im e nt al s e s s io n. N e v e r t he -
le s s , a fe w s t udie s hav e inv e s t igat e d t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f t he Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m .
Research Evidence
T he e ar lie s t e xp e r im e nt al s t udie s o n t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m w e r e t hr e e
s t udie s do ne in t he 1960s , w hich indicat e d t hat t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m
k e yw o r ds he lp e d in le ar ning lis t s o f 20 w o r ds . Addit io nal r e s e ar ch in t he
e ar ly and m id- 1970s fo und t hat t he k e yw o r ds w e r e e ffe ct iv e in le ar ning
t hr e e co ns e cut iv e 20- w o r d lis t s and t w o 25- w o r d lis t s , t hat t he k e yw o r ds
w e r e e quiv ale nt in e ffe ct iv e ne s s t o t he lo ci and p e gw o r ds , and t hat o ne
p e r s o n's s im ilar s ys t e m w as e ffe ct iv e in le ar ning t hr e e - digit num be r s .
5
W he r e as m o s t e ar lie r s t udie s inv e s t igat e d t he us e o f t he Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m as a m e nt al filing s ys t e m , a fe w s t udie s in t he 1980s hav e
inv e s t igat e d it s us e fo r r e m e m be r ing num be r s . O ne s t udy fo und t hat t he
Pho ne t ic s ys t e m did no t he lp in le ar ning m e t r ic e quiv ale nce s o r in
r e m e m be r ing t he m fo ur w e e k s lat e r . A s e co nd s t udy co r r e ct e d w hat t he
r e s e ar che r s fe lt w e r e m e t ho do lo gical w e ak ne s s e s in t he fir s t s t udy;
p e o p le w e r e giv e n 5 m inut e s o f ins t r uct io n in t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m and 3
m inut e s t o le ar n 20 t w o - digit num be r s . T he y r e m e m be r e d m o r e t han
t w ice as m any digit s as did p e o p le w ho w e r e no t t aught t he Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m ( 15.7 v e r s us 7.0). A t hir d s t udy fo und t hat w it h 10 m inut e s o f
ins t r uct io n p e o p le co uld e v e n r e m e m be r fo ur - and s ix- digit num be r s
m o r e e ffe ct iv e ly. H o w e v e r , w he n p e o p le had t o m ak e up t he ir o w n
k e yw o r ds t o co de t he num be r s w hile le ar ning t he m ( r at he r t han us e
k e yw o r ds p r o v ide d by t he r e s e ar che r ), t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m act ually
hinde r e d t he ir p e r fo r m ance . T his finding s ugge s t s t he s ys t e m canno t be
us e d e ffe ct iv e ly unle s s it is le ar ne d w e ll and p r act ice d be fo r e it is us e d.
6
S e v e r al o f t he m ne m o nis t s w it h e xce p t io nal m e m o r ie s fe at ur e d in
chap t e r 3 us e d t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m t o achie v e t he ir fe at s . O ne p e r s o n
( T . E .) w ho w as w e ll p r act ice d in us ing t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m w as able t o
us e it t o dup licat e t he m e m o r y fe at s o f Lur ia's S w it h num be r m at r ice s
as w e ll as fe at s o f o t he r fam o us m ne m o nis t s . S ix s t ude nt s w ho co m p le t e d
m y m e m o r y co ur s e als o t r ie d t o us e t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m t o dup licat e
S 's fe at o f m e m o r izing a 4 x 5 m at r ix o f 20 digit s in 40 s e co nds . As w e
s aw in chap t e r 3, o ne s t ude nt did it in le s s t han 40 s e co nds ( 36 s e co nds ),
and t hr e e o t he r s t ude nt s did it in le s s t han 60 s e co nds . O ne m e nt al
calculat o r us e d t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m t o s t o r e num be r s in his m e m o r y
w hile do ing co m p le x m at h p r o ble m s , s uch as s quar ing s ix- digit num be r s
in his he ad.
7
U s ing a s ys t e m s im ilar t o t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m , ano t he r p e r s o n w as
able t o le ar n a num be r s e que nce o f 1,152 digit s in 34V2 ho ur s o v e r
s e v e r al days , and aft e r t hr e e m o nt hs he co uld s t ill r e call t w o - t hir ds o f t he
digit s . I n t he s am e am o unt o f s t udy t im e w it ho ut t he s ys t e m he le ar ne d
o nly abo ut o ne - t hir d as m any digit s , and aft e r t hr e e m o nt hs he co uld no t
r e call any o f t he m .
8
T he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m has be e n s t udie d in a unique ap p licat io n t o
le ar ning Fr e nch v o cabular y w o r ds . T he le ar ne r s fir s t le ar ne d a lis t o f
Pho ne t ic k e yw o r ds in Fr e nch; fo r e xam p le , the ( t e a) = 1, rot ( k ing) =
4. T he y t he n as s o ciat e d t he s e k e yw o r ds w it h ne w Fr e nch v o cabular y
w o r ds . T he m e anings o f t he v o cabular y w o r ds w e r e le ar ne d us ing t he
Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic de s cr ibe d in chap t e r 7. By as s o ciat ing t he w o r ds
w it h t he Pho ne t ic k e yw o r ds , le ar ne r s co uld p r act ice m e nt ally r e calling
t he ne w v o cabular y w o r ds by us ing t he k e yw o r ds as cue s . S e v e r al
r e s e ar ch s t udie s fo und t hat t his ap p r o ach he lp e d p e o p le le ar n lis t s o f
Fr e nch v o cabular y w o r ds ( bo t h co ncr e t e and abs t r act , fam iliar and unfa-
m iliar ), and e v e n he lp e d in le ar ning a gr am m at ical ge nde r .
9
S o m e r e s e ar che r s hav e analyze d t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f t he Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m in t e r m s o f t r ying t o e xp lain w hy it w o r k s , and hav e s ugge s t e d
t hat it m ak e s e ffe ct iv e us e o f p r incip le s s uch as m e aningfulne s s and
o r ganizat io n, illus t r at ing t he p o int m ade in chap t e r 7 t hat m ne m o nic
s ys t e m s us e t he bas ic p r incip le s o f m e m o r y.
10
Demonstrations
W he n I giv e le ct ur e s o n m e m o r y I o ft e n be gin w it h a de m o ns t r at io n fo r
w hich I us e t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m k e yw o r ds . I w r it e t he num be r s fr o m 1
t o 20 o n t he chalk bo ar d, and t he audie nce m ak e s up a lis t o f 20 w o r ds by
calling o ut t he num be r s o ne at a t im e w it h a w o r d t o w r it e aft e r e ach
num be r . A v o lunt e e r fr o m t he audie nce w r it e s t he w o r ds o n t he bo ar d
as t he y ar e calle d o ut , w hile I s t and facing t he audie nce w it h m y back t o
t he bo ar d. Aft e r t he lis t is co m p le t e d I t e ll t he audie nce t hat I am go ing
t o r e p e at all t he w o r ds back t o t he m w it ho ut lo o k ing at t he bo ar d, and I
us ually as k , "H o w do yo u w ant t he m fo r w ar d, back w ar d, o r o dd and
e v e n?" T his que s t io n ge ne r ally p r o duce s lo o k s o f dis be lie f and a lo w r o ar -
o f incr e dulo us m ur m ur s , and o ccas io nally s o m e o ne s ugge s t s s o m e t hing
lik e "s t ar t in t he m iddle and w o r k bo t h w ays ," o r "e v e r y t hir d o ne ." ( I f
t he r e ar e no s ugge s t io ns , I us ually jus t r e call t he m in r e v e r s e o r de r fr o m
20 t o 1.) O f co ur s e , t he o r de r o f r e call do e s no t m at t e r w it h t he Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m .
I hav e do ne t his de m o ns t r at io n abo ut 60 t o 70 t im e s s ince 1970 and
alm o s t alw ays r e call all 20 w o r ds , alt ho ugh o nce I r e calle d o nly 18 w o r ds
and abo ut a half- do ze n t im e s I r e calle d o nly 19 w o r ds . I hav e als o t r ie d
t his fe at 4 t im e s w it h 100 w o r ds but hav e no t ye t r e calle d all 100 w o r ds ;
m y r e call has r ange d fr o m 93 t o 97 w o r ds .
At age e le v e n, m y s o n did t his s am e de m o ns t r at io n w it h 20 w o r ds ,
and m y daught e r at age t hir t e e n r e m e m be r e d 49 o f 50 w o r ds t he fir s t
t im e s he t r ie d t he fe at aft e r le ar ning k e yw o r ds fo r num be r s fr o m 1 t o
50. Fur t he r e v ide nce t hat m o s t p e o p le can achie v e s uch fe at s is p r o v ide d
by s t ude nt s in m y m e m o r y co ur s e . O n t he fir s t night o f clas s I r e ad t he
s t ude nt s a lis t o f 20 num be r e d no uns in r ando m o r de r , and hav e t he m
r e call as m any as t he y can in co r r e ct num be r e d o r de r . Lat e r in t he
co ur s e , aft e r t he y hav e le ar ne d t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m , I giv e t he m t he
s am e t as k w it h ano t he r 20- no un lis t . T he fo llo w ing ar e t he r e s ult s fo r
m o r e t han 100 s t ude nt s in s e v e r al clas s e s : T he p e r ce nt age o f s t ude nt s
achie v ing p e r fe ct r e call o f all 20 w o r ds w as 7 p e r ce nt be fo r e le ar ning t he
Pho ne t ic s ys t e m and 51 p e r ce nt aft e r us ing it o n t he lat e r t e s t . T he
p e r ce nt age r e calling at le as t 18 o f 20 w o r ds w as 19 p e r ce nt be fo r e
le ar ning t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m and 83 p e r ce nt aft e r le ar ning it . At t he
o t he r e nd o f t he p e r fo r m ance s cale , t he p e r ce nt age o f s t ude nt s r e calling
10 o r fe w e r w o r ds w as 28 p e r ce nt be fo r e le ar ning t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m
and 2 p e r ce nt aft e r le ar ning it .
HOW CAN YOU USE THE PHONETIC SYSTEM?
T he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m can be us e d fo r all o f t he us e s de s cr ibe d p r e v io us ly
fo r t he Link , Lo ci, and Be g s ys t e m s . I t s m ain adv ant age o v e r t he Pe g
s ys t e m is t hat yo u can us e it fo r lo ng lis t s . I t s m ain adv ant age o v e r t he
Lo ci s ys t e m is t hat yo u can r e t r ie v e num be r e d it e m s dir e ct ly ( o f co ur s e ,
t he it e m s do no t havet o be num be r e d). I t has an addit io nal adv ant age
o v e r all p r e v io us s ys t e m s in t hat yo u can us e it t o r e m e m be r num be r s .
A Mental Filing System
T he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m k e yw o r ds can be us e d as a lit e r al m e nt al filing
s ys t e m , in a w ay s im ilar t o t hat de s cr ibe d fo r t he Lo ci s ys t e m in chap t e r
10. I hav e us e d m y k e yw o r ds fr o m 50 t o 99, in gr o up s o f 10, fo r t his
p ur p o s e : 50 t o 59 fo r m is ce llane o us t hings t o do ; 60 t o 69 fo r ho m e and
fam ily; 70 t o 79 fo r chur ch and civ ic; 80 t o 89 fo r s cho o l; and 90 t o 99
fo r m is ce llane o us ide as . S up p o s e t hat jus t as I am dr ift ing o ff t o s le e p
o ne night I r e m e m be r s e v e r al t hings I hav e t o do t he ne xt day. I
r e m e m be r t hat I ne e d t o le av e s o m e m o ne y ho m e fo r m y s o n ( ho m e and
fam ily), m ail a le t t e r o n t he w ay t o w o r k ( m is ce llane o us t hings t o do ),
p ick up s o m e inco m e t ax fo r m s ( m is ce llane o us t hings t o do ), gr ade t he
e xam s fo r a clas s ( s cho o l), and o r de r a bo o k fo r ano t he r clas s ( s cho o l). I
m ay fo r m as s o ciat io ns be t w e e n: lot( 51) and letter, lion( 52) and tax, juice
( 60) and money, vase( 80) and exam, and fit ( 81) and books.T he n in t he
m o r ning be fo r e I le av e fo r s cho o l, I can t ak e a quick m e nt al s e ar ch in
e ach cat e go r y, do t he t hings t hat ne e d t o be do ne in t he m o r ning, and
w r it e t he o t he r s do w n in m y no t e bo o k if I w is h.
Ano t he r w ay yo u co uld us e at le as t 70 k e yw o r ds is s im ilar t o
p r e v io us s ugge s t io ns co nce r ning us e o f t he Lo ci and Be g s ys t e m s e v e r y
day. T o r e duce day- t o - day int e r fe r e nce , it w as s ugge s t e d t hat yo u m ight
hav e a diffe r e nt s e t o f lo ci o r p e gw o r ds fo r e ach day. S im ilar ly, yo u co uld
us e yo ur Pho ne t ic k e yw o r ds fr o m 1 t o 10 o n S unday, 11 t o 20 o n
Mo nday, 21 t o 30 o n T ue s day, and s o o n; t his ap p r o ach w o uld e lim inat e
t he int e r fe r e nce t hat co uld r e s ult fr o m us ing t he s am e 10 k e yw o r ds day
aft e r day.
I n chap t e r 1, a m e m o r y de m o ns t r at io n us ing a 50- p age m agazine
w as de s cr ibe d. T o m e m o r ize a m agazine I us e m y k e yw o r ds t o r e p r e s e nt
t he p age num be r s , and link w hat is o n e ach p age t o t he k e yw o r d.
S up p o s e , fo r e xam p le , t hat p age 36 co nt aine d a p ict ur e o f t hr e e p e o p le
in t he up p e r r ight - hand co r ne r , a r e p o r t t o t he le ft o f t he p ict ur e o n ho w
t he y br o k e t he w o r ld's r e co r d fo r t r io - flagp o le - s it t ing, a p o e m o n lo v e in
t he lo w e r le ft - hand co r ne r , and t w o ads in t he lo w e r r ight - hand co r ne r
( o ne fo r v it am in p ills and o ne fo r an e ffo r t le s s e xe r cis e r ). I co uld
r e m e m be r t hat info r m at io n by us ing t he Link s ys t e m t o fo r m t he
fo llo w ing link : m at ch ( 36), p ict ur e o f p e o p le , flagp o le , he ar t ( fo r lo v e ),
p ill, and e xe r cis e r . T his w o uld giv e m e t he bas ic fr am e w o r k o f w hat is o n
p age 36. I co uld fill in t he de t ails by r e ading t he m at e r ial car e fully.
R e m e m be r ing w he r e e ach it e m w as lo cat e d o n t he p age us ually co m e s
alm o s t w it ho ut co ns cio us e ffo r t ( as w as dis cus s e d in chap t e r 10), but it
m ay be aide d by link ing t he it e m s in o r de r , s ay, fr o m up p e r r ight t o
up p e r le ft t o lo w e r le ft t o lo w e r r ight . T he s am e p r o ce dur e can be
adap t e d t o s t udying o t he r k inds o f t e xt ual m at e r ial.
I f t he m at e r ial yo u w ant t o r e m e m be r is p r e s e nt e d o r ally r at he r
t han in w r it t e n fo r m , s uch as in a le ct ur e o r s p e e ch, yo u can as s o ciat e
t he fir s t m ain p o int t o tie, t he s e co nd p o int t o Noah, and s o o n. O f
co ur s e , t his p r o ce dur e r e quir e s act iv e co nce nt r at io n and p ar t icip at io n in
t he lis t e ning p r o ce s s .
T he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m can s e r v e as t he bas is fo r s o m e am azing
m e m o r y fe at s w it h p laying car ds . O ne m e t ho d inv o lv e s r e p r e s e nt ing e ach
car d by a k e yw o r d t hat be gins w it h t he fir s t le t t e r o f t he s uit o f t he car d
and e nds w it h t he Pho ne t ic s o und r e p r e s e nt ing t he num be r o f t he car d.
Fo r e xam p le , t he fo ur o f clubs co uld be car o r core, and t he nine o f
s p ade s co uld be subo r soap. S p e cial p r o ce dur e s m ay be r e quir e d fo r t he
face car ds . T he car d k e yw o r ds can t he n be as s o ciat e d t o he lp r e m e m be r
t he m .
Fo r p e o p le w ho p lay car ds t he r e ar e a num be r o f car d gam e s in
w hich t he r e ar e o bv io us adv ant age s t o be ing able t o r e m e m be r w hat
car ds hav e be e n p laye d. Fo r t ho s e w ho do no t p lay car ds , a num be r o f
am azing m e m o r y fe at s can be p e r fo r m e d. Y o u can lo o k t hr o ugh a s huffle d
de ck o f car ds o nce and us e t he Link s ys t e m t o link t he car d k e yw o r ds
t o ge t he r , and t he n nam e all t he car ds in o r de r . O r yo u can as s o ciat e
e ach car d k e yw o r d w it h t he Pho ne t ic k e yw o r ds fr o m 1 t o 52 and no t
o nly nam e all t he car ds in o r de r but t e ll w hat car d is in any lo cat io n. ( Fo r
e xam p le , "Y o u'll find t he fo ur ace s at p o s it io ns 3,17, 37, and 41.") A fas t
and e as y, but im p r e s s iv e , de m o ns t r at io n is t he m is s ing- car d s t unt . H av e
s o m e o ne r e m o v e o ne o r m o r e car ds fr o m t he de ck . Y o u lo o k t hr o ugh t he
de ck o nce and t e ll w hich car ds ar e m is s ing. T his is do ne by m ut ilat ing
e ach car d k e yw o r d as yo u co m e t o it ( s e e it br o k e n, bur ne d, e t c.). T he n
aft e r yo u hav e lo o k e d t hr o ugh t he de ck , r un t hr o ugh t he car d k e yw o r ds
in yo ur m ind; t he o ne s t hat ar e no t m ut ilat e d ar e t he o ne s t hat w e r e
m is s ing. T his is als o a w ay t o k e e p t r ack o f car ds t hat hav e be e n p laye d
in s o m e car d gam e s .
Y o u co uld le ar n t he num e r ical o r de r o f t he le t t e r s o f t he alp habe t by
as s o ciat ing e ach alp habe t p e gw o r d fr o m chap t e r 11 w it h t he co r r e s p o nd-
ing Pho ne t ic k e yw o r d fo r 1 t o 26; fo r e xam p le , hay- t ie ( A = 1), e ye - p ie
(I = 9), o ar - t affy (R = 18). T his w o uld e nable yo u t o r e t r ie v e t he le t t e r
at any giv e n num be r e d p o s it io n w it ho ut hav ing t o co unt t hr o ugh all t he
le t t e r s unt il yo u r e ach t hat num be r . O ne o f m y m e m o r y clas s s t ude nt s
t aught t his m e t ho d t o his daught e r , w ho w as hav ing a har d t im e ar r anging
w o r ds in alp habe t ical o r de r . S he t he n had no difficult y alp habe t izing
w o r ds by co nv e r t ing t he init ial le t t e r s t o num be r s and o r de r ing t he w o r ds
num e r ically.
Pho ne t ic k e yw o r ds ( o r lo ci o r p e gw o r ds ) co uld be us e d fo r s t udying
lis t s o f s p e lling w o r ds in a w ay s im ilar t o t he r e s e ar ch s t udie s o n Fr e nch
v o cabulaiy w o r ds . T he k e yw o r ds w o uld no t he lp yo u t o r e m e m be r t he
s p e lling o f t he w o r ds t he m s e lv e s , but t he y w o uld allo w yo u t o m e nt ally
r un o v e r t he w o r d lis t and p r act ice s p e lling t he w o r ds at t im e s w he n it is
no t co nv e nie nt t o s t udy t he lis t o r t o hav e s o m e o ne e ls e r e ad t he w o r ds
t o yo u.
Remembering Numbers
T he unique adv ant age o f t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m o v e r t he p r e v io us s ys t e m s
is it s us e fulne s s in le ar ning num be r s . Much o f t he info r m at io n w e ne e d
t o r e m e m be r co ns is t s o f num be r s : p ho ne num be r s , s t r e e t addr e s s e s ,
his t o r ical dat e s , financial dat a, s t o ck num be r s , p o p ulat io n figur e s , age s ,
ide nt ificat io n num be r s , s o cial s e cur it y num be r s , lice ns e p lat e s , t im e
s che dule s , p r ice s , s t yle num be r s , and s o o n. U nfo r t unat e ly, num be r s
ar e abo ut t he m o s t abs t r act k ind o f m at e r ial t o r e m e m be r .
T he r e ar e at le as t t w o w ays t o us e t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m t o r e m e m -
be r num be r s . Bo t h o f t he m inv o lv e t ur ning t he num be r s int o w o r ds ,
w hich ar e m o r e m e aningful. ( W he n p o s s ible , o f co ur s e , t he w o r ds s ho uld
r e p r e s e nt s o m e t hing co ncr e t e t hat can be v is ualize d, but e v e n w he n t his
is no t p o s s ible , m o s t w o r ds w ill s t ill be e as ie r t o r e m e m be r t han
num be r s .) T he fir s t w ay is t o m ak e up a w o r d o r p hr as e in w hich e ach o f
t he digit s in t he num be r t r ans lat e s int o o ne o f t he co ns o nant s o unds in
o r de r . T he s e co nd w ay is t o m ak e up a p hr as e o r s e nt e nce in w hich e ach
digit in t he num be r t r ans lat e s int o t he fir s t co ns o nant s o und in e ach
w o r d. Fo r e xam p le , t o r e m e m be r t he num be r 60374 by t he fir s t ap -
p r o ach, yo u m ight us e "juice m ak e r ;" by t he s e co nd ap p r o ach, yo u m ight
us e , "S he s e w s m any go w ns r e adily."
T he fo llo w ing ar e a fe w e xam p le s o f ho w s e le ct e d num be r s m ight
be co de d: T o r e m e m be r m y fo r m e r aut o m o bile lice ns e p lat e num be r
( KFK 207) I t ho ught o f t he Ge r m an p s ycho lo gis t Ko fjk a as a "nice guy."
A clo t he s lo ck e r in a "gym I o nce v is it e d w as num be r C 12- B ( ais le C ,
bo o t h 12, lo ck e r B), w hich I r e m e m be r e d by co t t o n ball. T he de e p e s t
ho le dr ille d by m an is a gas w e ll t hat w e nt do w n 31,441 fe e t , w hich I can
p ict ur e be ing m e as ur e d by a m e t e r r o d. T he E m p ir e S t at e Building is
1,250 fe e t t all, and I can s e e it fille d w it h t unne ls . T he highe s t m an- m ade
s t r uct ur e in t he w o r ld is a r adio m as t in Po land t hat r is e s 2,119 fe e t ; I
can s e e m ys e lf o n t he t o p . T he C ar ls bad C av e r ns r e ach a de p t h o f 1,320
fe e t , at w hich de p t h I can im agine de m o ns . T he highe s t w at e r fall in t he
w o r ld is in Ve ne zue la; it falls 3,212 fe e t , as high as a m o unt ain. I can
r e m e m be r t he 1980 p o p ulat io n o f t he t o w n w he r e I w as bo r n and
r ais e dS p o k ane , W as hingt o nby im agining m ys e lf r e t ur ning ho m e "t o
ge t m aze s " ( 171,300). I can s e e a s quar e m ile co v e r e d w it h chair s t o
r e m e m be r t hat it e quals 640 acr e s , o r as s o ciat e a m ile w it h digit t o
r e m e m be r t hat it e quals 1.61 k ilo m e t e r s .
I f t he w o r d o r p hr as e be ar s s o m e m e aningful r e lat io ns hip t o t he
it e m it r e p r e s e nt s ( s uch as t he C ar ls bad C av e r ns e xam p le ) t he n t he
as s o ciat io n w ill be m o s t m e m o r able , but e v e n if t he r e lat io ns hip is
ar bit r ar y ( s uch as t he S p o k ane p o p ulat io n e xam p le ), t he as s o ciat io n w ill
s t ill be m o r e m e m o r able t han an abs t r act num be r w o uld hav e be e n.
Y o u can m ak e m o dificat io ns fo r num be r s w it h de cim als by us ing
w o r ds be ginning w it h "s " o nly fo r de cim als , and us ing t he s as t he init ial
le t t e r t o r e p r e s e nt a de cim al p o int . I f no num be r p r e ce de s t he de cim al,
"s " indicat e s t he de cim al p o int ( .51 = s alt , .94 = s p ar r o w , .734 =
s k im m e r , e t c.). I f a num be r p r e ce de s t he de cim al, us e t w o s e p ar at e
w o r ds ; t he de cim al w o r d be gins w it h "s " ( 945.51 = bar le y s o ld, 3.1416
= m y s t o r e dis h, e t c.).
11
Pe o p le w ho m us t r e m e m be r fo r m ulas , e quat io ns , and o t he r m at he -
m at ical e xp r e s s io ns m ay be able t o adap t a p r o ce dur e t hat o ne o f m y
m e m o r y s t ude nt s s ugge s t e d t o m e . T he p r o ce dur e inco r p o r at e s s e v e r al
m ne m o nics . Le t t e r s ar e r e p r e s e nt e d by alp habe t p e gw o r ds . N um be r s
ar e r e p r e s e nt e d by Pho ne t ic w o r ds . S ym bo ls ar e r e p r e s e nt e d by o bje ct s
t hat r e m ind yo u o f t he s ym bo l; e xam p le s include a ho us e fo r t he s quar e -
r o o t s ign ( v O , a s lide fo r t he s las h r e p r e s e nt ing div is io n ( /), a p ie fo r
p i ( n), and a cr o s s fo r t he p lus s ign ( + ). T hus , yo u m ight r e m e m be r t he
fo r m ula fo r finding t he v o lum e o f a s p he r e ( 4/3 r cr
3
) by link ing "s p he r e -
r ay- s lide - m a- p ie - o ar - cube . "
I us e d t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m t o m e m o r ize all t he p ho ne num be r s o f
m o r e t han 100 m e m be r s o f a gr o up t o w hich I be lo ng. T he fir s t t w o
digit s ar e t he s am e fo r all p ho ne num be r s in o ur ar e a, s o I m ade up a
w o r d o r p hr as e t o r e p r e s e nt t he las t fiv e digit s o f e ach num be r . T he n I
m ade up s ubs t it ut e w o r ds t o r e p r e s e nt t he nam e s o f t he p e o p le ( s e e
chap t e r 13). T he as s o ciat io n o f e ach nam e w it h it s num be r w as a p air e d-
as s o ciat e t as k . T he fo llo w ing ar e a fe w e xam p le s : E v ans , 59941 ( o v e ns ,
w allp ap e r e d); W ille , 79812 ( w ill, cup o f t in); Jam e s , 77970 Ge s s e Jam e s ,
co o k bo o k s ); T aylo r , 41319 ( t ailo r , r e ady- m ade bo w ).
S up p o s e yo u m e m o r ize d a fo ur - digit num be r lik e 1478 by as s o ciat ing
yo ur k e yw o r ds ( s ay, tireand cave)w it h t he p e r s o n. Lat e r w he n yo u
r e call t he num be r yo u t hink o f tireand cave, but ar e no t s ur e w hich
co m e s fir s t : I s t he num be r 1478 o r 7814? O ne w ay t o av o id t his p r o ble m
is t o us e yo ur r e gular k e yw o r d fo r t he las t t w o digit s o f a fo ur - digit
num be r , and any w o r d o t he r t han yo ur k e yw o r d fo r t he fir s t t w o digit s .
T hus , 1478 m ight be co de d as "do o r cav e " o r "dr y cav e ," and 7814 m ight
be co de d as "calf t ir e " o r "go o fy t ir e ."
A us e ful ap p licat io n fo r r e m e m be r ing num be r s is r e m e m be r ing t he
12- digit num be r w e le ar ne d e ar lie r fo r m e m o r izing a ye ar 's cale ndar . Fo r
e xam p le , t he num be r fo r 1988 ( 376- 315- 374- 264) co uld be r e p r e s e nt e d
by t he fo llo w ing: m y cas h, m o t e l, m ugge r , injur y. T he s e t e r m s co uld be
link e d t o ge t he r in o r de r by t he Link o r S t o r y~s ys t e m . T his p r o ce dur e
r e quir e s s e que nt ial r e t r ie v al. T o allo w dir e ct r e t r ie v al o f a giv e n m o nt h's
digit , as s o ciat e e ach digit 's k e yw o r d dir e ct ly w it h t he m o nt h's s ubs t it ut e
w o r d in a w ay s im ilar t o t he p r o ce dur e de s cr ibe d p r e v io us ly fo r t he Pe g
s ys t e m ( as s o ciat e maw it h jam, keyw it h valentine, jayw it h march, ma
w it h ape, e t c.).
Me t ho ds hav e be e n de v is e d us ing t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m t o le ar n o ne
12- digit num be r fo r t he m o nt hs and a k e y digit fo r e ach ye ar by w hich
yo u co uld r e m e m be r t he day o f t he w e e k fo r e v e r y dat e in t he t w e nt ie t h
ce nt ur y.
12
1 us e d o ne o f t he s e m e t ho ds t o m e m o r ize t he cale ndar fo r half
o f t he ce nt ur y ( 1950- 1999). T he m e nt al ar it hm e t ic is a lit t le m o r e
co m p le x t han t hat r e quir e d fo r t he us e o f a diffe r e nt 12- digit num be r
e ach ye ar , but t his fe at can be acco m p lis he d by a p e r s o n w it h a no r m al
m e m o r y us ing t he ap p r o p r iat e s ys t e m : I t is no t lim it e d t o m e nt al w izar ds ,
light ning calculat o r s , o r idio t s av ant s .
Y o u co uld als o us e t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m t o r e m e m be r dat e s o f
bir t hdays and anniv e r s ar ie s . S up p o s e , fo r e xam p le , t hat a fr ie nd's bir t h-
day is o n Januar y 23 and t hat yo ur p ar e nt s ' anniv e r s ar y is o n Ap r il 16.
O ne m e t ho d fo r r e m e m be r ing t he s e dat e s is t o fo r m as s o ciat io ns am o ng
t he p e r s o n, t he m o nt h s ubs t it ut e w o r d, and t he dat e "fr ie nd- jam - nam e "
and "p ar e nt s - ap e - t is s ue ." Ano t he r m e t ho d is t o us e a num be r w he r e t he
fir s t digit r e p r e s e nt s t he m o nt h and t he las t digit r e p r e s e nt s t he dat e ,
t he n t ur n t hat num be r int o a w o r d t o as s o ciat e w it h t he p e r s o n"fr ie nd-
de nim "( l- 23), and "p ar e nt s - r adis h" ( 4- 16).
Y o u co uld co ns t r uct a m e nt al filing s ys t e m fo r k e e p ing t r ack o f daily
o r w e e k ly ap p o int m e nt s in t he s am e w ay as de s cr ibe d fo r t he Pe g
s ys t e m . T hus , if yo u ne e d t o go t o t he dentistne xt Mondayat 10:00and
t ak e yo ur car in fo r an oil change o n Wednesday at 3:00, yo u co uld
as s o ciat e "de nt is t - m o ne y- t o e s " and "o il- w indy- m a." Ano t he r ap p r o ach
t o r e m e m be r ing ap p o int m e nt s inv o lv e s num be r ing t he days o f t he w e e k
r at he r t han m ak ing up s ubs t it ut e w o r ds fo r t he m ( S unday = 1, Mo nday
= 2, e t c.). T he n yo u co uld r e p r e s e nt e ach ap p o int m e nt by a num be r
indicat ing t he day and t im e ( Mo nday at 10:00 = 210, W e dne s day at 3:00
= 43), and as s o ciat e t he ap p o int m e nt "w it h a Pho ne t ic k e yw o r d fo r t hat
num be r ( fo r e xam p le , "de nt is t - nut s " and "o il- r o o m .").
T he k e yw o r ds co uld als o be us e d in t he s am e m anne r as t he
p e gw o r ds t o co unt t hings and k e e p t r ack o f yo ur co unt . T hus , in k e e p ing
co unt o f m y lap s ar o und t he t r ack ( as I de s cr ibe d fo r t he Pe g s ys t e m ) I
can v ar y t he m o no t o ny and r e duce int e r fe r e nce by us ing t he p e gw o r ds
o ne day and t he k e yw o r ds ano t he r day. I n addit io n, w it h t he Pho ne t ic
k e yw o r ds I w o uld no t be lim it e d t o co unt ing o nly 10 lap s but co uld e as ily
co unt up t o 100 ( no t t hat I w ill e v e r r un t hat m any lap s , but I do o ft e n
r un m o r e t han 10; als o , t he r e m ay be o t he r t hings t hat a p e r s o n w o uld
w ant t o co unt t hat do go up t o 100).
Other Uses
A p r o gr am de v e lo p e d fo r le ar ning s cr ip t ur e s is bas e d o n t he Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m . Pho ne t ic p hr as e s w e r e co ns t r uct e d fo r 1,200 s e le ct e d v e r s e s in
t he Bible . E ach p hr as e is m e aningfully r e lat e d t o t he co nt e nt o f t he v e r s e
and als o ide nt ifie s t he bo o k , chap t e r , and v e r s e num be r s by t he Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m . T he bo o k s ar e r e p r e s e nt e d by num be r s giv ing t he ir num e r ical
o r de r in t he Bible , r at he r t han by t he ir nam e s . H e r e ar e a fe w e xam p le s :
A v e r s e o n t he cr e at io n ( "Le t t he r e be light ," Ge ne s is 1:2) is t he p hr as e
"t he daw n/' 1- 1- 2, r e p r e s e nt ing t he fir s t bo o k , fir s t chap t e r , s e co nd
v e r s e ; t he T e n C o m m andm e nt s ( E xo dus 20) ar e "no - no s ," 2- 20, r e p r e -
s e nt ing t he s e co nd bo o k , t w e nt ie t h chap t e r ; t he nam e s o f t he 12 ap o s t le s
( Mat t he w 10:2) ar e "t he do ze n," 1- 10- 2, r e p r e s e nt ing t he fir s t bo o k in
t he N e w T e s t am e nt , t e nt h chap t e r , s e co nd v e s e . A s cr ip t ur e - le ar ning
gam e has be e n de v e lo p e d bas e d o n t his s ys t e m , and t he s ys t e m and all
1,200 p ho ne t ic p hr as e s hav e be e n p ut in bo o k fo r m .
13
I us e d t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m t o t ur n t he m ult ip licat io n t able s int o
w o r d as s o ciat io ns ( fo r e xam p le , ne w m a = w it ch [ 2 x 3 = 6] and w as h
k e y = r ain [ 6 x 7 = 42] ). T he n I us e d t he s e as s o ciat io ns t o he lp m y
s o n le ar n all t he t im e s t able s t hr o ugh t he t w e lv e s w he n he w as age s e v e n
and in t he s e co nd gr ade ( t he ye ar be fo r e t he y s t ar t e d s t udying t he t im e s
t able s in his s cho o l). O ne o f m y s t ude nt s had a s ixt e e n- ye ar - o ld le ar ning-
dis able d ne p he w w ho had s t ar t e d o v e r le ar ning t he t im e s t able s e v e r y
ye ar in s cho o l but had ne v e r be e n able t o le ar n t he m . S he us e d t he s e
as s o ciat io ns t o t e ach him t he t im e s t able s , and r e p o r t e d t hat he w as
finally able t o le ar n t he m ( and t hat t his gav e a p o s it iv e bo o s t t o his s e lf-
im age ).
R e p o r t s fr o m m y m e m o r y s t ude nt s s ho w addit io nal w ays t he y fo und
t o us e t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m in r e s p o ns e t o a ho m e w o r k as s ignm e nt t o
us e it fo r s o m e t hing t he y w ant e d t o le ar n. T he s e include d le ar ning s uch
it e m s as p ho ne num be r s , p o s t al ZI P co de s , s cr ip t ur e v e r s e s and chap -
t e r s , bir t hdays , highs and lo w s fo r s e le ct e d D o w Jo ne s s t o ck s , p age
num be r s o f hym ns in a hym nal, s p e ct r al fr e que ncie s in o r ganic che m is t r y,
19 p ar t s o f a s addle , e xe r cis e s in a r o ut ine , 62 t e r m s in a p s ycho lo gy
clas s , and t he s t ar t ing che ck lis t fo r o p e r at io n o f a t r am .
As w as t he cas e w it h t he o t he r m ne m o nic s ys t e m s , t he r e ar e m any
m o r e p o s s ible us e s fo r t he Pho ne t ic s ys t e m be s ide s t ho s e m e nt io ne d in
t his chap t e r . Me m o r y- t r aining bo o k s s ugge s t addit io nal us e s , giv e m o r e
de t ail o n s o m e o f t he p o s s ible us e s s ugge s t e d in t his chap t e r ( fo r
e xam p le , t he m e nt al filing s ys t e m fo r r e m e m be r ing daily ap p o int m e nt s ,
and t he m e t ho ds fo r r e m e m be r ing dat e s and p laying car ds ), and giv e
e xam p le s o f ho w t he s ys t e m can be ap p lie d in v ar io us o ccup at io ns .
14
I n chap t e r 9 I s ugge s t e d t hat yo u m ight ge t m o r e o ut o f chap t e r s 7
and 8 aft e r yo u hav e r e ad abo ut t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s . N o w t hat yo u
hav e r e ad abo ut t he s ys t e m s , yo u m ight find it int e r e s t ing and be ne ficial
t o r e r e ad t ho s e t w o chap t e r s ; s o m e o f t he p o int s in t ho s e chap t e r s m ight
be m o r e m e aningful no w .
Usi ng Mnemoni cs:
Rememberi ng Peopl e's
Names and Faces
P
e r hap s t he m o s t co m m o n m e m o r y co m p laint is t he inabilit y t o
r e m e m be r p e o p le 's nam e s . T his w as de m o ns t r at e d in o ne o f m y
r e ce nt m e m o r y w o r k s ho p s co ns is t ing o f a br o ad cr o s s - s e ct io n o f p e o -
p le m o r e t han 500 p e o p le r anging in age fr o m t hir t e e n t o e ight y- o ne ,
and r e p r e s e nt ing m o r e t han 80 diffe r e nt o ccup at io ns and t w o do ze n
s t at e s ( and t w o o t he r co unt r ie s ). At t he be ginning o f t he w o r k s ho p I
as k e d t he m fo r w r it t e n que s t io ns t he y w o uld lik e t o hav e ans w e r e d abo ut
m e m o r y. By far t he lar ge s t num be r o f que s t io ns ( 41 p e r ce nt ) w e r e o n
t he s ubje ct o f r e m e m be r ing p e o p le 's nam e s . ( T he ne xt m o s t co m m o n
s ubje ct w as s t udying and s cho o lw o r k at 15 p e r ce nt .) Me m o r y fo r nam e s
is als o am o ng t he m o s t fr e que nt m e m o r y co nce r ns o f s p e cial p o p ulat io ns ,
s uch as t he e lde r ly and br ain dam age d. O ne lar ge s ur v e y t hat include d
m o r e t han 500 e lde r ly p e o p le fo und fo r ge t t ing o f nam e s t o be t he m o s t
fr e que nt o f 18 p o t e nt ial m e m o r y co m p laint s , and nam e m e m o r y has als o
be e n fo und t o be o ne o f t he m o s t fr e que nt co m p laint s o f m e m o r y-
im p air e d p at ie nt s .
1
Jus t be caus e p e o p le le ar n ho w t o r e m e m be r lis t s , s p e e che s , num -
be r s , car ds , o r anyt hing e ls e dis cus s e d s o far in t his bo o k do e s no t
ne ce s s ar ily m e an t he y w ill be able t o r e m e m be r nam e s and face s .
1 8 8
Using Mnemonics: Remembering People's Names and Faces 189
Me m o r y fo r nam e s m us t be t r aine d jus t lik e any o t he r k ind o f m e m o r y.
Y o u m us t le ar n t he t e chnique s and p r act ice us ing t he m . T he fo llo w ing
t w o e xam p le s illus t r at e t his fact , as w e ll as t he im p o r t ance o f int e r e s t .
I n chap t e r 3, a m an ( V. P.) w it h an am azing v e r bal m e m o r y w as
dis cus s e d. D e s p it e his im p r e s s iv e m e m o r y fo r v e r bal m at e r ial, V. P.
o bs e r v e d t hat his abilit y t o r e m e m be r face s w as no t unus ually go o d. H e
Me d t o r e co gnize t he w ife o f o ne o f t he r e s e ar che r s o n m e e t ing he r at
t he s t o r e w he r e he w o r k s , alt ho ugh he had m e t he r s o cially o n t w o o r
t hr e e o ccas io ns . H e co m m e nt e d, "I t 's r e ally ap p licat io ns o f m e m o r y t hat
ar e o f im p o r t ance in t he le ar ning p r o ce s s . T hat p o lit ician . . . w o uld
ce r t ainly r e m e m be r yo ur w ife by nam e and face , no m at t e r w hat t he
cir cum s t ance s in w hich he m e t he r ."
S im ilar ly, Bo b Bar k e r , t he ho s t o f a T V s ho w , m e e t s m any p e o p le
o n e ach s ho w and r e m e m be r s t he ir nam e s . W he n he w as as k e d w hat his
s e cr e t w as fo r r e m e m be r ing p e o p le 's nam e s , he r e p lie d, "I t 's all co nce n-
t r at io n. Pe o p le o n t he s ho w ar e m y t o o ls . I m us t k no w t he ir nam e s . I t 's
m y jo b. But int r o duce m e t o p e o p le at a co ck t ail p ar t y, and I can't
r e m e m be r w ho t he y ar e t w o m inut e s lat e r ."
W he n w e fo r ge t a p e r s o n's nam e w e m ay be s ubje ct t o e m bar r as s ing
m o m e nt s . Fo r e xam p le , C lar e Bo o t he Luce , fo r m e r am bas s ado r t o I t aly,
w as int r o duce d at a gat he r ing t o D av id Bur p e e , flo w e r - and v e ge t able -
s e e d dis t r ibut o r . A s ho r t t im e lat e r s he co uld no t r e m e m be r his nam e ,
but did no t s ay anyt hing. S e ns ing he r e m bar r as s m e nt , he s aid quie t ly,
"I 'm Bur p e e ." Mr s . Luce r e p lie d, "T hat 's quit e all r ight . I 'm s o m e t im e s
t r o uble d t hat w ay m ys e lf."
2
I n t his chap t e r w e w ill lo o k at s o m e r e s e ar ch o n ho w w e r e m e m be r
nam e s and face s , at a s ys t e m fo r im p r o v ing m e m o r y fo r nam e s and
face s , and at s o m e e v ide nce o n ho w w e ll t he s ys t e m w o r k s .
HOW DO WE REMEMBER NAMES AND FACES?
T he r e has be e n a gr e at de al o f r e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y fo r p e o p le , including
p e r s o nalit y t r ait s , be hav io r , p hys ical fe at ur e s , face s , and nam e s . Mo r e
o f t his r e s e ar ch has fo cus e d o n m e m o r y fo r face s t han o n any o t he r ar e a
( and it has be e n co nduct e d in s ho r t - t e r m t as k s in t he r e s e ar ch lab m o r e
t han in r e al- w o r ld s e t t ings ). O ne r e as o n fo r t his int e r e s t in face m e m o r y
is t he r e al- w o r ld t as k o f e ye w it ne s s ide nt ificat io n in cr im e s ; s e v e r al bo o k s
r e p o r t ing r e s e ar ch o n e ye w it ne s s t e s t im o ny hav e be e n p ublis he d in t he
1980s .
3
D e s p it e t he w ide s p r e ad p r act ical int e r e s t in r e m e m be r ing p e o p le 's
nam e s , t he r e w as v e r y lit t le r e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y fo r nam e s be fo r e t he
m id- 1970s . S ince t he n, r e s e ar ch int e r e s t in nam e m e m o r y has gr o w n,
r e s ult ing in m o r e t han t hr e e do ze n s t udie s o n m e m o r y fo r nam e s fr o m
t he m id- 1970s t o t he m id- 1980s . H o w e v e r , t his is s t ill m uch le s s r e s e ar ch
t han has be e n do ne o n m e m o r y fo r face s .
4
R e m e m be r ing nam e s and face s is a p air e d- as s o ciat e : t as k : I n m o s t
s it uat io ns w e s e e t he face and r e call t he nam e ; t he face s e r v e s as t he
cue and t he nam e s e r v e s as t he r e s p o ns e . R e m e m be r ing face s is e as ie r
fo r m o s t p e o p le t han r e m e m be r ing nam e s fo r at le as t t hr e e r e as o ns :
1. W e ge ne r ally s e e t he face but o nly he ar t he nam e , and m o s t p e o p le
r e m e m be r t hings t he y s e e be t t e r t han t hings t he y he ar .
2. W e s aw in chap t e r 3 t hat p ict ur e s ( face s ) ar e e as ie r t o r e m e m be r
t han w o r ds ( nam e s ). Face s ar e t r e at e d diffe r e nt ly fr o m nam e s in
m e m o r y, and m ay e v e n be t r e at e d diffe r e nt ly fr o m o t he r p ict ur e s .
5
3. As w as no t e d in chap t e r 2, face m e m o r y is a r e co gnit io n t as k w he r e as
nam e m e m o r y is a r e call t as k . I f nam e m e m o r y w e r e p ut in t he fo r m
o f a m ult ip le - cho ice que s t io n ( p e o p le had fo ur nam e s p r int e d o n t he ir
fo r e he ads and w e jus t had t o r e co gnize t he r ight o ne ), w e w o uld no t
hav e ne ar ly as m uch t r o uble "r e m e m be r ing" p e o p le 's nam e s .
Recognizing Faces
A co m m o n fo r m o f p ar am ne s ia ( m ild am ne s ia inv o lv ing dis t o r t io n
m o r e t han fo r ge t t ing) is t he e v e r yday e xp e r ie nce o f e nco unt e r ing a
r e lat iv e ly w e ll- k no w n p e r s o n but no t be ing able t o ide nt ify him . T his "I
can't quit e p lace him " p he no m e no n us ually o ccur s w he n w e m e e t t he
p e r s o n o ut s ide t he no r m al co nt e xt , and o ft e n le ads t o a p e r p le xe d and
p r e o ccup ying at t e m p t t o p lace t he p e r s o n. O ne int e r e s t ing char act e r is t ic
o f t he p he no m e no n is t hat it s e e m s t o r e p r e s e nt r e co gnit io n w it ho ut
co m p le t e r e call.
6
Alm o s t all o f t he r e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y fo r face s us e s r e co gnit io n
r at he r t han r e call as t he m e m o r y m e as ur e . T he p r o ce dur e in m o s t s uch
r e s e ar ch is t o s ho w p ict ur e s o f face s t o p e o p le , and t he n hav e t he m p ick
t he face s t he y hav e jus t s e e n fr o m a lar ge r num be r o f face s . Le t us lo o k
at s o m e o f t he r e v e lant findings co nce r ning s uch r e co gnit io n m e m o r y fo r
face s .
T he r e is a co ns ide r able am o unt o f diffe r e nce am o ng p e o p le in t he ir
abilit y t o r e m e m be r face s accur at e ly. O ne s t udy fo und no s ignificant
co r r e lat io n fo r co lle ge s t ude nt s be t w e e n m e m o r y fo r p ict ur e s o f face s in
t he r e s e ar ch lab and m e m o r y fo r face s o f r e al p e o p le ( t he ir clas s m at e s ).
I n fact , t he s t ude nt s w e r e no t e v e n v e r y co ns is t e nt in ho w w e ll t he y
r e m e m be r e d r e al p e o p le . A s t udy o f ho us e w iv e s fo und no r e lat io ns hip
be t w e e n ho w go o d t he y s aid t he ir m e m o r y fo r face s w as and ho w go o d
it act ually w as . S e v e r al s t udie s hav e fo und diffe r e nce s be t w e e n m ale and
fe m ale s ubje ct s in t he ir m e m o r y fo r face s , but t he r e s ult s hav e no t be e n
co ns is t e nt in t e r m s o f w hich s e x r e m e m be r s face s be t t e r .
7
Y o ung adult s us ually r e m e m be r s ingle - v ie w p ict ur e s o f face s be t t e r
t han t he e lde r ly do . Fo r e xam p le , yo ung w o m e n in t he ir lat e t e e ns o r
t w e nt ie s r e m e m be r e d s ingle - v ie w p ict ur e s be t t e r t han e lde r ly w o m e n.
H o w e v e r , t he e lde r ly w o m e n r e m e m be r e d m ult iv ie w p ict ur e s ( w hich
m o r e clo s e ly r e s e m ble ho w w e s e e p e o p le in r e al life ) jus t as w e ll as t he
yo unge r w o m e n did. S im ilar ly, a s t udy o f co lle ge p r o fe s s o r s fr o m age s
36 t o 75 fo und no s ignificant age diffe r e nce s in t he ir m e m o r y fo r nam e s
and face s o f fo r m e r s t ude nt s . H o w e v e r , o ne s t udy fo und t hat w hile t he r e
w e r e o nly m inim al age diffe r e nce s be t w e e n yo ung and e lde r ly adult s in
r e co gnizing face s and judging w he t he r t he face s had change d ( in e xp r e s -
s io ns o r p o s e s ), t he e lde r ly did no t p e r fo r m as w e ll in.s p e cifying e xact ly
how t he face s had change d.
8
Alt ho ugh t he r e ar e diffe r e nce s am o ng p e o p le in t he ir r e co gnit io n
m e m o r y fo r face s , s uch m e m o r y fo r m o s t p e o p le is quit e go o d. O ne
s t udy fo und a 96- p e r ce nt r e co gnit io n accur acy; ano t he r s t udy fo und t hat
p e o p le in t he ir fift ie s and s ixt ie s s t ill r e co gnize d 75 p e r ce nt o f t he ir high
s cho o l clas s m at e s ' face s , and t hat m e m o r y fo r face s de cline d m o r e s lo w ly
t han m e m o r y fo r nam e s .
9
Recognition Versus Recall
R e call o f face s is m uch har de r t han r e co gnit io n be caus e m o s t p e o p le
hav e an inade quat e v o cabular y t o de s cr ibe face s , and be caus e face r e call
is le s s fr e que nt ly ne e de d t han r e co gnit io n; ye t r e call o f face s has 'be e n
calle d t he m o s t im p o r t ant and m o s t difficult p r act ical p r o ble m fo r r e -
s e ar ch o n m e m o r y o f face s .
10
O ne p r o ble m in s t udying r e call o f face s is t he difficult y o f che ck ing
t he accur acy o f r e call. Me t ho ds hav e be e n de v e lo p e d t o t r y t o o v e r co m e
t his p r o ble m . T he Pho t o - Fit Kit co ns is t s o f a num be r o f s e p ar at e fe at ur e s
t hat a p e r s o n p ut s t o ge t he r t o co ns t r uct a face . I t w as de s igne d t o e nable
w it ne s s e s t o r e co ns t r uct t he face s o f p e o p le w ho w e r e w ant e d fo r p o lice
que s t io ning. H o w e v e r , p e o p le us ing t he k it hav e difficult y r e co ns t r uct ing
a face e v e n w he n t he o r iginal face is p r e s e nt , and it is e v e n har de r w he n
t he face has t o be r e calle d fr o m m e m o r y.
11
T his p o o r r e call o f face s
co nt r as t s w it h t he t yp ically high s co r e s fo r r e co gnit io n m e as ur e s o f face
m e m o r y.
O ne s t udy co m p ar e d r e call o f nam e s and face s . Pe o p le w e r e giv e n
t he nam e s o f s o m e fam o us p e o p le , and w e r e as k e d t o im agine t he face s .
T he y w e r e s ho w n t he face s o f o t he r p e o p le , and w e r e as k e d t o r e call t he
nam e s . R e p o r t e d r e call o f t he face giv e n t he nam e w as m o r e fr e que nt
t han r e call o f t he nam e giv e n t he face ( but accur acy o f r e call w as no t
m e as ur e d). Ano t he r s t udy t r ie d m e as ur ing bo t h nam e s and face s by bo t h
r e co gnit io n and r e call. Fo r t he r e co gnit io n m e as ur e p e o p le w e r e s ho w n a
s e r ie s o f nam e s o r face s , and t he n s ho w n a lar ge r s e t o f nam e s o r face s
and as k e d t o p ick t he o ne s t he y had jus t s e e n. T he y w e r e t he n t e s t e d
fo r r e call o f nam e s by be ing s ho w n t he face s and be ing as k e d t o r e call
t he nam e s . T he y w e r e t e s t e d fo r r e call o f face s by be ing s ho w n t he
nam e s and by r e p o r t ing w he t he r t he y co uld r e call t he face s . R e co gnit io n
yie lde d highe r accur acy s co r e s t han r e call bo t h fo r nam e s ( 97 p e r ce nt
v e r s us 36 p e r ce nt ) and fo r face s ( 91 p e r ce nt v e r s us 54 p e r ce nt ).
12
I n a s t udy o f co lle ge p r o fe s s o r s ' m e m o r y fo r fo r m e r s t ude nt s , nam e
r e co gnit io n w as act ually be t t e r t han face r e co gnit io n. T he s t r e ngt h o f
r e co gnit io n in m e as ur ing m e m o r y fo r nam e s is als o s ho w n by t he finding
t hat 15 ye ar s aft e r gr aduat io n fr o m high s cho o l, p e o p le can r e call o nly
abo ut 15 p e r ce nt o f t he ir clas s m at e s ' nam e s but can r e co gnize 90 p e r ce nt
o f t he nam e s fr o m a lis t o f nam e s . R e co gnit io n o f nam e s has als o be e n
fo und t o be fas t e r t han r e co gnit o n o f face s .
13
All o f t his e v ide nce p o int s t o t he fact t hat o ne o f t he m ain r e as o ns
w hy nam e m e m o r y is m o r e o f a p r o ble m t han face m e m o r y fo r m o s t
p e o p le is be caus e nam e m e m o r y is us ually a r e call t as k and face m e m o r y
is us ually a r e co gnit io n t as k .
Other Factors Affecting Name Memory
I n a s t udy o n t he t ip - o f- t he - t o ngue p he no m e no n ( s e e chap t e r 2), at
le as t half o f s uch e xp e r ie nce s r e p o r t e d by bo t h yo ung and e lde r ly adult s
inv o lv e d m e m o r y fo r p r o p e r nam e s .
N am e s t e nd t o be har de r t o r e m e m be r t han o t he r w o r ds . O ne
r e as o n m ight be t hat m o s t nam e s ar e no t as co m m o n as m o s t w o r ds .
O ne s t udy fo und t hat s ur nam e s w e r e m o r e difficult t o r e call t han o t he r
v e r bal it e m s be caus e o f a diffe r e nce in o bje ct iv e fr e que ncy, and t he
r e s e ar che r s ugge s t e d t hat t he r e als o m ay be a diffe r e nt as s o ciat iv e
m e m o r y ne t w o r k fo r s ur nam e s t han fo r o t he r v e r bal m at e r ial.
14
W e s aw in e ar lie r chap t e r s t hat o ne s t r at e gy t hat m ay he lp in
r e calling a nam e is t o t r y t o r e call anyt hing e ls e abo ut t he p e r s o n yo u
can, s uch as w he r e yo u m e t he r . Fo r e xam p le , w e s aw t hat p e o p le w ho
t r ie d t o r e call t he nam e s o f high s cho o l clas s m at e s 4 t o 19 ye ar s aft e r
gr aduat io n w e r e aide d by t hink ing o f s e t t ings in w hich t he y s aw t he m ;
t he y r e co ns t r uct e d s ce ne s and t r ie d t o t hink o f w ho w as t he r e . S im ilar ly,
in t r ying t o r e m e m be r a fam o us p e r s o n's nam e w he n s ho w n his p ict ur e ,
p e o p le fir s t t r y t o lo cat e t he p e r s o n's p r o fe s s io n, t he n t he p lace w he r e
t he y m ay hav e s e e n him , and t he n w he n t he y las t s aw t he p e r s o n. T he
m o r e yo u k no w abo ut a p e r s o n t he m o r e p at hs yo u hav e t o t r y t o r e t r ie v e
t he nam e . T hink ing o f w hat a p e r s o n lo o k s lik e w he n t r ying t o r e call his
o r he r nam e als o m ay he lp br ing t he nam e t o yo u. W he n p e o p le t r ie d t o
r e call t he nam e o f an o bje ct w he n giv e n it s de finit io n, t he y fr e que nt ly
co uld r e call a v is ual im age o f t he o bje ct be fo r e o r e v e n ins t e ad o f
r e calling t he nam e . E v e n r e co gnit io n m e m o r y fo r face s can be affe ct e d
by t he co nt e xt , including t he co nt e xt o f o t he r info r m at io n abo ut t he
p e r s o n as w e ll as t he p hys ical co nt e xt .
15
O ne s t udy inv e s t igat e d t he e ffe ct o f "p r im ing" o n r e call o f aut ho r s '
nam e s giv e n t he t it le s o f t he ir w e ll- k no w n lit e r ar y w o r k s . Pr im ing is a
br ie f glance at a lis t o f aut ho r s ' nam e s be fo r e t e s t ing o f t he nam e s w it h
t he t it le s o f t he ir w o r k s . R e call o f t he nam e s w as be t t e r if t he p e o p le
w e r e p r im e d be fo r e hand w it h a lis t o f t he nam e s .
16
S up p o s e yo u w e r e
go ing t o at t e nd a high s cho o l r e unio n o r an o r ganizat io n p icnic. Y o u m ight
ap p ly t his ide a o f p r im ing by lo o k ing o v e r t he nam e s o f yo ur fo r m e r
clas s s m at e s o r fe llo w e m p lo ye e s be fo r e go ing. T his r e v ie w calls t he
nam e s t o t he fo r e o f yo ur aw ar e ne s s and m ak e s t he m m o r e r e adily
acce s s ible .
O ne s t udy fo und t hat int r o ducing a p e r s o n's nam e lat e r in t he co ur s e
o f a co nv e r s at io n p r o duce d be t t e r r e call t han e ar ly int r o duct io ns . C o lle ge
s t ude nt s w e r e int r o duce d t o ano t he r s t ude nt v ia a 3- o r 6- m inut e
v ide o t ap e . T he o t he r s t ude nt t alk e d abo ut he r s e lf, he r fam ily, and
s cho o l. O n t he s ho r t t ap e s he gav e he r nam e in t he fir s t m inut e and
t alk e d fo r 2 m o r e m inut e s ; o n t he lo nge r t ap e s he gav e he r nam e in t he
fo ur t h m inut e and t alk e d fo r 2 m o r e m inut e s . Fo r t he e ar ly int r o duct io n
o nly 4 o f 22 s t ude nt s r e m e m be r e d he r nam e , but fo r t he lat e int r o duct io n
all 22 s t ude nt s r e m e m be r e d he r nam e . T he r e s e ar che r s ugge s t e d t hat if
p e o p le w e r e giv e n a lit t le t im e t o fam iliar ize t he m s e lv e s w it h a ne w
p e r s o n be o r e t he y w e r e int r o duce d t o t he ne w nam e , t he y m ight hav e
be t t e r at t e nt io n, e xp e r ie nce le s s int e r fe r e nce , and hav e m o r e r e t r ie v al
cue s t o w hich t he nam e co uld be as s o ciat e d.
17
H o w e v e r , t his finding m ay
be difficult t o ap p ly; in int r o ducing p e o p le it is har d no t t o s ay t he nam e
fir s t be caus e t hat is w hat p e o p le e xp e ct . Pe r hap s t he int r o duce r co uld
r e p e at t he p e r s o n's nam e again lat e r . I f yo u ar e t r ying t o r e m e m be r
s o m e o ne 's nam e , as k abo ut it lat e r in t he co nv e r s at io n aft e r yo u hav e
le ar ne d a lit t le abo ut t he p e r s o n.
T his s e ct io n has fo cus e d o n r e s e ar ch t hat s ho w s s o m e o f t he fact o r s
influe ncing m e m o r y fo r nam e s and face s . T he s e fact o r s include r e co gni-
t io n v e r s us r e call, co nt e xt , p r im ing, and t im ing o f nam e int r o duct io n. I n
t he ne xt s e ct io n w e w ill lo o k at addit io nal fact o r s t hat ar e inco r p o r at e d
int o a s ys t e m fo r im p r o v ing m e m o r y fo r nam e s and face s .
A SYSTEM FOR REMEMBERING NAMES AND FACES
O ne o f t he m o s t co m m o n r e as o ns p e o p le e nr o ll in m e m o r y- t r aining
co ur s e s is t o im p r o v e m e m o r y fo r nam e s and face s . Mo s t p o p ular
m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k s de v o t e at le as t o ne chap t e r t o m e m o r y fo r nam e s
and face s , and an e nt ir e bo o k has e v e n be e n de v o t e d t o t he s ubje ct .
18
Vir t ually e v e r y m e m o r y aut ho r and e xp e r t p r o p o s e s his "s ys t e m " fo r
r e m e m be r ing nam e s . O ne s ys t e m m ay co ns is t o f t hr e e s t e p s , ano t he r o f
fiv e o r s ix s t e p s . All t he s ys t e m s co nt ain e s s e nt ially t he s am e bas ic
s t r at e gie s but diffe r in ho w t he y div ide t he m . T he fir s t fo ur o f t he fiv e
s t e p s in t his s e ct io n cap t ur e t he e s s e nce o f v ir t ually all m e m o r y s ys t e m s
fo r nam e s .
Fur t he r de t ails o n e ach o f t he fo llo w ing s t e p s fo r r e m e m be r ing
nam e s and face s m ay be fo und in m any m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k s , and yo u
can r e ad t ho s e bo o k s if yo u w ant m o r e e xp lanat io n and e xam p le s o f
t he s e s t r at e gie s . H o w e v e r , t he m ain de t e r m inant o f yo ur m e m o r y fo r
nam e s is yo ur aw ar e ne s s o f t he s e s t e p s , and t he n yo ur practiceo f t he m .
19
N o w he r e ar e t he m yt hs fr o m chap t e r 1 co nce r ning t he s e ar ch fo r a
s im p le , e as y "s e cr e t " t o m e m o r y m o r e ap p licable t han in r e m e m be r ing
nam e s . I hav e m e t m any p e o p le w ho w ant t o k no w t he s e cr e t o f
r e m e m be r ing nam e s , but w he n t he y ar e t o ld t he s e cr e t ( as de s cr ibe d in
t his s ys t e m ), t he y dis m is s it as t o o m uch w o r k o r t he y do no t t hink it
w ill r e ally he lp .
T he fo llo w ing fiv e s t e p s ar e us e d by m o s t p e o p le w ho hav e e xce p -
t io nal abilit y t o r e m e m be r p e o p le 's nam e s :
1. Mak e s ur e yo u ge t t he nam e .
2. Mak e t he nam e m e aningful.
3. Fo cus o n a dis t inct iv e fe at ur e o f t he p e r s o n's ap p e ar ance .
4. As s o ciat e t he nam e w it h t he dis t inct iv e fe at ur e .
5. R e v ie w t he as s o ciat io n.
E ach s t e p is dis cus s e d be lo w , alo ng w it h s o m e r e le v ant r e s e ar ch
findings . As yo u r e ad, no t ice ho w m any o f t he m e m o r y p r incip le s and
s t r at e gie s fr o m e ar lie r chap t e r s ar e inv o lv e d in t he s e s t e p s ( fo r e xam p le ,
m e aningfulne s s , as s o ciat io n, at t e nt io n, v is ual im age r y, r e v ie w , r e p e t i-
t io n, r e cit at io n, and s ubs t it ut e w o r ds ).
Step 1: Get the Name
I t w as s ugge s t e d in chap t e r 4 t hat failur e t o p ay at t e nt io n m ay be t he
s ingle m o s t co m m o n r e as o n w hy w e "fo r ge t " t he nam e s o f p e o p le w e
ar e int r o duce d t o : W e ne v e r r e ally got t he nam e in t he fir s t p lace . O ft e n
w he n w e ar e int r o duce d t o s o m e o ne o ur m ind is o n s o m e t hing e ls e .
Maybe w e ar e w ait ing t o he ar o ur o w n nam e s aid, o r ar e t r ying t o t hink
o f s o m e t hing cle v e r t o s ay aft e r t he int r o duct io n.
An "I k no w t he face but no t t he nam e " p he no m e no n is a m ilde r
v e r s io n o f t he "I can't quit e p lace him " p he no m e no n no t e d e ar lie r . A
p e r s o n is r e co gnize d and ap p r o p r iat e ly ide nt ifie d, but his nam e canno t
be r e calle d. O ne p s ycho lo gis t s ugge s t e d t hat t his p he no m e no n s e e m s t o
inv o lv e p ar t ial fo r ge t t ing due t o lack o f at t e nt io n in t he o r iginal s it uat io n;
w e t yp ically p ay le s s at t e nt io n t o nam e s t han t o ap p e ar ance s . T he
im p o r t ance o f at t e nt io n is als o s ho w n by t he finding t hat p e o p le w ho ar e
highly s e lf- co ns cio us r e call nam e s w o r s e t han p e o p le w ho ar e no t
p ar t icular ly s e lf- co ns cio us . T he r e s e ar che r s s ugge s t e d t hat t his m ay be
be caus e t he at t e nt io n o f s e lf- co ns cio us p e o p le is fo cus e d m o r e o n
t he m s e lv e s t han o n o t he r p e o p le .
20
E v e n w he n yo u ar e p aying at t e nt io n, yo u m ay no t ge t a p e r s o n's
nam e if it is s p o k e n t o o fas t o r t o o quie t ly. I f t his hap p e ns , s t o p t he
p e r s o n o r int r o duce r and as k him t o r e p e at t he nam e . T his s e e m s
o bv io us , s o w hy do n't p e o p le do it m o r e o ft e n? O ne r e as o n m ay be t hat
t he y do no t w ant t o s e e m r ude by int e r r up t ing t he flo w o f t he co nv e r s a-
t io n. O r it m ay be t hat t he y ar e s o m e w hat e m bar r as s e d t hat t he y did no t
ge t t he nam e ; but t he y ar e lik e ly t o be e v e n m o r e e m bar r as s e d lat e r
w he n t he y canno t r e m e m be r t he nam e .
R e gar dle s s o f ho w m any s t e p s ar e in any "e xp e r t 's " s ys t e m fo r
r e m e m be r ing nam e s , t he fir s t s t e p in v ir t ually e v e r y s ys t e m co ns is t s o f
s o m e w ay o f fo r cing yo u t o ge t t he nam e . U s e t he nam e in t he
co nv e r s at io n, r e p e at it , s p e ll it alo ud, w o r k it o v e r , as k abo ut it . T he s e
act iv it ie s he lp yo u m ak e s ur e yo u ge t t he nam e . T he y fo r ce yo u t o
co nce nt r at e yo ur at t e nt io n o n it . R e p e at ing t he nam e and us ing it inv o lv e s
ap p lying t he p r incip le s o f r e p e t it io n and r e cit at io n dis cus s e d in chap t e r s
5 and 6. O f co ur s e , t his can be o v e r do ne , but yo u can us e t he nam e at
le as t 3 t im e s w it ho ut ap p e ar ing t o o o bv io us o nce w he n yo u fir s t m e e t
t he p e r s o n, o nce dur ing t he co nv e r s at io n, and o nce w he n p ar t ing. ( Fo r
e xam p le , "I 'm hap p y t o m e e t yo u Mr . J o ne s ," t he n lat e r , "W hat do yo u
t hink abo ut t hat , Mr . Jo ne s ?" and finally, "I t w as nice t alk ing w it h yo u,
Mr . Jo ne s .")
Ano t he r t e chnique t hat can he lp yo u ge t t he nam e is t o w r it e it
do w n w he n p o s s ible . T his fo r ce s yo u t o p ay at t e nt io n t o it . I n addit io n,
p e o p le r e m e m be r w o r ds be t t e r w he n t he y s e e and he ar t he m t han w he n
t he y o nly s e e o r o nly he ar t he m .
21
S im ilar ly, lo o k ing at a nam e in addit io n
t o he ar ing it s ho uld he lp fix it m o r e fir m ly in yo ur m e m o r y.
R e s e ar ch has fo und t hat m e m o r y fo r nam e s can be im p r o v e d
s ignificant ly e v e n w it ho ut any addit io nal s t e p s o r p ar t icular m ne m o nic
t e chnique if p e o p le m e r e ly co nce nt r at e o n t he nam e and p ay at t e nt io n t o
it .
22
T hus , yo u w ill no t ice an im p r o v e m e nt in yo ur abilit y t o r e m e m be r
p e o p le 's nam e s e v e n if all yo u do is fo r m t he habit o f m ak ing s ur e yo u do
s o m e t hing t o get t he nam e w he ne v e r yo u ar e int r o duce d t o s o m e o ne .
H o w e v e r , yo u can im p r o v e e v e n m o r e by go ing be yo nd t his fir s t s t e p .
Step 2: Make the Name Meaningful
Aft e r yo u ge t t he nam e , yo u s ho uld m ak e t he nam e m e aningful and
co ncr e t e . T his is no t har d fo r nam e s t hat alr e ady hav e m e aning. Many
nam e s hav e m e aning in t he m s e lv e s o r t hr o ugh as s o ciat io n w it h s o m e t hing
t hat is m e aningful. Lo o k t hr o ugh a p ho ne bo o k and yo u m ay be s ur p r is e d
at ho w m any s ur nam e s alr e ady hav e m e aning t o yo u. T he r e ar e nam e s
o f cit ie s o r co unt r ie s ( Lo ndo n, H o lland), co lo r s ( W hit e , Gr e e n), o ccup a-
t io ns ( Bar be r , C o o k ), adje ct iv e s ( S t r o ng, S ho r t ), fam o us p e o p le ( Linco ln,
Fo r d), m e t als ( S ilv e r , S t e e l), p lant s ( R o s e , O ak s ), anim als ( W o lf, Lam b),
t hings ( H am m e r , Ball), and co m m e r cial p r o duct s ( D o dge , H e r s he y).
Fo r nam e s t hat do no t hav e any r e adily ap p ar e nt m e aning, yo u can
us e t he p r incip le o f s ubs t it ut e w o r ds dis cus s e d in chap t e r 7 t o giv e
m e aning t o t he nam e . Fo r e xam p le , hug bee m ay r e p r e s e nt "H igbe e ,"
wood taker m ay r e p r e s e nt "W hit t ak e r ," paw low ski m ay r e p r e s e nt
"Palo s k i," fresh neck m ay r e p r e s e nt "Fr is chk ne cht ," hunt singerm ay
r e p r e s e nt "H unt zinge r ," magnet marem ay r e p r e s e nt "McN am ar a," saw
press keym ay r e p r e s e nt "Zabr is k i," mule steinm ay r e p r e s e nt Muhle -
s t e in," lamb or rowm ay r e p r e s e nt "Lam o r e aux," and awl stormm ay
r e p r e s e nt "Ahls t r o m ." I p ick e d t he s e e xam p le s fr o m a t e le p ho ne dir e c-
t o r y. A go o d w ay t o acquir e t he s k ill o f m ak ing s ubs t it ut e w o r ds is t o
p r act ice w it h t he nam e s in a p ho ne dir e ct o r y. O ne bo o k o n r e m e m be r ing
p e o p le lis t s p o s s ible s ubs t it ut e w o r ds fo r hundr e ds o f co m m o n giv e n
nam e s and s ur nam e s .
23
E v e n if yo u co m e acr o s s an o ccas io nal nam e t hat yo u canno t m ak e
m e aningful in t he t im e yo u hav e av ailable , m e r e ly hav ing tried to dos o
w ill he lp yo u r e m e m be r t he nam e be t t e r be caus e yo u hav e had t o fo cus
yo ur at t e nt io n o n t he nam e in o r de r t o t r y t o find a m e aningful s ubs t it ut e
w o r d ( s t e p 1).
Step 3: Focus on the Face
T he ne xt s t e p is t o no t e a dis t inct iv e fe at ur e o f t he p e r s o n's face o r
ap p e ar ance , a fe at ur e t hat w ill be lik e ly t o fir s t at t r act yo ur at t e nt io n t he
ne xt t im e yo u m e e t him . T he p ur p o s e o f fo cus ing o n t he face is t o find
s o m e t hing dis t inct iv e t hat w ill he lp yo u r e co gnize it .
C ar e fully s t udying a face can incr e as e yo ur m e m o r y fo r it . S e v e r al
s t udie s hav e fo und t hat m ak ing a judgm e nt abo ut a p e r s o n's t r ait s ( fo r
e xam p le , ho ne s t y, fr ie ndline s s , int e llige nce ) im p r o v e s face r e co gnit io n
e v e n m o r e t han judgm e nt s abo ut p hys ical char act e r is t ics in childr e n,
yo ung adult s , and e lde r ly adult s . T he s e findings s ugge s t t hat t o r e m e m -
be r a p e r s o n's face yo u s ho uld t r y t o m ak e a num be r o f difficult p e r s o nal
judgm e nt s abo ut his face w he n yo u ar e fir s t m e e t ing him . O f co ur s e ,
m ak ing p e r s o nal judgm e nt s is jus t o ne w ay o f p r o ducing a de e p e r le v e l o f
p r o ce s s ing by m ak ing yo u co nce nt r at e o n t he fe at ur e s o f t he p e r s o n. I n
o ne s t udy p e o p le w ho s t udie d face s fo r t he p ur p o s e o f lo o k ing fo r t he ir
m o s t dis t inct iv e fe at ur e r e m e m be r e d t he face s as w e ll as if t he y had
m ade p e r s o nal judgm e nt s . I n fact , in ano t he r s t udy p e o p le w ho w e r e jus t
t o ld t o r e m e m be r t he face s r e m e m be r e d t he m be t t e r t han p e o p le w ho .
m ade s up e r ficial judgm e nt s .
24
Many p e o p le w ho ar e no t us e d t o s t udying face s hav e a har d t im e at
fir s t finding s o m e t hing r e ally dis t inct iv e abo ut e v e r y face . All face s include
t he s am e bas ic fe at ur e s t w o e ye s , a no s e , and a m o ut h, w it h a co up le
o f e ar s s t ick ing o ut fr o m t he s ide s . H o w can yo u m ak e t hat dis t inct iv e ?
Act ually, t he r e ar e m any dis t inguis hing fe at ur e s in a face , but yo u m us t
t r ain yo ur s e lf t o lo o k fo r t he m . O nce yo u do , yo u w ill s e e m uch m o r e in
a face , jus t as a bo t anis t o n a w alk t hr o ugh t he fo r e s t s e e s m any
diffe r e nce s in p lant s t hat lo o k t he s am e t o m o s t p e o p le , o r a ge o lo gis t
s e e s m any diffe r e nce s in r o ck s t hat ar e indis t inguis hable t o t he unt r aine d
e ye .
Fo r e xam p le , s t udie s t e aching a co m p ut e r t o dis t inguis h am o ng
face s us e d at le as t 21 diffe r e nt as p e ct s o f facial fe at ur e s .
25
T he s e facial
fe at ur e s include d char act e r is t ics o f t he hair ( co v e r age , le ngt h, t e xt ur e ,
s hade ), m o ut h ( up p e r - lip t hick ne s s , lo w e r - lip t hick ne s s , lip o v e r lap ,
w idt h), e ye s ( w idt h o f o p e ning, dis t ance ap ar t , s hade ), no s e ( le ngt h, t ip ,
s hap e ), e ar s ( le ngt h, p r o t r us io n), e ye br o w s ( bus hine s s , dis t ance ap ar t ),
chin ( s hap e ), fo r e he ad ( s lant ), and che e k s ( fullne s s ). E ach o f t he 21
fe at ur e s w as fur t he r div ide d int o t w o o r t hr e e char act e r is t ics fo r
e xam p le , hair co v e r age ( full, r e ce ding, bald), no s e ( t ip up w ar d, ho r izo n-
t al, do w nw ar d), and che e k s ( s unk e n, av e r age , full)fo r a t o t al o f m o r e
t han 60 s p e cific char act e r is t ics av ailable t o dis t inguis h face s . I n addit io n,
yo u m ay no t e fe at ur e s t hat ar e unique t o o ne p e r s o n, s uch as dim p le s , a
cle ft in t he chin, o r line s in t he fo r e he ad.
W e t e nd t o r e m e m be r face s t hat ar e dis t inct iv e and dis t inguis hable
be t t e r t han t ho s e t hat ar e no t . Fo r e xam p le , w e r e m e m be r v e r y at t r ac-
t iv e and v e r y unat t r act iv e face s be t t e r t han m o de r at e ly at t r act iv e face s ;
w e r e m e m be r face s o f m e m be r s o f o ur o w n r ace be t t e r t han t ho s e o f
ano t he r r ace . E v e n an e xp r e s s io n o n a face , s uch as a s m ile , can he lp
m ak e it dis t inct iv e e no ugh t o aid m e m o r y fo r it .
26
H o w e v e r , a fe at ur e as
change able as a s m ile w o uld no t be a go o d fe at ur e t o bas e yo ur
r e co gnit io n o n, be caus e t he p e r s o n m ay no t s m ile t he ne xt t im e yo u s e e
him ; t he s am e s ugge s t io n ho lds fo r o t he r no np e r m ane nt fe at ur e s , s uch
as w he t he r t he p e r s o n is w e ar ing glas s e s .
W hich fe at ur e s ar e t he m o s t he lp ful in dis t inguis hing am o ng face s ?
R e s e ar ch findings ar e no t co ns is t e nt . O ne r e v ie w o f t he r e s e ar ch co n-
clude d t hat t he hair is t he m o s t im p o r t ant s ingle fe at ur e fo r t he p ur p o s e s
o f t he s t udie s r e v ie w e d ( r e co gnit io n o f face s fr o m s t ill p ho t o gr ap hs in a
r e s e ar ch s e t t ing). U nfo r t unat e ly, hair is als o t he m o s t e as ily alt e r e d
fe at ur e , and t he r e v ie w e r s s ugge s t e d t hat o t he r fe at ur e s m ay be m o r e
im p o r t ant in r e al- life int e r act io ns . T he r e is als o e v ide nce t hat t he e ye s
m ay be t he m o s t he lp ful; ho w e v e r , o t he r s t udie s hav e no t fo und a cle ar
s up e r io r it y o f any o ne facial fe at ur e .
27
I t m ay be t hat m o s t p e o p le 's e ye s
r e v e al m o r e abo ut t he m t han any o t he r facial fe at ur e , but it m ay no t be
w is e t o t r y t o dis t inguis h a p e r s o n o n t he bas is o f his e ye s if he has a
bulbo us no s e , p r o t r uding e ar s , cur ly r e d hair , o r s o m e o t he r de finit e
dis t inguis hing fe at ur e .
A r e ce nt analys is o f 128 r e s e ar ch s t udie s o n e ye w it ne s s ide nt ifica-
t io n and face r e co gnit io n fo und t hat abilit y t o ide nt ify face s is s ignificant ly
affe ct e d by s uch v ar iable s as r e ins t at ing t he co nt e xt , de p t h o f p r o ce s s ing
s t r at e gie s , face dis t inct iv e ne s s , and e labo r at io n o f t he face at e nco ding.
28
Y o u m ay r e co gnize t he s e v ar iable s as s o m e o f t he fact o r s t hat hav e be e n
dis cus s e d s o far in t his chap t e r .
Step 4: Associate the Face with the Name
Aft e r yo u hav e m ade s o m e t hing m e aningful o f t he p e r s o n's nam e and
no t e d a dis t inct iv e fe at ur e o f his ap p e ar ance , yo u can fo r m a co ns cio us ,
v is ual as s o ciat io n be t w e e n t he nam e and t he dis t inct iv e fe at ur e . Fo r
e xam p le , if Mr . Ball has r e d hair , yo u co uld p ict ur e hundr e ds o f r e d balls
co m ing o ut o f his hair ; if Ms . C o o k has lo ng e ye las he s , yo u co uld p ict ur e
he r e ye las he s co o k ing; if Mr . W hit t ak e r has lar ge e ar s , yo u co uld p ict ur e
him car r ying w o o d (wood taker)w it h his e ar s ; if Mr s . McN am ar a has a
r o und m o ut h, yo u co uld p ict ur e a magnetr iding a mareo ut o f he r m o ut h;
if Mis s H unt zinge r has dim p le s , yo u co uld p ict ur e a hunters it t ing in he r
dim p le and singing.
T he co m m o n cr it icis m o f t his s t e p ( e s p e cially by p e o p le w ho hav e
no t t r ie d it ) is t hat t he ne xt t im e yo u s e e t hat p e r s o n yo u m ight t hink o f
t he s ubs t it ut e w o r d but no t t he nam e . Y o u m ight e v e n call t he p e r s o n by
t he s ubs t it ut e w o r d o r s o m e o t he r r e lat e d nam e . I hav e lo s t co unt o f ho w
m any p e o p le hav e t o ld m e a s t o r y s uch as t he o ne abo ut t he m e m o r y
s t ude nt w ho m e t Mr s . H um m o ck . S he had a big s t o m ach s o he de cide d
t o us e "s t o m ach" as his as s o ciat io n. S e v e r al w e e k s lat e r w he n he s aw
Mr s . H um m o ck again he lo o k e d at he r lar ge s t o m ach ( be lly) and s aid,
"H e llo , Mr s . Ke lly!"
I t is p o s s ible t hat yo u m ight r e m e m be r a s ubs t it ut e w o r d w it ho ut
r e m e m be r ing t he nam e it r e p r e s e nt s . T hat is o ne o f t he hazar ds o f us ing
s ubs t it ut e w o r ds in v is ual as s o ciat io ns ( s e e chap t e r 8). Alt ho ugh t his
s ys t e m im p r o v e s yo ur m e m o r y, it do e s no t ne ce s s ar ily m ak e m e m o r y
p e r fe ct . But e v e n if yo u did fail t o r e call a fe w nam e s , yo u w o uld p r o bably
s t ill r e call m o r e t han yo u do w it ho ut us ing s ubs t it ut e w o r ds .
Act ually, alt ho ugh it is p o s s ible t hat t he abo v e p r o ble m can o ccur , it
is no t v e r y lik e ly in p r act ice . U s ually o nly p e o p le w ho hav e no t t r ie d t he
s ys t e m w ill as k ho w t he y can be s ur e t hat t he y w ill no t call Mr s .
H um m o ck "Mr s . Ke lly" by m is t ak e . Pe o p le w ho hav e t r ie d it k no w t hat
it us ually do e s no t hap p e n.
29
I f a p e r s o n r e m e m be r s t he facial fe at ur e s
and s ubs t it ut e w o r d, he has abo ut a 90 p e r ce nt chance o f r e m e m be r ing
t he co r r e ct nam e . W he n e r r o r s do o ccur , t he y ar e us ually a r e s ult o f
p o o r as s o ciat io n o f t he s ubs t it ut e w o r d t o t he nam e . T hus , o ne p s ycho l-
o gis t has s ugge s t e d t hat t he t r ick is t o p r act ice be ing able t o co nv e r t a
nam e t o a m e m o r able s ubs t it ut e w o r d ( s t e p 2); aft e r t hat , s t e p 4 is
e as y.
30
S t e p 4 is , o f co ur s e , t he m ain r e as o n fo r s t e p s 2 and 3. W e m ak e
t he nam e m e aningful and find a dis t inct iv e fe at ur e s o t hat w e can
as s o ciat e t he t w o t o ge t he r . H o w e v e r , it s ho uld be no t e d t hat e v e n if yo u
did no t do s t e p 4 o r if it did no t w o r k p e r fe ct ly fo r s o m e nam e s , hav ing
do ne s t e p s 2 and 3 w o uld s t ill incr e as e t he lik e liho o d t hat yo u w o uld
r e m e m be r t he p e r s o n be t t e r t han if yo u did no t hing.
Step 5: Review the Association
W e s aw in chap t e r 6 t hat no m at t e r ho w yo u le ar n s o m e t hing, yo u ar e
lik e ly t o fo r ge t it if yo u do no t us e it o ccas io nally unle s s yo u r e v ie w . Y e t
t his s t e p is no t e v e n m e nt io ne d in m o s t p o p ular nam e - m e m o r y s ys t e m s ;
t he y giv e t he im p r e s s io n t hat if yo u fo llo w s t e p s 1 t hr o ugh 4 yo u w ill
ne v e r fo r ge t p e o p le 's nam e s . I f yo u r e ally w ant t o r e m e m be r a nam e fo r
a lo ng t im e , yo u s ho uld r e v ie w it as s o o n as p o s s ible aft e r m e e t ing t he
p e r s o n, and t he n o ccas io nally aft e r w ar d. Gr adually e xp anding int e r v als
be t w e e n r e v ie w s hav e be e n fo und t o be v e r y e ffe ct iv e . R e p e at t he
p e r s o n's nam e im m e diat e ly, and t he n s ay it again t o yo ur s e lf 10 t o 15
s e co nds lat e r ( r e m e m be r t hat m o s t fo r ge t t ing o ccur s s o o n aft e r le ar n-
ing). R e v ie w it again aft e r a m inut e o r s o , and t he n again s e v e r al m inut e s
2 0 0
Y O U R ME MO R Y
lat e r .
31
I f yo u m e e t s e v e r al p e o p le at o ne p ar t y o r m e e t ing, yo u m ight
r e v ie w in yo ur m ind t he nam e s and face s o f e v e r yo ne yo u m e t im m e di-
at e ly aft e r t he p ar t y o r m e e t ing is o v e r .
Pr o act iv e int e r fe r e nce ( s e e chap t e r 3) has be e n fo und fo r face s as
w e ll as fo r v e r bal m at e r ial, s ugge s t ing t hat int e r fe r e nce can affe ct
m e m o r y fo r face s as w e ll as fo r nam e s .
32
T o r e duce t he ne gat iv e e ffe ct s
o f s uch int e r fe r e nce w he n yo u m e e t s e v e r al p e o p le in s ucce s s io n, yo u
m ight t r y t o ap p ly s o m e o f t he p r incip le s fo r r e ducing int e r fe r e nce fr o m
chap t e r 6 w he n p o s s ible m e e t t he p e o p le in diffe r e nt r o o m s o r diffe r e nt
p ar t s o f t he r o o m , s p ace t he int r o duct io ns , and s o o n.
S ince it t ak e s s o m e t im e t o fo r m as s o ciat io ns , yo u m ay w ant t o
ar r ange t o m e e t p e o p le w it h a lit t le br e ak be t w e e n int r o duct io ns w he n
p o s s ible r at he r t han hav ing a lo t o f nam e s t hr o w n at yo u o ne aft e r
ano t he r . S p acing t he int r o duct io ns no t o nly he lp s r e duce int e r fe r e nce
and giv e s yo u t im e t o m ak e go o d as s o ciat io ns but als o giv e s yo u a chance
t o r e v ie w t he nam e s o f t he p e o p le yo u hav e m e t s o far .
W he ne v e r yo u can do s o , w r it e t he nam e s o f p e o p le yo u hav e m e t
r e ce nt ly. I n addit io n t o t he adv ant age s alr e ady m e nt io ne d in s t e p 1,
w r it ing t he nam e s als o m ak e s it e as ie r t o r e v ie w t he nam e s lat e r .
HOW WELL DOES THE SYSTEM WORK?
I t s ho uld no t be t o o s ur p r is ing t o find e v ide nce t hat t his s ys t e m w o r k s ,
be caus e t he fiv e s t e p s inco r p o r at e t he s am e p r incip le s and s t r uct ur e as
o t he r e ffe ct iv e m ne m o nics lik e t he Ke yw o r d m ne m o nic and t he Lo ci
s ys t e m . I n fact , o ne p s ycho lo gis t w ho fe lt t hat "m e m o r y t r ick s " ar e
he lp ful o nly fo r s im p le t as k s , s uch as r e m e m be r ing a gr o ce r y lis t , e v e n
co nce de d t hat an e xce p t io n t o t he lack o f p r act icalit y o f m ne m o nics is
t he ir us e fo r as s o ciat ing nam e s and face s .
33
O ne s t ude nt in m y m e m o r y clas s r e p o r t e d m e e t ing w it h a ne w
s t udy gr o up w he r e t he m e m be r s all int r o duce d t he m s e lv e s , and he t r ie d
t o ap p ly as m any o f t he t e chnique s as he co uld fr o m t his chap t e r ( w hich
he had jus t r e ad t hat aft e r no o n). Aft e r t he int r o duct io ns o ne gr o up
m e m be r s ugge s t e d t hat t he y all s ay t he ir nam e s o nce m o r e s o t hat he
co uld r e m e m be r t he m . My s t ude nt r e p o r t e d, "I as k e d if I co uld t r y t o
r e p e at e v e r yo ne 's nam e s , as I w as t ak ing t his clas s in m ne m o nics and I
w ant e d t o s e e if t he , t e chnique s dis cus s e d in t he bo o k r e ally w o r k e d.
W e ll, it w as r e ally e as y. T he nam e s cam e back s o quick I co uldn't be lie v e
it . I t w as r e ally a go o d e xp e r ie nce be caus e no w I r e alize t hat it can be
do ne e v e n by s o m e o ne w ho has as har d a t im e at it as I do ."
Ano t he r s t ude nt , a m an in his fift ie s , t o ld t he clas s ho w he had be e n
a m e m be r o f a club o f abo ut 150 m e n fo r 10 ye ar s , and he k ne w t he
nam e s o f o nly abo ut 30 o r 40 o f t he m e m be r s . At t he ir ne xt dinne r
m e e t ing, w hich w as he ld aft e r w e had dis cus s e d nam e s and face s in o ur
clas s , he m ade it a p o int t o s it at a t able w he r e he did no t k no w any o f
t he m e n. W he n t he y int r o duce d t he m s e lv e s he m ade a s p e cial e ffo r t t o
m ak e s ur e he go t e ach o f t he e ight nam e s . H e t he n m ade a v is ual o r
v e r bal as s o ciat io n o f e ach nam e w it h e ach p e r s o n, us e d t he nam e s dur ing
t he night , and r e v ie w e d t he as s o ciat io ns . H e r e p o r t e d t o t he clas s t hat ,
s o m e w hat t o his s ur p r is e , he k ne w e v e r y m an's nam e at t he e nd o f t he
e v e ning, and t hat he w as go ing t o co nt inue t he s am e s t r at e gy unt il he
k ne w t he nam e s o f all 150 m e n in t he club.
A m an w ho at t e nde d o ne o f m y s e m inar s fo r ins ur ance age nt s in
Mar yland w r o t e m e a no t e de s cr ibing his e xp e r ie nce in t r ying o ut t he
s ys t e m . H e r e p o r t e d t hat t he m o r ning aft e r t he s e m inar he p r act ice d t he
s t e p s at a laundr o m at : "T he r e s ult s w e r e am azing t o m e ; 10 o f 14 nam e s
w e r e p r o p e r ly r e calle d 15 t o 30 m inut e s lat e r . . . . I t w as fun. Mo s t
p e o p le co o p e r at e d w it h m y r e que s t t o as k m e t o r e call t he ir nam e s if
t he y le ft be fo r e I did."
O ne o f t he m e m o r y t e s t s I giv e t o t he s t ude nt s in m y m e m o r y
clas s e s dur ing t he fir s t fe w days o f clas s is t o r e m e m be r t he nam e s o f 15
p e o p le . I s ho w t he s lide s o f t he p e o p le 's face s o n t he s cr e e n and
int r o duce e ach p e r s o n t o t he clas s ; I t he n giv e t he s t ude nt s 10 t o 15
s e co nds t o lo o k at t he p e r s o n be fo r e m e e t ing t he ne xt p e r s o n. T he n I
r e ar r ange t he o r de r o f t he s lide s and s ho w e ach face again fo r abo ut 10
s e co nds w hile t he s t ude nt s t r y t o w r it e do w n t he nam e o f e ach p e r s o n.
N e ar t he e nd o f t he co ur s e , aft e r t he y hav e s t udie d t his chap t e r and
p r act ice d s o m e o f t he s t e p s , I giv e t he s t ude nt s t he s am e t e s t w it h 15
o t he r p e o p le . T he fo llo w ing s um m ar y highlight s t he p e r fo r m ance o f
abo ut 120 s t ude nt s in s e v e r al clas s e s : Be fo r e le ar ning t he s ys t e m , 15
p e r ce nt o f t he s t ude nt s r e m e m be r e d at le as t 12 o f t he 15 p e o p le 's
nam e s , and ano t he r 28 p e r ce nt r e m e m be r e d o nly 5 o r fe w e r nam e s .
U s ing t he s e s t e p s o n t he s e co nd t e s t , 3 t im e s as m any s t ude nt s ( 45
p e r ce nt ) r e m e m be r e d at le as t 12 nam e s , and o nly 5 p e r ce nt r e m e m be r e d
5 o r fe w e r nam e s .
R e s e ar ch s t udie s als o s ho w t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f t he s ys t e m . I n o ne
s t udy 40 co lle ge s t ude nt s le ar ne d t he nam e s o f 13 p e o p le fr o m t he ir
p ict ur e s ; half o f t he s t ude nt s w e r e t he n t r aine d fo r 10 m inut e s o n s t e p s
2 t hr o ugh 4, and all o f t he m w e r e t e s t e d again. T he t r aine d gr o up s ho w e d
alm o s t an 80- p e r ce nt im p r o v e m e nt , w hile t he o t he r gr o up s ho w e d no
im p r o v e m e nt . ( T he t r aine d gr o up r e calle d an av e r age o f 10.2 nam e s
v e r s us 5.4 fo r t he o t he r gr o up .) I n a s e co nd s t udy co lle ge s t ude nt s w e r e
als o t aught s t e p s 2 t hr o ugh 4 and w e r e s ho w n p ict ur e s o f 20 p e o p le .
U nlik e t he s t ude nt s in t he fir s t s t udy, t he s e s t ude nt s did no t m ak e up
t he ir o w n nam e - face as s o ciat io ns ; t he y w e r e p r o v ide d by t he r e s e ar che r .
T he s t ude nt s r e m e m be r e d 3 t im e s as m any nam e s as did o t he r s t ude nt s
w ho w e r e no t t aught t he s t e p s ( an av e r age o f abo ut 11 nam e s v e r s us
abo ut 4 nam e s ). T he s t udy als o fo und t hat all t hr e e s t e p s w e r e ne ce s s ar y
fo r m axim um e ffe ct iv e ne s s , and t hat t he w e ak e s t link w as r e m e m be r ing
t he v is ual as s o ciat io n giv e n t he p r o m ine nt fe at ur e o f t he face .
34
E lde r ly adult s hav e als o be e n able t o incr e as e t he ir m e m o r y fo r
nam e s by us ing s t e p s 2 t hr o ugh 4. T he y did e v e n be t t e r w he n t he y w e r e
als o t aught r e laxat io n t r aining t o r e duce anxie t y, o r w e r e giv e n t he
addit io nal t as k o f r at ing t he ir v is ual as s o ciat io ns fo r p le as ant ne s s ( w hich
fo r ce d t he m t o fo cus m o r e at t e nt io n o n t he as s o ciat io ns ). At t e m p t s t o
he lp br ain- dam age d p at ie nt s r e m e m be r nam e s by p ict ur ing t he nam e s
( e it he r w it h dr aw ings o r m e nt al im age s ) hav e als o he lp e d, but t he w ho le
s ys t e m fo r nam e - face le ar ning w as t o o m uch fo r t he m t o handle o n t he ir
o w n.
35
E v e n m o r e s t r ik ing p r o o f t hat t he s ys t e m w o r k s is p r o v ide d by
p e o p le w ho ar e w e ll t r aine d in t he s ys t e m and w ho can r e m e m be r t he
nam e s o f hundr e ds o f p e o p le aft e r m e e t ing t he m o nce . Fo r e xam p le , o ne
m e m o r y p e r fo r m e r has us e d t he s e s t e p s t o m e e t s e v e r al hundr e d p e o p le
in o ne night and call t he m all by nam e .
36
Lik e w is e , p e o p le hav e r e m e m -
be r e d t ho us ands o f nam e s o v e r p e r io ds o f m o nt hs o r ye ar s by us ing
' t he s e s t r at e gie s . T he m ne m o nis t T . E . ( s e e chap t e r 3) als o us e d t he s e
s t e p s in achie v ing his e xce p t io nal m e m o r y fo r nam e s .
I us e t he s ys t e m t o he lp m e le ar n t he nam e s o f all t he s t ude nt s in
all m y clas s e s dur ing t he fir s t w e e k o r t w o o f e ach s e m e s t e r ( s o m e t im e s
as m any as 200 s t ude nt s ). T o he lp m e in us ing t he s e s t e p s w it h lar ge
clas s e s , I t ak e p ict ur e s o f m y clas s e s s o t hat I can s t udy t he m o ut s ide o f
clas s . T his o v e r co m e s t he difficult y o f t r ying t o as s o ciat e nam e s and
face s dur ing clas s t im e w he n m y m ind m us t be o n o t he r t hings . I hav e
be e n do ing t his s ince 1972, and I s t ill hav e p ict ur e s o f all t he s t ude nt s
w ho hav e t ak e n clas s e s fr o m m e s ince t he n. N o t o nly do t he p ict ur e s
he lp m e t o le ar n s t ude nt s ' nam e s but t he y als o giv e m e a us e ful
p e r m ane nt file t hat I hav e o ccas io nally r e fe r r e d t o ye ar s lat e r . O t he r
t e ache r s hav e als o fo und s im ilar ap p r o ache s t o be he lp ful, and o ne co lle ge
ins t r uct o r has his s t ude nt s ap p ly t he s e s t e p s in s m all gr o up s at t he
be ginning o f t he s e m e s t e r s o t hat t he y w ill als o k no w o ne ano t he r 's
nam e s .
37
M
Usi ng Mnemoni cs:
Absentmi ndedness and
Educati on
A
co lle ge p r o fe s s o r w alk ing acr o s s cam p us w as s t o p p e d by a s t ude nt
w ho as k e d him a que s t io n. W he n t he y finis he d t alk ing, t he
p r o fe s s o r as k e d t he s t ude nt , "W hich w ay w as I w alk ing?" T he s t ude nt
s aid, "Y o u w e r e go ing t hat w ay." "Go o d, t he n I 'v e alr e ady had lunch,"
t he p r o fe s s o r s aid as he co nt inue d o n his w ay.
T his chap t e r dis cus s e s t w o ar e as in w hich m e m o r y aids can hav e
p r act ical v alue abs e nt m inde dne s s and s cho o lw o r k . T he s e t w o ar e as do
no t ne ce s s ar ily hav e any co nne ct io n w it h e ach o t he r e xce p t in "abs e nt -
m inde d p r o fe s s o r " jo k e s lik e t he o ne abo v e . Abs e nt m inde dne s s and
e ducat io n ar e gr o up e d t o ge t he r in t his chap t e r m e r e ly be caus e bo t h
ar e as r e p r e s e nt p r act ical us e s o f m ne m o nics t hat ar e o f w ide s p r e ad
int e r e s t and o f r e le v ance t o m any p e o p le .
ABSENTMINDEDNESS
D o yo u e v e r fo r ge t t o m ail a le t t e r o r t o s t o p at t he s t o r e fo r a lo af o f
br e ad o n t he w ay ho m e ? D o yo u e v e r fo r ge t t o m ak e a t e le p ho ne call o r
t o p as s o n a t e le p ho ne m e s s age ? D o yo u e v e r fo r ge t w he r e yo u le ft yo ur
k e ys , yo ur glas s e s , o r yo ur p e n? D o yo u e v e r fo r ge t w he t he r yo u lo ck e d
t he do o r , o r t ur ne d o ff t he light s o r w at e r at ho m e ? H av e yo u e v e r
2 0 3
fo r go t t e n w he r e yo u p ar k e d t he car , o r fo und t he light s s t ill o n w he n yo u
r e t ur ne d t o t he car ? H av e yo u e v e r dr iv e n aw ay fr o m t he gas p um p w it h
t he gas cap o n t he r o o f o f t he car ? H av e yo u e v e r caught yo ur s e lf
s que e zing s hav ing cr e am o n yo ur t o o t hbr us h o r s p r aying de o do r ant o n
yo ur hair ? H av e yo u e v e r fo und yo ur s e lf p us hing s o m e o ne e ls e 's s ho p p ing
car t in t he . s t o r e , o r ge t t ing co m p le t e ly undr e s s e d and r e ady fo r be d
w he n yo u jus t int e nde d t o change yo ur s hir t ? D o yo u e v e r go int o t he
o t he r r o o m t o ge t o r do s o m e t hing and t he n fo r ge t w hy yo u ar e t he r e ?
T he s e ar e jus t a fe w e xam p le s o f t he w ide r ange o f e xp e r ie nce s
t hat fall unde r t he he ading o f "abs e nt m inde dne s s ." I s t he r e s o m e t hing
w r o ng w it h yo u if yo u can ans w e r "ye s " t o s o m e o f t he s e que s t io ns ? N o .
E v e r yo ne has s uch e xp e r ie nce s . O ne s ur v e y o f 85 p e o p le yie lde d m o r e
t han 600 s p e cific e xam p le s o f abs e nt m inde d be hav io r lik e t ho s e lis t e d
abo v e , falling int o m o r e t han 30 diffe r e nt cat e go r ie s . T he r e has be e n
quit e a lo t o f r e s e ar ch int e r e s t in abs e nt m inde dne s s dur ing t he p as t
de cade , and m uch o f t he r e s e ar ch has be e n s um m ar ize d in t w o bo o k s
fr o m w hich s o m e o f t he r e s e ar ch and ide as in t his chap t e r ar e dr aw n.
1
O f all t he p r incip le s o f m e m o r y dis cus s e d e ar lie r in t his bo o k , t he
o ne t hat is p r o bably t he m o s t dir e ct ly r e le v ant t o abs e nt m inde dne s s is
at t e nt io n. Failur e t o p ay at t e nt io n is a m ajo r co nt r ibut ing fact o r t o m o s t
abs e nt m inde d act io ns . I n a v e r y r e al s e ns e , yo ur at t e nt io n is no t fo cus e d
w he r e it s ho uld be be caus e yo ur m ind is o n s o m e t hing e ls e ; yo ur m ind
is lit e r ally "abs e nt ." T w o co ndit io ns hav e be e n fo und t o p r o m o t e abs e nt -
m inde d act io ns , and at t e nt io n p lays an im p o r t ant r o le in bo t h o f t he m .
Y o u ar e lik e ly t o e xp e r ie nce abs e nt m inde dne s s w he n e it he r o f t he
fo llo w ing co ndit io ns e xis t s : Y o ur act io ns ar e p ar t o f a habit ual^ w e ll-
e s t ablis he d r o ut ine o r o ccur in a fam iliar e nv ir o nm e nt s o t hat co nt inue d
at t e nt io n o r v igilance is no t r e quir e d, o r yo u ar e dis t r act e d by, o r
p r e o ccup ie d w it h, s o m e t hing o t he r t han yo ur act io ns s o t hat yo ur
at t e nt io n is div e r t e d aw ay fr o m w hat yo u ar e do ing.
O ne bo o k de s cr ibing r e s e ar ch o n abs e nt m inde dne s s co nclude s by
no t ing t hat t he aut ho r s hav e no p r e s cr ip t io ns fo r ho w t o av o id abs e nt -
m inde d e r r o r s , be caus e t he r e ar e no s im p le r e m e die s . Abs e nt m inde d-
ne s s is t he p r ice w e p ay fo r be ing able t o car r y o ut s o m any co m p le x
act iv it ie s w it h o nly a s m all inv e s t m e nt o f co ns cio us at t e nt io n, and w e
m us t acce p t t he us ually t r iv ial co ns e que nce s . T he aut ho r s fe lt t hat t he
be s t t he y co uld do w as t o indicat e t he k ind o f cir cum s t ance s w he r e s uch
s lip s ar e m o s t lik e ly t o o ccur .
2
H o w e v e r , t he s it uat io n m ight no t be quit e
as ho p e le s s as t hat . Alt ho ugh w e m ight no t be able t o co m p le t e ly
e lim inat e p r o ble m s o f abs e nt m inde dne s s , t he r e ar e s o m e t hings w e can
do t hat can he lp alle v iat e t he p r o ble m s .
Using Mnemonics: Absentmindedness and Education 205
W he n w e t alk abo ut abs e nt m inde dne s s , w e ne e d t o dis t inguis h
be t w e e n t w o k inds o f r e m e m be r ingp r o s p e ct iv e and r e t r o s p e ct iv e .
Prospective m e m o r y co nce r ns m e m o r y fo r fut ur e e v e nt s in t he fo r m o f
act io ns t hat yo u int e nd t o t ak e in t he fut ur e ; it m ight be v ie w e d as
"r e m e m be r ing t o r e m e m be r ." Retrospective m e m o r y co nce r ns m e m o r y
fo r p as t e v e nt s , t hings w e hav e le ar ne d in t he p as t . Fo r e xam p le , s up p o s e
yo u t ak e a t e le p ho ne m e s s age fo r a fe llo w o ffice w o r k e r o r fam ily
m e m be r . W he n t hat p e r s o n r e t ur ns , yo u ne e d t o r e m e m be r t o giv e him
t he m e s s age ; t hat is p r o s p e ct iv e r e m e m be r ing. I f he r e m inds yo u t o giv e
him t he m e s s age by as k ing if t he r e w e r e any calls fo r him w hile he w as
o ut , t he n yo u ne e d t o r e m e m be r w hat t he m e s s age w as ; t hat is
r e t r o s p e ct iv e r e m e m be r ing.
PROSPECTIVE REMEMBERING
W he n p e o p le co m p lain abo ut be ing abs e nt m inde d, o r lo s ing t he ir m e m -
o r y, o r hav ing m e m o r y lap s e s , t he y ar e o ft e n m o r e co nce r ne d w it h t he ir
failur e t o r e m e m be r t o do s o m e t hing t he y int e nde d t o do t han w it h t he ir
failur e t o r e t r ie v e s t o r e d info r m at io n fr o m t he p as t . W he n a p e r s o n
fo r ge t s s o m e t hing he has le ar ne d in t he p as t , w e s ay t hat his memory is
unr e liable , but w he n he fo r ge t s t o do s o m e t hing he s aid he w o uld do
t he n w e s ay t hat he is unr e liable . Me m o r y fo r int e nde d act io ns is w hat
m ak e s an e fficie nt , w e ll- o r ganize d p e r s o n.
A us e ful dis t inct io n m ay be dr aw n be t w e e n t w o k inds o f p r o s p e ct iv e
m e m o r y. Habitual r e m e m be r ing inv o lv e s t hings t hat w e do o n a r e gular
bas is , s uch as br us hing o ur t e e t h o r t ak ing o ur daily v it am in p ills . Episodic
r e m e m be r ing inv o lv e s t hings w e do o nly o ccas io nally o r ir r e gular ly, s uch
as p ick ing up a lo af o f br e ad, m ailing a le t t e r , o r m ak ing a p ho ne call.
O ne s t r at e gy fo r handling p r o ble m s w it h habit ual r e m e m be r ing is t o
inco r p o r at e t he int e nde d act io n in t he r e gular s t r e am o f daily act iv it ie s .
Fo r e xam p le , yo u co uld t ak e yo ur p ill ( w hich yo u m ight fo r ge t ) e ach
m o r ning jus t be fo r e yo u e at br e ak fas t ( w hich yo u w ill no t fo r ge t ). O f
co ur s e , t he m o r e r o ut ine yo u hav e in yo ur life , t he m o r e e ffe ct iv e t his
s t r at e gy w ill be . Pe o p le w ho le ad o r ganize d liv e s t e nd t o no t ice fe w e r
m e m o r y lap s e s in habit ual r e m e m be r ing, be caus e s t r uct ur e s up p le -
m e nt s o r e v e n r e p lace s m e m o r y. O ne r e as o n w hy s o m e e lde r ly
p e o p le r e p o r t fe w e r m e m o r y lap s e s t han yo ung adult s is be caus e m any
e lde r ly ar e m o r e r e liant o n a r e gular daily r o ut ine .
3
W he n t he e lde r ly do
r e p o r t m o r e m e m o r y lap s e s , it is o ft e n be caus e t he y w e r e o ut o f t he ir
no r m al r o ut ine o r t he y had no t us e d t hat info r m at io n r e ce nt ly. Mo s t
r e p o r t e d p r o ble m s fo r yo unge r adult s o ccur w he n t he y ar e unde r s t r e s s .
4
Alt ho ugh habit ual r e m e m be r ing can caus e p r o ble m s , m o s t p e o p le
hav e m any m o r e p r o ble m s w it h e p is o dic r e m e m be r ing t han t he y do w it h
habit ual r e m e m be r ing. T he w ife m ay fo r ge t t o t e ll he r hus band abo ut an
im p o r t ant p ho ne call he ne e ds t o r e t ur n o r an ap p o int m e nt w it h t he
do ct o r ; t he hus band m ay fo r ge t t o m ail a le t t e r o r m ay fo r ge t an
anniv e r s ar y; t he s t ude nt m ay fo r ge t t o t ak e a ce r t ain bo o k t o s cho o l o r
t o t ak e lunch m o ne y.
O ne w ay t o r e m e m be r int e nde d act io ns is t o m ak e a lis t o f w hat yo u
ne e d t o do , e it he r w r it t e n in a no t e bo o k o r file d m e nt ally as de s cr ibe d
fo r t he Lo ci and Pho ne t ic s ys t e m s . T his m e t ho d r e quir e s yo u t o r e m e m -
be r t o lo o k at t he lis t fr e que nt ly and r e gular ly. Ano t he r w ay t o he lp in
r e m e m be r ing e p is o dic int e nt io ns is t o v is ualize s o m e act o r o bje ct t hat is
r e lat e d t o t he int e nde d act io n, and as s o ciat e it w it h t he int e nde d act io n.
T he w ife m ay p ict ur e he r hus band co m ing ho m e w it h a p ho ne hanging
ar o und his ne ck ; t he hus band m ay p ict ur e him s e lf s it t ing o n t o p o f t he
m ailbo x t hat is ne xt t o his bus s t o p ; t he s t ude nt m ay p ict ur e he r s e lf
e at ing he r br e ak fas t o ut o f he r bo o k . T he n, w he n t he w ife s e e s t he
hus band co m e in t he do o r , t he hus band s e e s t he m ailbo x by t he bus
s t o p , and t he s t ude nt s e e s he r br e ak fas t , t he y ar e m o r e lik e ly t o
r e m e m be r t he int e nde d act io ns .
A s im p le e xam p le o f m y o w n us e o f t his v is ual as s o ciat io n t e chnique
o ccur r e d o nce w hile I w as jo gging ar o und t he t r ack and r e m e m be r e d I
ne e de d t o m ak e a p ho ne call co nce r ning a p iano . I co uld no t m ak e t he
call t he n o r w r it e a no t e t o r e m ind m ys e lf t o do it s o I p ict ur e d a p iano
s it t ing in m y o ffice . W he n I finis he d r unning and r e t ur ne d t o m y o ffice , I
t ho ught o f t he p iano as s o o n as I o p e ne d t he do o r , and I m ade t he p ho ne
caH .
O ne w o m an r e p o r t e d t hat s he o ft e n im agine s a D r . S ue s s t yp e o f
ho us e ho ld p e t , a nine - fo o t Gle e ch, w it h bat hm at e ar s and m ult ico lo r e d
m ink t ail. W he n s he m us t r e m e m be r t o do s o m e t hing, s he p ict ur e s him
do ing it . Fo r e xam p le , he m ay be at t he t e le p ho ne calling t he r ug cle ane r .
Lat e r , w he n s he calls him t o m ind, s he s e e s him t he r e and t hat r e m inds
he r o f w hat s he s ho uld be do ing.
5
External Reminders
Ano t he r t e chnique t hat he lp s s o m e p e o p le r e m e m be r t o p e r fo r m in-
t e nde d act io ns is t o m ak e a p hys ical change in t he ir e nv ir o nm e nt t o cue
t he m t o r e m e m be r t he act io n. T his is an e xt e r nal m e m o r y aid r at he r
t han an int e r nal m e m o r y aid. S t udie s hav e fo und t hat in e v e r yday life
m o s t p e o p le , fr o m childr e n t hr o ugh e lde r ly adult s , us e e xt e r nal aids s uch
as lis t s , m e m o s t o t he m s e lv e s , ap p o int m e nt bo o k s , t im e r s and alar m s ,
and p hys ical change s in t he ir e nv ir o nm e nt , m o r e t han t he y us e int e r nal
aids s uch as im age r y, as s o ciat io n, r hym e s , acr o nym s , and m ne m o nic
s ys t e m s . Fo r e xam p le , in o ne s t udy e lde r ly p e o p le r e p o r t e d us ing
m e m o r y aids m o r e o ft e n t han did yo ung adult s , but t he t w o gr o up s w e r e
s im ilar in t he kinds o f m e m o r y aids t he y us e d: E xt e r nal aids o ut num -
be r e d int e r nal aids by a r at io o f abo ut t w o t o o ne .
6
I n r e s e ar ch o n t he e ffe ct iv e ne s s o f e xt e r nal aids in p r o s p e ct iv e
r e m e m be r ing, p e o p le ar e t yp ically giv e n a s e t o f addr e s s e d p o s t car ds o r
e nv e lo p e s t o m ail o n s p e cifie d dat e s , o r as s ignm e nt s t o m ak e p ho ne calls
at s p e cifie d t im e s . Mo s t p e o p le us e s o m e k ind o f e xt e r nal m e m o r y aid,
s uch as cir cling dat e s o n t he cale ndar t o indicat e w he n t o m ail t he car ds
o r p ut t ing t he car ds in a p lace t hat is fr e que nt ly lo o k e d at lik e a bulle t in
bo ar d o r dr e s s e r t o p . S e v e r al s t udie s o n r e m e m be r ing s uch "ap p o int -
m e nt s " hav e fo und t hat t he e lde r ly r e m e m be r e d as w e ll as yo ung adult s
did. O ne s t udy s ugge s t e d t hat failur e t o do s o m e t hing o n t im e ( m ail an
e nv e lo p e ) is no t alw ays a failur e in p r o s p e ct iv e m e m o r yp e o p le p r e v i-
o us ly ide nt ifie d as high p r o cr as t inat o r s w e r e lat e m o r e t han w e r e lo w
p r o cr as t inat o r s .
7
I s ugge s t e d e ar lie r t hat o ne r e as o n w hy s o m e e lde r ly p e o p le r e p o r t
fe w e r m e m o r y lap s e s m ay be be caus e t he ir liv e s ar e m o r e r o ut ine and
o r ganize d; ano t he r r e as o n t he r e s e ar che r s s ugge s t e d, is t hat t he e lde r ly
m ay m ak e m o r e us e o f e xt e r nal aids . E xt e r nal aids m ay be ne ce s s ar y if
yo u ar e v e r y bus y, if yo u be co m e e ngr o s s e d in s o m e t hing e ls e , o r if yo u
m ight be dis t r act e d by une xp e ct e d e v e nt s . O ne o f t he p r o ble m s in
p r o s p e ct iv e r e m e m be r ing is t hat yo u m ight r e m e m be r s e v e r al t im e s
dur ing t he day t hat yo u ne e d t o m ail a le t t e r o r m ak e a p ho ne call, but
no t at a t im e w he n yo u can do it .
C ar r ying o ut an int e nde d act io n is no t o nly a m at t e r o f r e m e m be r ing
t o do it but als o o f r e m e m be r ing t o do it at the right time. S up p o s e t hat
jus t be fo r e yo u le ft t he ho us e fo r w o r k yo u t ho ught o f a p ho ne call yo u
ne e de d t o m ak e o r a bo o k yo u ne e de d t o t ak e ; yo u co uld m ak e t he call
o r gr ab t he bo o k , and yo u w o uld be glad yo u "r e m e m be r e d." But if yo u
t ho ught o f t he m a fe w m inut e s lat e r w hile dr iv ing do w n t he s t r e e t , yo u
w o uld co m p lain abo ut "fo r ge t t ing." T hus , whenand wherew e r e m e m be r
can be as im p o r t ant as whetherw e r e m e m be r . W e o ft e n ne e d s o m e t hing
t o cue us , t o call o ur at t e nt io n t o t he int e nde d act io n s o t hat w e ar e
r e m inde d t o r e m e m be r at t he r ight t im e . S p e cial cuing de v ice s hav e e v e n
be e n de v e lo p e d fo r t his p ur p o s e , s uch as s p e cial alar m s and t im e r s
co m bine d w it h v is ual o r s p o k e n m e s s age s .
8
A s t r aight fo r w ar d e xam p le o f a p hys ical r e m inde r is t o p ut a bo o k
by t he do o r s o t hat yo u w ill r e m e m be r t o t ak e it back t o t he libr ar y t he
ne xt t im e yo u go o ut , o r t o hang yo ur co at o n t he do o r k no b s o t hat yo u
w ill r e m e m be r t o t ak e it t o t he cle ane r s . A s im ilar m e t ho d is t o m ak e a
symbolicchange in t he e nv ir o nm e nt t o cue yo ur s e lf, a change t hat is no t
dir e ct ly r e lat e d t o t he int e nde d act io n. T he w e ll- k no w n e xam p le o f t he
s t r ing ar o und t he finge r illus t r at e s t his s t r at e gy. T he s t r ing is int e nde d
t o r e m ind yo u t hat t he r e is s o m e t hing yo u ne e d t o r e m e m be r , and t he
no v e lt y o f t he s t r ing w ill us ually s e r v e t hat p ur p o s e ( unle s s , o f co ur s e ,
yo u no r m ally w e ar a s t r ing ar o und yo ur finge r ). I f yo u w ant t o be le s s
co ns p icuo us t han hav ing a s t r ing ar o und yo ur finge r , yo u m ight p ut a
r ubbe r band o n yo ur w r is t , m o v e yo ur w at ch t o t he o t he r w r is t , m o v e a
r ing t o a diffe r e nt finge r , t ur n yo ur r ing ar o und s o t hat t he s t o ne face s
t he p alm , o r p ut yo ur k e ys in a diffe r e nt p o ck e t . All o f t he s e change s
s e r v e t o cue yo u t hat yo u ne e d t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hing.
T his s t r at e gy o f s ym bo lic r e m inde r s can als o be us e d fo r t he t im e s
w he n yo u r e m e m be r at night ( as yo u ar e t r ying t o ge t t o s le e p )
s o m e t hing t hat yo u ne e d t o do in t he m o r ning, and t he n in t he m o r ning
yo u canno t r e m e m be r w hat it w as , o r m aybe do no t e v e n r e m e m be r t hat
yo u ne e de d t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hing. A he lp ful t e chnique is t o r e ach o v e r
and t ur n yo ur alar m clo ck o n e nd, t hr o w a bo o k o n t he flo o r , o r t ur n t he
r adio ar o unds o m e t hing t hat yo u w ill no t ice in t he m o r ning. W he n yo u
ge t up t he ne xt m o r ning, yo u w ill s e e t he t hing t hat is o ut o f p lace and
be r e m inde d t hat t he r e is s o m e t hing yo u ne e d t o r e m e m be r . I us e t his
s t r at e gy s o m e t im e s w he n I t ur n m y car light s o n and do no t w ant t o
fo r ge t t o t ur n t he m o ff aft e r p ar k ing. T o r e m ind m e t o t ur n t he m o ff
be fo r e ge t t ing o ut o f t he car , I hang s o m e t hing ( fo r e xam p le , a glo v e ) o n
t he do o r handle . W he n I p ar k t he car and r e ach fo r t he handle t o o p e n
t he do o r , I am r e m inde d t o t ur n o ff t he light s .
T he r e is o ne lim it at io n o f t he s e s ym bo lic p hys ical r e m inde r s . T he y
do he lp yo u r e m e m be r t hat yo u w ant e d t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hing, and
t hus s t ar t t he s e ar ch fo r r e t r ie v al, but t he y do no t he lp yo u dir e ct ly
r e m e m be r what it w as yo u w ant e d t o r e m e m be r . I s t he s t r ing ar o und
yo ur finge r t o r e m ind yo u t o buy s o m e s t r ing? I s t he bo o k lying in t he
m iddle o f t he flo o r t o r e m ind yo u t o t ak e it back t o t he libr ar y? I s t he
glo v e o n t he do o r handle t o r e m ind yo u t o p ut o n yo ur glo v e s ?
I f yo u ar e co nce r ne d abo ut r e m e m be r ing w hat it is yo u w ant e d t o
r e m e m be r , an addit io nal s t e p t hat w ill m ak e t he s ym bo lic e xt e r nal
r e m inde r s m o r e e ffe ct iv e is t o add an int e r nal aid: As s o ciat e t he p hys ical
change w it h t he int e nde d act io n. I f t he s t r ing o n yo ur finge r is t o r e m ind
yo u t o m ail a le t t e r , yo u m ight p ict ur e yo ur s e lf dr o p p ing s t r ing in t he
m ailbo x. I f t he bo o k o n t he flo o r is t o r e m ind yo u t o le av e a no t e fo r t he
m ilk m an, yo u m ight p ict ur e yo ur s e lf s t uffing t he bo o k int o a m ilk bo t t le .
I f t he w at ch o n t he w r o ng w r is t is t o r e m ind yo u t o m ak e a p ho ne call,
yo u m ight p ict ur e yo ur s e lf calling t he p e r s o n o n yo ur w at ch.
Act ually, m o s t o f t he t im e yo u w ill find t hat r e m e m be r ing w hat yo u
w ant e d t o r e m e m be r is no t a p r o ble m : As lo ng as t he r e is a cue t o
r e m ind yo u t hat yo u ne e d t o r e m e m be r s o m e t hing, yo ur nat ur al m e m o r y
w ill us ually t e ll yo u w hat it is yo u ne e de d t o r e m e m be r . Fo r e xam p le , in
o ne s t udy w it h s ix- and e ight - ye ar - o ld childr e n t he r e s e ar che r s at a t o y
clo w n o ut w he r e t he childr e n co uld s e e it , t o r e m ind t he m t o hav e him
o p e n a "s ur p r is e bo x" fo r t he m at t he e nd o f t he r e s e ar ch s e s s io n. Abo ut
t hr e e - fo ur t hs o f t he childr e n r e m inde d him t o o p e n t he bo x w he n t he
clo w n w as o ut , as co m p ar e d w it h o nly abo ut half t he childr e n w he n t he
clo w n w as no t o ut .
9
RETROSPECTIVE REMEMBERING
Alm o s t all m e m o r y r e s e ar ch ( and alm o s t all o f t his bo o k ) de als w it h
r e t r o s p e ct iv e m e m o r y: Y o u do no t ne e d t o r e m e m be r t o r e m e m be r
be caus e t he r e s e ar che r t e lls yo u w he n it is t im e t o r e call t he w o r d lis t ,
o r t he t e ache r as k s yo u a que s t io n o r giv e s yo u t he e xam . S o m e o ne
p r o m p t s yo u t o r e call. ( T his is diffe r e nt fr o m "cue d" o r "aide d" r e call,
w he r e yo u ar e giv e n a cue as t o what yo u ar e t o r e m e m be r r at he r t han
whent o r e m e m be r .)
S o m e k inds o f abs e nt m inde dne s s inv o lv e r e t r o s p e ct iv e m e m o r y.
R e t r o s p e ct iv e abs e nt m inde dne s s diffe r s fr o m -t he k inds o f r e t r o s p e ct iv e
m e m o r y t hat hav e be e n t he s ubje ct o f m o s t r e s e ar ch in t hat it de als w it h
m e m o r y fo r o ur o w n act io ns r at he r t han m e m o r y fo r o t he r info r m at io n.
I t als o diffe r s fr o m p r o s p e ct iv e m e m o r y in t hat r e s e ar ch has be e n
co nduct e d o n us ing im age r y in r e t r o s p e ct iv e m e m o r y m o r e t han in
p r o s p e ct iv e m e m o r y ( w he r e , as w e hav e s e e n, e xt e r nal aids ar e us e d
m o r e o ft e n t han int e r nal aids ).
10
O ne co m m o n k ind o f r e t r o s p e ct iv e abs e nt m inde dne s s is fo r ge t t ing
w he t he r yo u did s o m e t hing, s uch as t ur n o ff t he light s w he n yo u le ft t he
ho us e o r lo ck all t he do o r s be fo r e go ing t o be d. Par t o f t he p r o ble m in
r e m e m be r ing s uch p as t act io ns is t hat yo u m ight hav e t ho ught abo ut
do ing it , and lat e r canno t r e m e m be r w he t he r yo u act ually did it o r jus t
t ho ught abo ut it . T his is a no r m al e xp e r ie nce . S o m e p e o p le ar e "che ck -
e r s ," hav ing t o co nt inually che ck t o co nfir m t hat a t as k has be e n
co m p le t e d. I n it s e xt r e m e fo r m , co nt inuo us che ck ing is a co m p uls iv e
dis o r de r , but in m ilde r fo r m s it als o is v e r y co m m o n am o ng no r m al
p e o p le .
11
Ano t he r k ind o f r e t r o s p e ct iv e abs e nt m inde dne s s is fo r ge t t ing w he r e
w e p ut s o m e t hing, s uch as o ur um br e lla o r car k e ys , o r e v e n t he car
it s e lf. ( H av e yo u e v e r dr iv e n t o a big co nce r t o r s p o r t s e v e nt , p ar k e d
yo ur car , and t he n aft e r t he e v e nt , as yo u lo o k e d o v e r t he t ho us ands o f
car s , yo u co uld no t r e m e m be r w he r e yo ur s w as ?)
As I no t e d in chap t e r 4, a m ajo r caus e o f t he s e k inds o f r e t r o s p e ct iv e
abs e nt m inde dne s s lie s in t he p r incip le o f at t e nt io n. Y o u w e r e p r o bably
no t co ns cio us ly p aying at t e nt io n t o w hat yo u w e r e do ing at t he t im e yo u
t ur ne d o ff t he light s , lo ck e d t he do o r s , s e t do w n yo ur car k e ys , o r
p ar k e d t he car . Y o ur m ind w as o n s o m e t hing e ls e . T hus , o ne w ay t o
o v e r co m e t he s e t w o k inds o f abs e nt m inde dne s s ( fo r ge t t ing w he t he r yo u
did s o m e t hing o r w he r e yo u p ut s o m e t hing) is t o do s o m e t hing t o fo cus
yo ur at t e nt io n o n w hat yo u ar e do ing. Y o u m ight t e ll yo ur s e lf as yo u
le av e t he ho us e , "I am lo ck ing t he do o r ," o r as yo u p ar k t he car , "I am
p ar k ing t he car in t he far no r t he as t co r ne r o f t he lo t ," o r as yo u p ut
do w n t he k e ys , "I am p ut t ing t he k e ys o n t he r e fr ige r at o r ." I t o nly t ak e s
a fr act io n o f a s e co nd t o t hink t his t o yo ur s e lf, and yo ur at t e nt io n is
fo cus e d o n w hat yo u ar e do ing; t hus , t he r e is a gr e at e r lik e liho o d t hat
yo u w ill lat e r be able t o r e m e m be r hav ing do ne it . I n addit io n, it m ay
he lp t o act ually fo r m a m e nt al p ict ur e o f t he car k e ys o n t he r e fr ige r at o r .
O ne s t ude nt in m y m e m o r y clas s had a p ar t icular p r o ble m w it h
fo r ge t t ing w he r e s he p ut he r car k e ys . S he w as o ft e n r o unding up he r
r o o m m at e s in s e ar ch gr o up s t o he lp he r hunt fo r he r k e ys . S he t r ie d t his
t e chnique o f t e lling he r s e lf w he ne v e r s he p ut he r k e ys do w n, o nly s he
w e nt o ne s t e p fur t he r . S he t o ld he r s e lf out loudw he r e s he w as p ut t ing
t he m . S he r e p o r t e d t hat it alm o s t dr o v e he r r o o m m at e s cr azy, but s he
did no t hav e any t r o uble r e m e m be r ing w he r e he r k e ys w e r e ( no r did he r
r o o m m at e s , and t he y did no t e v e n p ar t icular ly w ant t o k no w !).
I f yo u did no t p ay at t e nt io n t o w hat yo u w e r e do ing at t he t im e yo u
did it , t he r e is a s t r at e gy t hat can he lp o v e r co m e r e t r o s p e ct iv e abs e nt -
m inde dne s s at t he r e t r ie v al s t age ( r at he r t han at t he r e co r ding s t age ).
Me nt ally r e t r ace yo ur s t e p s . Go back in yo ur m ind and t hink abo ut w hat
yo u w e r e do ing t hat le d up t o t he act yo u ar e t r ying t o r e m e m be r ; it
m ight he lp yo u r e m e m be r w he t he r yo u did t he s p e cific act io n o r w he r e
yo u p ut t he it e m . T his t e chnique , w hich is s im ilar t o "t hink ing ar o und it "
in chap t e r 4, w as t he m o s t fr e que nt ly us e d int e r nal m e m o r y aid r e p o r t e d
in a s ur v e y o f co lle ge s t ude nt s and ho us e w iv e s in E ngland; ne ar ly
e v e r yo ne had us e d it at le as t o nce , and abo ut 30 p e r ce nt o f t he m had
us e d it m o r e t han o nce a w e e k .
12
Fo r m o s t p e o p le r e t r o s p e ct iv e abs e nt m inde dne s s is jus t an inco n-
v e nie nce . But fo r ur ban e lde r ly p e o p le s uch fo r ge t fulne s s can e ndange r
no t o nly t he ir w e ll- be ing but als o t he ir s afe t y: I t m ay be annoyingt o
m is p lace e ye glas s e s , but in a big cit y it is dangeroust o le av e fr o nt do o r s
unlo ck e d. A m e m o r y co ur s e fo r p e o p le o v e r age s e v e nt y in t he Br o nx in
N e w Y o r k C it y t aught t he m t he t e chnique s in t his chap t e r fo r o v e r co m ing
abs e nt m inde dne s s , and he lp e d t he m r e duce t he ir p r o ble m s o f lo s ing
t hings ( e ye glas s e s , k e ys , cane s , glo v e s , m o ne y) and o f fo r ge t t ing t o lo ck
t he ir do o r s . T he im age r y t e chnique s w e r e m o s t s ucce s s ful w it h p e o p le
w ho s e m e m o r ie s w e r e m o r e int act , w he r e as habit and r e p e t it io n he lp e d
t ho s e p e o p le w it h s e r io us m e m o r y de ficit s .
13
Ano t he r k ind o f abs e nt m inde dne s s t hat is a s o ur ce o f ir r it at io n t o
m any p e o p le is go ing int o ano t he r r o o m t o ge t s o m e t hing o r do s o m e -
t hing, and t he n fo r ge t t ing w hy yo u ar e t he r e . T his is o ne m e m o r y lap s e
t hat can m ak e p e o p le fe e l lik e t he y ar e r e ally lo s ing t he ir m inds , and t hus
w e can t ak e s o m e co m fo r t in k no w ing t hat it als o is a co m m o n e xp e r ie nce
fo r m any p e o p le . A nat io nal R o p e r s ur v e y fo und t hat 9 o f 10 p e o p le
adm it t e d t o hav ing fault y m e m o r ie s , and t hat t he m o s t co m m o n lap s e
w as go ing int o a r o o m and fo r ge t t ing w hat t he y w e nt in t he r e fo r
( r e p o r t e d by 59 p e r ce nt o f t ho s e s ur v e ye d).
14
Again, t he m o s t lik e ly
caus e o f t his p r o ble m is failur e t o p ay s ufficie nt at t e nt io n t o w hat yo u ar e
do ing. O ft e n yo u jus t hav e a p as s ing t ho ught e nt e r yo ur m ind o f s o m e -
t hing yo u ne e d t o do in t he o t he r r o o m , and be fo r e yo u m e nt ally gr ab
t he t ho ught yo u s t ar t m o v ing int o t he o t he r r o o m as yo ur m ind m o v e s
o n t o o t he r t hings . I f yo u s t o p and co nce nt r at e fo r jus t a s e co nd o n t he
t ho ught and act ually t e ll yo ur s e lf w hy yo u ar e go ing int o t he o t he r r o o m
be fo r e yo u go , yo u ar e m o r e lik e ly t o r e m e m be r w hy yo u ar e t he r e
w he n yo u ge t t he r e . Als o , it m ay be o f addit io nal he lp t o br ie fly p ict ur e
yo ur s e lf do ing w hat yo u int e nd t o do w he n yo u ge t t he r e .
As s o ciat io n is ano t he r p r incip le t hat can p lay an im p o r t ant r o le in
t he "o t he r r o o m " k ind o f abs e nt m inde dne s s . S o m e t im e s w he n yo u find
yo ur s e lf in t he o t he r r o o m w o nde r ing w hy yo u ar e t he r e , yo u hav e
p r o bably lo o k e d ar o und t he r o o m t o s e e if t he r e is s o m e t hing t hat w ill
r e m ind yo u o f w hy yo u ar e t he r e ( be caus e it m ay be as s o ciat e d w it h
yo ur e r r and). I f t hat do e s no t w o r k , yo u m ight t r y go ing back t o do ing
w hat yo u w e r e do ing at t he t im e yo u fir s t t ho ught o f go ing t o t he r o o m .
S up p o s e , fo r e xam p le , yo u w e r e s t anding at t he k it che n s ink hav ing a
dr ink o f w at e r jus t be fo r e yo u w e nt in t he o t he r r o o m ; go back t o t he
s ink and p ick up yo ur w at e r again. O ft e n t his w ill r e m ind yo u o f w hat yo u
ne e de d t o do , be caus e t he t ho ught be cam e as s o ciat e d w it h w hat yo u
w e r e do ing w he n t he t ho ught cam e t o yo u. S o m e t im e s it can e v e n he lp
t o m e nt ally ( r at he r t han p hys ically) go back and t hink o f w hat yo u w e r e
do ing w he n yo u fir s t t ho ught o f go ing t o t he r o o m . T his s t r at e gy is
s im ilar t o m e nt ally r e t r acing yo ur s t e p s t o r e m e m be r w he t he r yo u did
s o m e t hing o r w he r e yo u p ut s o m e t hing.
MNEMONICS IN EDUCATION
I n addit io n t o o v e r co m ing abs e nt m inde dne s s , m e m o r y aids can hav e
p r act ical v alue in s cho o lw o r k . W e s aw in chap t e r 8 t hat r e s e ar ch o n
m ne m o nics be gan in t he 1960s . By t he e ar ly 1970s , s e v e r al p s ycho lo gis t s
2 1 2
Y O U R ME MO R Y
and r e s e ar che r s had s ugge s t e d t he p o t e nt ial v alue o f m ne m o nics in
e ducat io n. Ps ycho lo gis t s and r e s e ar che r s hav e co nt inue d t o e nco ur age
e ducat io nal ap p licat io ns o f m ne m o nics in t he 1980s . A bo o k fo r high
s cho o l t e ache r s o n ho w t o t e ach s t udy s k ills s ugge s t s t hat "m ne m o nic
de v ice s s ho uld no t be s co r ne d by s t udy s k ills t e ache r s . T o o m any o f
t he m hav e p r o v e d e ffe ct iv e fo r s t ude nt s t hr o ugh t he ce nt ur ie s and ar e
s t ill be ing us e d by s ucce s s ful s t ude nt s ." O ne p s ycho lo gis t has lis t e d 10
r e as o ns w hy m ne m o nic t e chnique s can and s ho uld be t aught in t he
s cho o ls , and s up p o r t e d t he m w it h r e s e ar ch e v ide nce . A fe w o f t he
r e as o ns w e r e : Mne m o nics ar e v e r s at ile ; m ne m o nics ar e t im e e fficie nt ;
m ne m o nics ar e adap t able t o s t ude nt diffe r e nce s ; and m o s t childr e n e njo y
us ing m ne m o nics .
15
A gr e at am o unt o f r e s e ar ch p ublis he d s ince t he lat e 1970s has
s ho w n t hat m ne m o nics can he lp in t he k inds o f m e m o r y t as k s r e quir e d
in s cho o l. Much o f t his r e s e ar ch has be e n de s cr ibe d in p r e v io us chap t e r s
and addit io nal r e s e ar ch is de s cr ibe d in m any r e ce nt r e v ie w ar t icle s .
16
E xam p le s o f s p e cific s ubje ct s t hat m ne m o nics hav e be e n fo und t o he lp
ar e s p e lling, fo r e ign language v o cabular y ( co ncr e t e no uns , abs t r act
no uns , v e r bs ), E nglis h v o cabular y w o r ds and de finit io ns , s t at e s and
cap it als , p e o p le 's nam e s and t he ir acco m p lis hm e nt s , m e dical t e r m s ,
r e ading, p r o p e r t ie s o f m ine r als , t he har dne s s s cale o f m ine r als , cit ie s
and t he ir p r o duct s , and U .S . p r e s ide nt s . Me m o r y- t r aining bo o k s giv e
s p e cific e xam p le s o f ho w m ne m o nics co uld als o be ap p lie d t o m any o t he r
s cho o l s ubje ct s .
17
Much o f t his r e s e ar ch o n m ne m o nics in s cho o l has us e d t he Ke yw o r d
m ne m o nic, and has p r o v ide d m ne m o nic p ict ur e s ( r at he r t han us ing s e lf-
ge ne r at e d m e nt al im age s ) t o r e p r e s e nt v e r bal m at e r ial. T he r e s e ar ch
has be e n do ne o n m at e r ial in t e xt bo o k p r o s e fo r m as w e ll as in lis t fo r m ,
and has inv o lv e d m any diffe r e nt k inds o f s t ude nt o f all age s .
Mne m o nics hav e be e n fo und t o be ne fit go o d s t ude nt s as w e ll as
p o o r s t ude nt s . E v e n gift e d s t ude nt s in e le m e nt ar y s cho o l, as yo ung as
fo ur t h gr ade r s , hav e im p r o v e d t he ir le ar ning by us ing im age r y m ne m o n-
ics t hat t he y hav e be e n t aught , alt ho ugh t he y alr e ady s p o nt ane o us ly us e
m o r e e labo r at e and e ffe ct iv e le ar ning s t r at e gie s t han t he ir p e e r s . I n fact ,
gift e d s t ude nt s m ay be ne fit e v e n m o r e fr o m m ne m o nics t han o t he r
s t ude nt s do .
18
O ne o f t he co nclus io ns s t at e d in t he U .S . D e p ar t m e nt o f E ducat io n
bo o k What Worksis : "Mne m o nics he lp s t ude nt s r e m e m be r m o r e info r -
m at io n fas t e r and r e t ain it lo nge r ." Mne m o nics t hat can be us e d in s cho o l
hav e als o be e n s um m ar ize d fr o m t he t e ache r s ' p e r s p e ct iv e as w e ll as
t hat o f t he s t ude nt s .
19
E xt e ns iv e m ne m o nic p r o gr am s bas e d o n s t o r ie s , r hym e s , and s o ngs
hav e be e n de v e lo p e d and us e d by a Jap ane s e e ducat o r , Mas achik a
N ak ane , fo r le ar ning m at he m at ics ( ar it hm e t ic, alge br a, ge o m e t r y, t r igo -
no m e t r y, and calculus ), s cie nce ( che m is t r y, p hys ics , and bio lo gy), s p e ll-
ing and gr am m ar , and t he E nglis h language . Jap ane s e childr e n as yo ung
as k inde r gar t e n hav e us e d t he s e m ne m o nics t o p e r fo r m m at he m at ical
o p e r at io ns w it h fr act io ns , t o s o lv e alge br aic p r o ble m s ( including t he us e
o f t he quadr at ic fo r m ula), t o do e le m e nt ar y calculus , t o ge ne r at e fo r m ulas
fo r che m ical co m p o unds and diagr am t he ir m o le cular s t r uct ur e , and t o
le ar n E nglis h.
S o m e o f N ak ane 's m ne m o nics fo r adding, s ubt r act ing, m ult ip lying,
and div iding fr act io ns hav e be e n adap t e d fo r us e in t he U nit e d S t at e s .
O ne s t udy fo und t hat t hir d- gr ade childr e n us ing t he s e m ne m o nics le ar ne d
all t he m at he m at ical o p e r at io ns w it h fr act io ns in 3 ho ur s as w e ll as s ixt h-
gr ade s t ude nt s had le ar ne d t he m in t hr e e ye ar s o f t r adit io nal ins t r uct io n,
I als o us e d t he s e m ne m o nics t o t e ach m y s o n all t he o p e r at io ns w it h
fr act io ns w he n he w as s t ill in t he s e co nd gr ade ( aft e r he le ar ne d his
t im e s t able s as de s cr ibe d in chap t e r 12). E xt e ns iv e m ne m o nic p r o gr am s
hav e als o be e n de v e lo p e d in t he U nit e d S t at e s fo r s uch ar e as as r e ading,
s p e lling, gr am m ar , and bas ic m at he m at ics s k ills .
20
W e hav e s e e n m any e xam p le s in p r e v io us chap t e r s o f w ays m y
m e m o r y s t ude nt s hav e us e d m ne m o nics in t he ir s cho o lw o r k . S e v e r al
co lle ge s t ude nt s w ho hav e t ak e n m y m e m o r y co ur s e as junio r s o r s e nio r s
hav e co m m e nt e d t hat t he y w is he d t he y had t ak e n t he co ur s e w he n t he y
w e r e fr e s hm e n, be caus e it w o uld hav e do ne t he m m o r e go o d in s cho o l.
Als o , m any o f m y s t ude nt s , e s p e cially o lde r s t ude nt s w ho hav e childr e n
o f t he ir o w n, hav e e xp r e s s e d t he ir w is h t hat t he s e t e chnique s w e r e
t aught in s cho o l be fo r e co lle ge . O ne fat he r w ho e xp r e s s e d s uch a w is h
w r o t e t he fo llo w ing:
T o day I s e nt an e ight - ye ar - o ld daught e r t o s cho o l fe e ling be t t e r abo ut he r chance s
o f p as s ing an e xam o n p r e s ide nt s o f t he U nit e d S t at e s . W he n I r e ad s uch
que s t io ns as w hich o ne lik e d fancy clo t he s o r w ho fo r m e d t he r o ugh r ide r s , I
co uld s e e w hy Kar e n w as up s e t . T he r e w e r e 50 s uch as s o ciat io ns and s he w as
r e ady t o giv e up . I t be cam e a fam ily p r o je ct and e v e r yo ne be gan t o giv e ide as o f
as s o ciat io ns . W e co uld s e e t he fancy clo t he s ne at ly p ack e d in a che s t o f dr aw e r s
( C he s t e r Ar t hur ). A t e ddy be ar o n a r o ugh r iding ho r s e be cam e T e ddy R o o s e v e lt .
T his co uld hav e be e n a s it uat io n t hat m ade Kar e n fe e l v e r y inade quat e but it
t ur ne d int o a fun s e s s io n fo r t he e nt ir e fam ily.
I do n't k no w ho w w e ll s he did o n t he t e s t , but I do k no w t hat s he w ill do
be t t e r jus t be caus e o f he r s e lf- im age im p r o v e m e nt . . . . T he r o t e le ar ning t hat
s he had t o do co uld hav e de v e lo p e d a t ho ught p at t e r n o r a co nt o r t e d s e lf- im age
t hat co uld hav e be e n a ne gat iv e e xp e r ie nce t hat co uld s t ay w it h he r fo r ye ar s .
. . . Kar e n jus t cam e ho m e fr o m s cho o l w it h an 88 p e r ce nt o n he r p r e s ide nt s
e xam . S he ce r t ainly is a hap p ie r , m o r e co nfide nt lit t le gir l t han s he w as las t night .
I n light o f all t he r e s e ar ch s up p o r t and o t he r s up p o r t iv e e v ide nce ,
yo u m ight t hink t hat t he r e w o uld be a t r e nd t o w ar d t e aching m ne m o nics
in s cho o l, but t his has no t hap p e ne d as m uch as t he r e s e ar ch m ight s e e m
t o jus t ify. Mne m o nics ar e no t t aught in m o s t s cho o ls at any le v e l. I n fact ,
t his is no t o nly lim it e d t o m ne m o nics but is als o t r ue o f o t he r le ar ning
and m e m o r y s t r at e gie s in t his bo o k . E xp licit ins t r uct io n in any s t r at e gie s
fo r e ffe ct iv e t hink ing and le ar ning r ar e ly o ccur in t he clas s r o o m .
21
T w o e xt e ns iv e p r o gr am s o n le ar ning at t he co lle ge le v e l hav e be e n
w e ll r e s e ar che d and de s cr ibe d at T e xas C hr is t ian U niv e r s it y and at t he
U niv e r s it y o f T e xas at Aus t in. Bo t h de al w it h le ar ning ho w t o le ar n,
including m ne m o nics and o t he r le ar ning s t r at e gie s in t his bo o k , and hav e
be e n quit e s ucce s s ful. T he r e ar e als o a fe w s im ilar p r o gr am s in o t he r
s cho o l dis t r ict s be lo w t he co lle ge le v e l, but ge ne r ally lit t le is t aught at
any s cho o l le v e l abo ut ho w t o le ar n m o r e e ffe ct iv e ly.
22
I t is s t r ange t hat w e e xp e ct s t ude nt s t o le ar n, s o lv e p r o ble m s , and
r e m e m be r a lo t o f m at e r ial, but w e s e ldo m t e ach t he m how t o le ar n,
s o lv e p r o ble m s , and r e m e m be r . I t is t im e t o m ak e up fo r t his lack by
de v e lo p ing ap p lie d co ur s e s in le ar ning, p r o ble m s o lv ing, and m e m o r y,
and by inco r p o r at ing t he m in t he acade m ic cur r iculum . T his w as t he
jus t ificat io n t hat w as giv e n fo r including a chap t e r o n le ar ning s t r at e gie s
in a r e ce nt bo o k o n e ffe ct iv e t e aching.
23
T he r e ar e m any o bs t acle s t o inco r p o r at ing any k ind o f e ducat io nal
r e s e ar ch int o s cho o ls .
24
O ne r e as o n w hy m ne m o nics ar e no t t aught m o r e
fr e que nt ly in s cho o ls m ay be t hat m any e ducat o r s ar e no t aw ar e o f t he
r e ce nt r e s e ar ch s ho w ing ho w and w hy m ne m o nics co uld be us e d. A
s e co nd r e as o n p r o bably lie s in t he p s e udo - lim it at io ns dis cus s e d in chap t e r
8. T w o p s ycho lo gis t s w ho hav e do ne e xt e ns iv e r e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y hav e
calle d t he s e p s e udo - lim it at io ns "t he p e r s is t ing ne m e s is " o f m ne m o nic
t e chnique s in t he clas s r o o m be caus e , t he y s aid, as his t o r y has co ns is -
t e nt ly s ho w n w it h r e s p e ct t o m o s t av e nue s o f change , it t ak e s far m o r e
t han fact t o co m bat t he fict io n o f fir m ly e nt r e nche d p e r s o nal p hilo s o -
p hie s .
25
Alt ho ugh s e v e r al o f t he p s e udo - lim it at io ns hav e be e n e s p o us e d by
m any e ducat o r s , t he o ne t hat is p r o bably m o s t s ignificant in p r e v e nt ing
t he t e aching and us ing o f m ne m o nics in s cho o ls is t he o ne inv o lv ing
m ne m o nics and unde r s t anding.
26
Many e ducat o r s fe e l m ne m o nics ar e
no t r e le v ant t o s cho o l s ubje ct s be caus e m o s t m ne m o nics he lp w it h
le ar ning and r e m e m be r ing m o r e t han t he y do w it h unde r s t anding and
co m p r e he nding. T o be t t e r unde r s t and t his p o int , le t us e xam ine t he r o le
o f m e m o r y in e ducat io n ( als o s e e t he s e ct io n "Mne m o nics D o N o t Aid
U nde r s t anding" in chap t e r 8).
MEMORY IN EDUCATION
Me m o r izat io n is a lo w - le v e l m e nt al s k ill t o m any e ducat o r s , s o t he y
us ually s t at e t he p ur p o s e s o f e ducat io n in t e r m s o f lo ft ie r go als t han
r e m e m be r ing, s uch as unde r s t anding and ap p lying p r incip le s , cr it ical and
cr e at iv e blink ing, r e as o ning, and s ynt he s izing. ( Y o u m ay o ft e n he ar
dis p ar aging r e m ar k s abo ut m e r e m e m o r izing, but ho w o ft e n hav e yo u
he ar d s o m e o ne s p e ak o f "m e r e " unde r s t anding o r "m e r e " cr e at iv it y?)
As o ne r e v ie w o f m e m o r y r e s e ar ch o bs e r v e d, s o m e e ducat o r s "giv e t he
im p r e s s io n t hat t he y r e gar d m e m o r y p r o ficie ncy as ant it he t ical t o aca-
de m ic e xce lle nce , fe e ling t hat m e m o r izat io n int e r fe r e s w it h t he o p e r at io n
o f m o r e laudable , highe r m e nt al p r o ce s s e s ." T he r e v ie w e r s s ugge s t e d
t hat s uch m is co nce p t io ns m us t be dis p e lle d fo r r e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y t o
m ak e a p o s it iv e co nt r ibut io n t o e ducat io nal p r act ice .
27
T w o p o int s m ay be m ade r e gar ding t he r o le o f m e m o r y r e lat iv e t o
t he lo ft ie r go als o r "m o r e laudable , highe r m e nt al p r o ce s s e s " in s cho o l.
Fir s t , w he t he r w e lik e it o r no t t he r e is a lo t o f s t r aight m e m o r y w o r k in
s cho o l. E ducat io n co ns is t s o f "bas ic s cho o l t as k s " inv o lv ing lis t and
p air e d- as s o ciat e le ar ning, as w e ll as "co m p le x s cho o l t as k s " lik e m e an-
ingful p r o s e le ar ning. O ne his t o r y t e ache r ar gue d t hat m e m o r y w as
unim p o r t ant in e ducat io n t o day; t he n at an e ar ly clas s p e r io d he t o ld his
s t ude nt s t hat fo r a t e s t t he y m us t lis t t he U .S . p r e s ide nt s and t he ir
t e r m s in o ffice . ( "Y o u m us t all k no w t he p r e s ide nt s in chr o no lo gical
o r de r , and t he dat e s , be fo r e t he e nd o f t his t e r m .") Ps ycho lo gis t Go r do n
Bo w e r o bs e r v e d t hat t he lo ft ie r e ducat io nal go als ar e us ually o nly e xt r a
r e quir e m e nt s be yo nd t he le ar ning o f bas ic fact s t hat is de m ande d as a
m inim um s t andar d.
Any ge o gr ap hy s t ude nt w ho t hink s I s t anbul is in Fr ance , o r any ar t his t o r y
s t ude nt w ho t hink s S alv ado r D ali p aint e d t he S is t ine C hap e l, is go ing t o flunk his
e xam s if he p ulls s uch bo ne r s o ft e n e no ugh. T he p o int is t hat w e do de m and t hat
s t ude nt s le ar n a lo t o f fact s jus t as w e ar e co ns t ant ly r e quir e d t o do in o ur daily
life . . . .
T he fact is t hat t he lo ft ie r e ducat io nal go als ar e in addition to, no t
instead of, m e m o r izat io n. O ne analys is o f t he go als o f e ducat io n div ide d
ge ne r al t hink ing and le ar ning s k ills int o t hr e e ar e as k no w le dge acquis i-
t io n ( including m e m o r y aids and s t udy t e chnique s ), p r o ble m s o lv ing, and
r e as o ning. An analys is o f t he p r o ce s s o f e ducat io n v ie w e d le ar ning in
t e r m s o f s t age s . I n t he e ar ly s t age s w e acquir e a num be r o f r e lat iv e ly
dis p ar at e p ie ce s o f info r m at io n ( t he "bas ic fact s " s t r e s s e d in m o s t
clas s r o o m s ). Mne m o nics o r o t he r le ar ning s t r at e gie s m ay facilit at e s uch
le ar ning by p r o v iding t he "co nce p t ual glue " ne ce s s ar y t o ho ld t he s e
dis p ar at e p ie ce s in m e m o r y. As a p e r s o n be gins t o fit t he p ie ce s
t o ge t he r , m ne m o nics m ay p lay a le s s im p o r t ant ( o r diffe r e nt ) r o le , and
o t he r fact o r s m ay be m o r e im p o r t ant . S t ill lat e r , w he n t he p e r fo r m ance
is w e ll e s t ablis he d, m ne m o nics m ay hav e lit t le o r no e ffe ct o n le ar ning
s ince t he unde r lying k no w le dge s t r uct ur e no w ho lds t he info r m at io n
t o ge t he r in s o m e m e aningful, int e gr at e d w ho le . Bo t h o f t he s e analys e s
include r e m e m be r ing fact s as a s ignificant p ar t o f t he big p ict ur e , and
bo t h v ie w m ne m o nics as p laying a r o le in t hat p ar t .
29
Anyo ne w ho is a s t ude nt in s cho o l, o r can r e m e m be r w he n he w as ,
k no w s t hat s ucce s s o n e xam s de p e nds he av ily o n r e m e m be r ing fact s . I
as k e d 33 co lle ge fr e s hm e n and 24 up p e r clas s m e n fr o m m any diffe r e nt
m ajo r s t o r at e ho w im p o r t ant m e m o r izat io n w as as co m p ar e d w it h t he
"highe r t hink ing s k ills ( unde r s t anding, r e as o ning, cr it ical and cr e at iv e
t hink ing, s ynt he s izing, e t c.)" in de t e r m ining t he ir e x am s co r e s in high
s cho o l and in co lle ge . Fo r t he ir e Xam s in high s cho o l, 76 p e r ce nt o f t he
fr e s hm an and 96 p e r ce nt o f t he up p e r clas s m e n r at e d m e m o r izat io n as
be ing o f e qual o r gr e at e r im p o r t ance t han t he highe r t hink ing s k ills . E v e n
fo r t he ir co lle ge e xam s , half o f t he s t ude nt s ( 49 p e r ce nt o f t he fr e s hm e n
and 50 p e r ce nt o f t he up p e r clas s m e n) s t ill r at e d m e m o r izat io n as be ing
o f e qual o r gr e at e r im p o r t ance . W hat e v e r lo ft y go als t e ache r s m ay
e s p o us e , o r m ay t hink t hat t he y ar e t e s t ing, s t ude nt s s t ill s e e m e m o r y
as p laying a s ignificant r o le in t he ir s cho o l s ucce s s .
Me m o r izing t he ne ce s s ar y r o ut ine t hings m o r e e fficie nt ly m ay he lp
t o fr e e o ur m inds s o t hat w e can s p e nd m o r e t im e o n t he s o - calle d lo ft ie r
t as k s . Aft e r his abo v e o bs e r v at io n t hat m uch o f s cho o lw o r k is s t r aight
m e m o r y w o r k , Bo w e r w e nt o n t o s ay:
But t he s o lut io n t o t he p r o ble m is p r o bably at hand. By s ys t e m at ically ap p lying
t he k no w le dge t hat w e no w hav e abo ut le ar ning, w e s ho uld be able t o im p r o v e
o ur s k ills s o t hat w e s p e nd le s s t im e m e m o r izing fact s . By t he s t r at e gic us e o f
m ne m o nics , w e m ight fr e e o ur s e lv e s fo r t ho s e t as k s w e co ns ide r m o r e im p o r t ant
t han m e m o r izat io n.
T he s e co nd p o int r e gar ding t he r o le o f m e m o r y in e ducat io n is t hat
r e m e m be r e d fact s s e r v e as t he bas is fo r t he lo ft ie r go als . O ne r e v ie w o f
m e m o r y r e s e ar ch be gan w it h t his s t at e m e nt : "I t is har d t o t hink o f any
e ducat io nal go al fo r w hich t he abilit y t o r e t ain info r m at io n is unim p o r t ant ;
hum an m e m o r y is cr ucial fo r acquir ing t he k no w le dge and s k ills w e le ar n
at s cho o l." I n o ne s t udy, s t ude nt s w ho t o o k a co m p r e he ns io n t e s t o n a
p as s age fr o m m e m o r y did be t t e r t han s t ude nt s w ho co uld r e fe r t o t he
p as s age w hile t ak ing t he t e s t . T he r e s e ar che r s s ugge s t e d t hat m e m o r iz-
ing indiv idual fact s m ay be a ne ce s s ar y p r e cur s o r t o a t ho r o ugh unde r -
s t anding o f t he r e lat io ns am o ng t he fact s . S im ilar ly, le ar ning- dis able d
ado le s ce nt s w ho le ar ne d at t r ibut e s o f m ine r als us ing m ne m o nic p ict ur e s
w e r e be t t e r able t o m ak e infe r e nce s abo ut t he at t r ibut e s t han w e r e
s t ude nt s t aught t he t r adit io nal w ay, e v e n t ho ugh s uch info r m at io n w as
ne v e r e xp licit ly p r e s e nt e d in t he le s s o n.
30
O t he r r e s e ar che r s hav e als o s ugge s t e d t hat t as k s inv o lv ing r e as o n-
ing and unde r s t anding s t ill r e quir e t hat yo u r e m e m be r t he fact s in o r de r
t o be able t o r e as o n w it h t he m and unde r s t and t he m , and t hat o ne r e as o n
w hy m ne m o nics m ay he lp in acquir ing co nce p t s is t hat t he y r e duce t he
m e m o r y lo ad fo r t he fact s t hat ar e ne ce s s ar y fo r unde r s t anding t he
co nce p t . I n fact , o ne bo o k o n cle ar t hink ing e v e n de fine d t hink ing as "t he
m anip ulat io n o f m e m o r ie s . "
31
Me m o r y als o p lays an im p o r t ant r o le in de cis io n m ak ing and p r o ble m
s o lv ing. S t udie s o f p r o ble m s o lv ing in s uch ar e as as e ngine e r ing, co m -
p ut e r p r o gr am m ing, s o cial s cie nce , r e ading co m p r e he ns io n, p hys ics ,
m e dical diagno s is , and m at he m at ics hav e s ho w n t hat e ffe ct iv e p r o ble m
s o lv ing de p e nds s t r o ngly o n t he nat ur e and o r ganizat io n o f t he k no w le dge
av ailable t o t he indiv iduals . Mne m o nics hav e e v e n be e n co nce p t ualize d as
p r o ble m - s o lv ing t e chnique s fo r s o lv ing s o m e m e m o r y p r o ble m s .
32
O ne o f t he co nclus io ns co nt aine d in What Worksis t hat ". . .
m e m o r izing can he lp s t ude nt s abs o r b and r e t ain t he fact ual info r m at io n
o n w hich unde r s t anding and cr it ical t ho ught ar e bas e d." T he co nclus io n
is e xp laine d fur t he r :
Me m o r izing s im p lifie s t he p r o ce s s o f r e calling info r m at io n and allo w s it s us e t o
be co m e aut o m at ic. U nde r s t anding and cr it ical t ho ught can t he n build o n, t his bas e
o f k no w le dge and fact . I nde e d, t he m o r e s o p his t icat e d m e nt al o p e r at io ns o f
analys is , s ynt he s is , and e v aluat io n ar e im p o s s ible w it ho ut r ap id and accur at e
r e call o f bo die s o f s p e cific k no w le dge .
33
T hus , w e hav e s e e n t hat e v e n if w e s t at e t he go als o f e ducat io n as
go ing be yo nd "m e r e m e m o r izat io n" t o unde r s t anding, r e as o ning, and
p r o ble m s o lv ing, m ne m o nics can s t ill he lp in s cho o l fo r at le as t t w o
r e as o ns : Many s cho o lw o r k t as k s inv o lv e m e m o r izat io n, s o m e m o r izing
t he s e t as k s m o r e e fficie nt ly w ill fr e e us t o s p e nd m o r e t im e and e ffo r t
o n t he adv ance d go als , and t he s e m e m o r ize d fact s s e r v e as t he bas is fo r
achie v ing t he m o r e adv ance d go als .
Appendi x: Keywords for the
Phoneti c System
T he fo llo w ing lis t co ns is t s o f s e v e r al k e yw o r ds fo r e ach num be r fr o m 00
t o 09 and fr o m 0 t o 100. T he s e k e yw o r ds ar e bas e d o n t he Pho ne t ic
s ys t e m ( s e e chap t e r 12) and can be us e d in at le as t t w o w ays . Fir s t , yo u
can s e le ct a k e yw o r d fo r e ach num be r fr o m 1 t o 100 t hat w ill be
m e aningful and m e m o r able t o yo u, co ns t r uct ing a m e nt al filing s ys t e m
fo r m e m o r izing 100 it e m s . S e co nd, yo u can r e duce fo r ge t t ing caus e d by
int e r fe r e nce am o ng diffe r e nt num be r s t hat hav e t he s am e p air s o f digit s
in t he m by us ing a diffe r e nt k e yw o r d e ach t im e a p air o f digit s is r e p e at e d.
Fo r e xam p le , t he r e w ill be le s s int e r fe r e nce am o ng t he p ho ne num be r s
3905, 0542, and 4239 if t he y ar e r e m e m be r e d by mop-sail, seal-rain,
and horn-mapt han if t he y ar e r e m e m be r e d by mop-sail, sail-rain, and
rain-mop.
00 s auce zo o s ho s e s s e as s e e s aw o as is ice ho us e Ze us S e us s
01 s uit s e e d s o d s e at s o o t w as t e w ais t cit y s o da s t e w acid
02 s un s ce ne zo ne s in s no w s w ine s w an
03 s um zo o m S iam s w im s e am as t hm a
04 s o r e s o ar s e e r s e w e r s o w e r ho s ie r y czar
05 s ail s e al s ale s ly s lo w s le igh s o il s o ul
06 s as h s age s w it ch s ie ge
07 s ack s o ck s ick has s o ck s k i s k y w his k y s quaw
08 s afe s ie v e s o fa ho us e w ife
09 s o ap s ub s p y w as p as p s o up s ubw ay
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238 A PPE N D I X : K E Y W O R D S FO R T H E PH O N E T I C S Y S T E M
ho s e s e w s o w s aw ho us e 200 s e a ace ice
t ie t e e t e a hat he ad do e t o e t o y w he at dye ho o d aut o w e e d
he n N o ah ho ne inn ho ne y gnu w ine hye na
m a ham he m hym n aim ho m e m o w
r ye r ay hair har e r o w o ar ar r o w o r e w ir e
ho le law hill hall he e l o w l e e l ale w hale aw l halo he ll w he e l
s ho e has h he dge as h w it ch s ho w jaw jay w as h
co w ho g k e y ho o k cue e cho haw k e gg ho ck e y o ak w ig
iv y ho o f hiv e w av e w ife w aif
be e p ie hub ho o p ap e p e a bo y bay buo y o bo e w hip
t o e s dice he ads w o o ds t o ys dais y
t o t dat e do t die t t o ad t ide t at t o o t e e t h
t in dune de an he at he n daw n do w n t w ine
t o m b do m e t e am t um m y dam at o m aut um n dim e t hum b
t ir e do o r t r ay t r e e de e r t ar t o w e r dair y he at e r w at e r w ait e r
t o w e l do ll t o o l dial ho t e l t ail t ile due l huddle I t aly ido l o ut law
dis h das h t is s ue
t ack do ck de ck duck do g t o ga t w ig dik e at t ic
do v e div e t affy T V t hie f
t ub t ap e do p e de b t ube de p o t
no s e ne w s he nho us e no o s e k ne e s
ne t nut k no t hunt w indo w w and w ind k night nude ant aunt
nun no o n o nio n no un
gno m e nam e e ne m y
N e r o w inne r H e nr y w ie ne r w ine r y
nail k ne e l N e llie N ile
no t ch N as h w inch hinge niche w e nch
hank y nag ne ck nick w ink ink I nca
k nav e k nife N av y ne p he w e nv o y
k no b ho ne ybe e nap
m ice m o us e m o o s e m o s s m aze ham s Me s s iah m as s m e s s
m at m it t m e at m at e m ud m o t h m o ut h m aid m e ado w m o at
m o o n m an m ane m o ne y m ine w o m an hum an
Miam i m o m m um m y m am a m im e
m ayo r m o w e r m o o r ham m e r m yr r h
m ail m ule m ale m e al m o le m ill m all
m at ch m o o ch m us h m e s h im age
m ug m ik e ham m o ck
m uff m o v ie
m o p m ap m o b am o e ba im p
r o s e r ice ho r s e r ays e ar s r ace he ar s e w ar e ho us e ir is
r o t r o ad he ar t w ar t r o d r e e d yar d r adio r ut ar t e ar t h he r d w r e at h
221 Appendix: Keywords for the Phonetic System
42 r am r uin he r o n ho r n R hine ir o n ur n
43 r am r o o m har e m w o r m r um ar m ar m y R o m e
44 r o w e r r o ar r e ar e r r o r har r ie r w ar r io r aur o r a
45 r o ll r ail r e e l r o le r ule r ailw ay
46 r o ach r o uge r as h r idge r ich r aja R us s ia ar ch
47 r o ck r ak e r ag r ack r ug ar c ar k
48 r o o f r e e f w har f
49 har p r o p e r ib r o be r abbi he r b r uby
50 hails hills lace lo us e lice las s o e w alls halls
51 lo t le ad lo o t haile d light w alle t lady e ye lid lid
52 line lo o n lio n lane law n
53 lo o m lim e he lm lam b llam a lim b e lm
5 4 lyr e lair lur e le e r law ye r
55 lily lo lly Lulu
5 6 le dge le e ch lat ch lo dge
5 7 lo g lak e lo ck le ak le g e lk
58 lo af e lf lav a le af w o lf
5 9 lip lab lap lo o p lo bby alp e lbo w
60 he dge s che e s e juice s ho e s chais e che s s as he s
61 s he e t chut e je t w as he d jade s hade s hado w s he d
62 chin gin je an ge ne chain o ce an C hina
63 ge m gym jam chum chim e
64 s ho r e jar che e r chair jur y s ho w e r s he r r y us he r w as he r
65 je w e l jail Je ll- 0 s hale chili s haw l je lly
66 has his h judge cho o - cho o
67 jack jug s ho ck jo ck chalk che ck s he ik jo ck e y chick
68 che f chie f s hav e s ho v e jav a C he v y chaff
69 s hip s ho p cho p jo b jab s he e p je e p chip
70 cas e gas ho gs w igs w ick s w ax o x go o s e co w s ax k is s gauze
71 cat co at go at co d k id gat e co t k it e caddie act
72 C ain cane can co in go w n gun w ago n co o n que e n cano e
73 co m b gam e gum cam co m m a co m a
74 car co r e ge ar cr y cho ir cr o w
75 co al co il go al gill gale k e e l quail e agle gho ul glue
76 cage cas h gauge co uch co ach
77 cak e co o k gag co g k e g co ck
78 calf gaff cuff cav e co ffe e co v e
79 cab hiccup cup cap cap e co b go b co o p cube cub
80 face fe z fus e ho o fs w av e s hiv e s w iv e s v as e o ffice
81 fe e d fo o d fe e t fo o t v o t e p ho t o
82 v e in fin fan v ane v an o v e n he av e n p ho ne v ine faw n
83 fo am fam e fum e v im
2 2 2 A PPE N D I X : K E Y W O R D S FO R T H E PH O N E T I C S Y S T E M
8 4 fir e w e av e r w afe r fr y he ife r fur fair y fir iv o r y
8 5 v e il fly filly v e al fo al fo w l fo il flue fle a v alle y
86 fudge fis h v o yage e ffigy
8 7 fig fo g fak e hav o c
88 fife fiv e
8 9 fo b fib fo p VI P
90 p ie s be e s bo w s bo ys p e as bas e bus p izza abys s
91 be at p o t p ad be ad p it bo o t bo at p at h bat p o e t be d bo dy
92 p in be an bun bo ne p an p ine p ane p o ny p iano p e n p e nny p aw n
93 bo m b bo o m be am bum p o e m p um a o p ium
9 4 bo ar p e ar p r ay be e r p ie r bar be r r y o p e r a
95 bill bo w l be ll p ile p ill p lo w ap p le p ail ball p illo w bull e ye ball
9 6 p e ach p at ch be ach p it ch bus h p age badge
9 7 bag bug p e g p ig back p ack p ick p uck bo o k be ak bo uque t
98 p av e p uff be e f be e hiv e buff
99 baby p ip e p o p Po p e p up p y p ap a
100 dis e as e t he s is do s e s dio ce s e dais ie s
Chapter Notes
E ach t im e a s o ur ce is cit e d aft e r t he fir s t t im e , it is ide nt ifie d by t he las t
nam e o f t he aut ho r and t he chap t e r and r e fe r e nce num be r w he r e it w as
fir s t cit e d. Fo r e xam p le , "H unt e r ( 1/5)" in chap t e r 1, r e fe r e nce 9, m e ans
t hat t his is t he s am e s o ur ce o r iginally cit e d in chap t e r 1, r e fe r e nce 5.
C H A P T E R 1
1. F. I . M. C r aik , "Par adigm s in H um an Me m o r y R e s e ar ch," in perspectives on
Learning and Memory, e d. L. N ils s o nandT . Ar che r ( H ills dale , N .J.: E r lbaum , 1985),
200.
2. M. K. Jo hns o n and L. H as he r , "H um an Le ar ning and Me m o r y," in Annual
Review of Psychologyv o l. 38, e d. M. R . R o s e nzw e ig and L. W . Po r t e r ( Palo Alt o ,
C alif.: Annual R e v ie w s , I nc., 1987), 631-68.
3. B. J. U nde r w o o d, Attributes of Memory( Gle nv ie w , 111.: S co t t , Fo r e s m an &
C o ., 1983).
4. W e chs le r N . Br o o k s and N . B. Linco ln, "As s e s s m e nt fo r R e habilit at io n," in
Clinical Management of Memory Problems, e d. B. A. W ils o n and N . Mo ffat ( Lo ndo n:
C r o o m H e lm , 1984), 28- 45. N ine s cale s L. W . Po o n, "D iffe r e nce s in H um an
Me m o r y W it h Aging: N at ur e , C aus e s , and C linical Ap p licat io ns ," in Handbook of the
Psychology of Aging, 2d e d., e d. J. E . Bir r e n and K. W . S chaie ( N e w Y o r k : Van
N o s t r and R e inho ld, 1985), 427- 62.
5. I . M. L. H unt e r , Memory, r e v . e d. ( Middle s e x, E ngland: Pe nguin Bo o k s
Lt d., 1964), 282- 83.
2 2 3
2 2 4 C H A PT E R N O T E S
6. R . F. C ar ls o n, J. P. Kincaid, S . Lance , and T . H o dgs o n, "S p o nt ane o us U s e o f
Mne m o nics and Gr ade Po int Av e r age ," The Journal of Psychology92 ( 1976): 117-22;
B. J. Zim m e r m an and M. M. Po ns , "D e v e lo p m e nt o f a S t r uct ur e d I nt e r v ie w fo r
As s e s s ing S t ude nt U s e o f S e lf- r e gulat e d Le ar ning S t r at e gie s ," American Educational
Research Journal23 ( 1986): 614- 28.
7. P. R . Pint r ich, D . R . C r o s s , R . B. Ko zm an, and W . J. McKe achie , "I ns t r uc-
t io nal Ps ycho lo gy," in R o s e nzw e ig and Po r t e r ( 1/2, v o l. 37, 1986), 611- 51; M.
Pr e s s le y, J. G. Bo r k o w s k i, and W . S chne ide r , "Go o d S t r at e gy U s e r s C o o r dinat e
Me t aco gnit io n, S t r at e gy U s e , and Kno w le dge ," in Annals of Child Development, v o l.
4, e d. R . Vas t a and G. W hit e hur s t ( Gr e e nw ich, C o nn.: JAI Pr e s s , 1987), 89- 129.
8. S cho o lingM.T . Ziv ian and R . W . D ar je s , "Fr e e R e call By In- S cho o l and
O ut -o f-S cho o l Adult s : Pe r fo r m ance and Me t am e m o r y," Developmental Psychology19
( 1983): 513- 20. H abit s G. E . R ice and B. J. F. Me ye r , "T he R e lat io n o f E v e r yday
Act iv it ie s o f Adult s t o T he ir Pr o s e R e call Pe r fo r m ance " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he
m e e t ing o f t he Am e r ican E ducat io nal R e s e ar ch As s o ciat io n, S an Fr ancis co , Ap r il
1986).
9. H unt e r ( 1/5), 14.
10. S o ur ce s fo r t his s e ct io n include 'J. E . Bir r e n and W . R . C unningham ,
"R e s e ar ch o n t he Ps ycho lo gy o f Aging: Pr incip le s , C o nce p t s and T he o r y," in Bir r e n
and S chaie ( 1/4), 3- 34; N . D at an, D . R o de he av e r , and F. H ughe s , "Adult D e v e lo p m e nt
and Aging," in R o s e nzw e ig and Po r t e r ( 1/2), 153- 80; Po o n( l/4); P. R o be r t s , "Me m o r y
S t r at e gy I ns t r uct io n w it h t he E lde r ly: W hat S ho uld Me m o r y T r aining Be t he T r aining
o f?" in Cognitive Strategy Research: Psychological Foundations, e d. M. Pr e s s le y and J.
R . Le v in ( N e w Y o r k : S p r inge r - Ve r lag, 1983), 75- 100.
11. S . L. W illis and K. W . S chaie , "Pr act ical I nt e llige nce in Lat e r Adult ho o d,"
in Practical Intelligence: Nature and Origins of Competence in the Everyday World, e d.
R . J. S t e r nbe r g and R . K. W agne r ( C am br idge : C am br idge U niv e r s it y Pr e s s , 1986),
236- 68.
12. Po o n ( 1/4); L. W . Po o n, L. W als h-S w e e ne y, and J. L. Fo zar d, "Me m o r y S k ill
T r aining fo r t he E lde r ly: S alie nt I s s ue s o n t he U s e o f I m age r y Mne m o nics ," in New
Directions in Memory and Aging, e d. L. W . Po o n, J. L. Fo zar d, L. S . C e r m ak , D .
Ar e nbe r g, and L. W . T ho m p s o n ( H ills dale , N .J.: E r lbaum , 1980), 461- 84; C . L.
McE v o y and J. R . Mo o n, "As s e s s m e nt and T r e at m e nt o f E v e r yday Me m o r y Pr o ble m s
in t he E lde r ly," in Practical Aspects of Memory: Current Research and Issues, e d. M.
M. Gr une be r g, P. E . Mo r r is , and R . N . S yk e s ( C hiche s t e r , E ngland: W ile y, in p r e s s
1988).
13. M. Pr e s s le y and C . J. Br aine r d, Cognitive Learning and Memory in Chil-
dren: Progress in Cognitive Development Research( N e w Y o r k : S p r inge r - Ve r lag, 1985);
H . S . W at e r s and C . Andr e as s e n, "C hildr e n's U s e o f Me m o r y S t r at e gie s unde r
I ns t r uct io n," in Pr e s s le y and Le v in ( 1/10).
14. Fir s t e xam p le S . W it t , How to Be Twice as Smart( W e s t N yack , N . Y .:
Par k e r Publis hing C o ., 1983), 7. S e co nd e xam p le L. Be llis t o n and C . Mayfie ld,
Speed Learning, Super Recall ( W o o dland H ills , U t ah: S B Publis he r s , 1983), 10.
15. W . Jam e s , Principles of Psychology, v o l. 1 ( N e w Y o r k : H e nr y H o lt & C o .,
1890). T w e lv e -ye ar -o lds S . A. Me dnick , H . R . Po llio , and E . F. Lo ft us , Learning,
2d e d. ( E ngle w o o d C liffs , N .J.: Pr e nt ice - H all, 1973), 131. C o lle ge s t ude nt s K. A.
Chapter Notes 2 2 5
E r ics s o n and W . G. C has e , "E xce p t io nal Me m o r y," American Scientist 70 ( 1982):
607- 15.
16. Fo r m o r e dis cus s io n o f m e nt al dis cip line s e e M. L. Biggs , Learning Theories
for Teachers, 4t h e d. ( N e w Y o r k : H ar p e r & R o w , 1982), 24- 33, 256- 59.
17. H .. Lo r ayne , How to Develop a Super-Power Memory ( N e w Y o r k : N e w
Am e r ican Libr ar y, 1974, o r iginally p ublis he d in 1957), 138.
18. T he s o ur ce s o f t he t hr e e quo t e s ar e , r e s p e ct iv e ly, R . L. Mo nt go m e r y,
Memory Made Easy( N e w Y o r k : AMO C O M, 1981), 11; Be llis t o n and Mayfie ld ( 1/14),
10; and W it t ( 1/14), 4.
19. 4 p e r ce nt C . R o s e , Accelerated Learning( E ngland: T o p az Publis hing Lt d.,
1985), 5. 1 p e r ce nt T . Buzan, Making the Most of Your Mind( N e w Y o r k : S im o n and
S chus t e r , 1984), 13.
20. R o s e ( 1/19), 26.
21. W it t ( 1/14), 4.
C H A P T E R 2
1. R . J. Bar o n, The Cerebral Computer: An Introduction to the Computational
Structure of the Human Brain( H ills dale , N . J .: E r lbaum , 1987).
2. Pint r ich e t al. ( 1/7).
3. A. Badde le y, Your Memory: A User's Guide( N e w Y o r k : MacMillan, 1982); V.
H . Gr e gg, Introduction to Human Memory ( Lo ndo n: R o ut le dge and Ke gan Pat fl,
1986); E . Lo ft us , Memory( R e ading, Mas s .: Addis o n- W e s le y, 1980); L. S t e r n, The
Structures and Strategies of Human Memory( H o m e w o o d, I U .: D o r s e y Pr e s s , 1985);
A. W ingfie ld and D . L. Byr ne s , The Psychology of Human Memory ( N e w Y o r k :
Acade m ic Pr e s s , 1981); E . B. Ze chm e is t e r and S . E . N ybe r g, Human Memory: An
Introduction to Research and Theory( Mo nt e r e y, C alif.: Br o o k s /C o le , 1982).
4. P. Mut e r , "Ve r y R ap id Fo r ge t t ing," Memory & Cognition8 ( 1980): 174- 79.
5. J . J. W at k ins and T . M. Gr ae fe , "D e laye d R e he ar s al o f Pict ur e s ," Journal of
Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior20 ( 1981): 276- 88.
6. R . F. S chilling and G. E . W e av e r , "E ffe ct s o f E xt r ane o us Ve r bal I nfo r m at io n
o n Me m o r y fo r T e le p ho ne N um be r s ," Journal of Applied Psychology68 ( 1983): 559-
64.
7. E lde r lyPo o n ( 1/4); O r ie nt al cult ur e s v e r s us W e s t e r n cult ur e s B. Y u, W .
C hang, Q. Jing, R . Pe ng, G. Zhang, and H . A. S im o n, "S T M C ap acit y fo r C hine s e
and E nglis h Language Mat e r ials ,"Memory & Cognition13 ( 1983): 202- 07.
8. H . A. S im o n, "H o w Big I s a C hunk ?" Science183 ( 1974): 482- 88.
9. D . H . H o lding, The Psychology of Chess Skill ( H ills dale , N . J .: E r lbaum ,
1985). J . D . Milo jk o v ic, "C he s s I m age r y in N o v ice and Mas t e r ," Journal of Mental
Imagery6 ( 1982): 125- 44.
10. K. A. E r ics s o n and H . A. S im o n, Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data
( C am br idge , Mas s .: MI T Pr e s s , 1984).
11. R . R . Bo o t zin, G. H . Bo w e r , R . B. Zajo nc, and E . H all, Psychology Tbday:
An Introduction, 6t h e d. ( N e w Y o r k : R ando m H o us e , 1986), 222,
12. W . F. Br e w e r and J . R . Pani, "T he S t r uct ur e o f H um an Me m o r y," in The
Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory, v o l. 17, e d.
G. H . Bo w e r ( N e w Y o r k : Acade m ic Pr e s s , 1983), 1- 38; E . H alv ing, "H o w Many
Me m o r y S ys t e m s Ar e T he r e ?" American Psychologist40 ( 1985): 385- 98.
13. w. Pe nfie ld, The Mystery of the Mind( Pr ince t o n: Pr ince t o n U niv e r s it y
Pr e s s , 1975). S o m e p s ycho lo gis t s hav e ar gue d t hat s uch e v ide nce do e s no t ne ce s s ar -
ily p r o v e t hat all m e m o r ie s ar e p e r m ane nt . S e e E . Lo ft us and G. Lo ft us , "O n t he
Pe r m ane nce o f S t o r e d I nfo r m at io n in t he H um an Br ain," American Psychologist 35
( 1980): 409- 20; but co m p ar e M. B. Ar no ld, Memory and the Brain( H ills dale , N . J.:
E r lbaum , 1984), 50- 52.
14. Fo r m o r e info r m at io n abo ut K. F. s e e T . S hallice and E . K. W ar r ingt o n,
"I nde p e nde nt Funct io ning o f Ve r bal Me m o r y S t o r e s : A N e ur o p s ycho lo gical S t udy,"
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology22 ( 1970): 261- 73. Fo r m o r e info r m at io n
abo ut H . M. s e e B. Milne r , "Am ne s ia Fo llo w ing O p e r at io n o n t he T e m p o r al Lo be s ,"
in Amnesia, e d. C . W . M. W hit t y and O . L. Zangw ill ( Lo ndo n: But t e r w o r t h & C o .,
1966), 109- 33.
15. R . L. Klat zk y, Human Memory: Structures and Processes, 2d e d. ( S an
Fr ancis co : W . H . Fr e e m an & C o ., 1980), 88.
16. T he s e ar e t he t hr e e m o s t co m m o n dir e ct m e as ur e s o f m e m o r y, alt ho ugh
t he r e ar e o t he r dir e ct and indir e ct m e as ur e s Jo hns o n and H as he r ( 1/2).
17. 600 p air s R . N . S he p ar d, "R e co gnit io n Me m o r y fo r W o r ds , S e nt e nce s and
Pictures," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior6 ( 1967): 156- 63. Pe r fo r m -
ance o f t he e lde r lyPo o n ( 1/4).
18. H . P. Bahr ick , D . O . Bahr ick , and R . P. W it t linge r , "Fift y Y e ar s o f Me m o r y
fo r N am e s and Face s : A C r o s s - s e ct io nal Ap p r o ach "Journal of Experimental Psychol-
ogy 104 ( 1975): 54- 75.
19. L. K. Gr o ninge r and L. D . Gr o ninge r , "A C o m p ar is o n o f R e co gnit io n and
S av ings as R e t r ie v al Me as ur e s : A R e e xam inat io n," Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society
15 ( 1980): 263- 66.
20. H . P. Bahr ick , "Me m o r y fo r Pe o p le ," in Everyday Memory, Actions, and
Absent-mindedness, e d. J. E . H ar r is and P. E . Mo r r is ( Lo ndo n: Acade m ic Pr e s s ,
1984), 19- 34.
21. H . E . Bur t t , "An E xp e r im e nt al S t udy o f E ar ly C hildho o d Me m o r y: Final
R e p o r t ," Journal of Genetic Psychology58 ( 1941): 435- 39.
22. D . L. H o r t o n and C . B. Mills , "H um an Le ar ning and Me m o r y," in R o s e n-
zw e ig and Po r t e r ( 1/2, Vo l. 35., 1984), 361- 94.
23. G. R e e d, "E v e r yday Ano m alie s o f R e call and R e co gnit io n," in Functional
Disorders of Memory, e d. J. F. Kihls t r o m and F. J. E v ans ( H ills dale , N .J.: E r lbaum ,
1979), 1- 28.
24. Mo s t o f t he r e s e ar ch in t his s e ct io n has be e n s um m ar ize d by J. R e as o n, and
K. Mycie ls k a, Absent-minded? The Psychology of Mental Lapses and Everyday Errors
( E ngle w o o d C liffs , N .J.: Pr e nt ice - H all, 1982); J. R e as o n and D . Lucas , "U s ing
C o gnit iv e D iar ie s t o I nv e s t igat e N at ur ally O ccur r ing Me m o r y Blo ck s ," in H ar r is and
Mo r r is ( 2/20), 53- 70.
25. A. D . Y ar m e y, "I R e co gnize Y o ur Face but I C an't R e m e m be r Y o ur N am e :
Fur t he r E v ide nce o n t he T ip -o f-t he -T o ngue Phe no m e no n," Memory & Cognition3
( 1973): 287- 90; L. T . Ko zlo w s k i, "E ffe ct s o f D is t o r t e d Audit o r y and o f R hym ing C ue s
o n R e t r ie v al o f T ip -o f-t he -T o ngue W o r ds by Po e t s and N o np o e t s ," Memory & Cogni-
245 Chapter Notes
Hon 5 ( 1977): 477- 81; H . Law le s s and T . E nge n, "As s o ciat io ns t o O do r s : I nt e r fe r -
e nce , Mne m o nics , and Ve r bal Labe ling," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
Learning and Memory3 ( 1977): 52- 59.
26. R e s e ar chBo o n ( 1/4). D iar yD . Bur k e , "I 'll N e v e r Fo r ge t W hat 's H is
N am e : Aging and t he T ip -o f-t he -T o ngue E xp e r ie nce ," in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 1/12).
C H A P T E R 3
1. J. D e e s e , "O n t he Pr e dict io n o f O ccur r e nce o f Par t icular Ve r bal I nt r us io ns in
I m m e diat e R e call, "Journal of Experimental Psychology58 ( 1959): 17- 22.
2. R . J. H ar r is , "I nfe r e nce s in I nfo r m at io n Pr o ce s s ing," in Bo w e r ( 2/12, v o l. 15,
1981), 82- 128.
3. A. Laye r s o n, e d., Psychology Today: An Introduction, 3d e d. ( N e w Y o r k :
R ando m H o us e , I nc., 1985), 111.
4. S yllable s - r - H . E bbinghaus , Memory( N e w Y o r k : C o lum bia U niv e r s it y Pr e s s ,
1913. Ge r m any, 1885). S p anis hH . P. Bahr ick , "S e m ant ic Me m o r y C o nt e xt in
Pe r m as t o r e : 50 Y e ar s o f Me m o r y fo r S p anis h Le ar ne d in S cho o l," Journal of Experi-
mental Psychology: General 113 ( 1984): 1- 29. D r ugs , am ne s iaP. E . Go ld, "S w e e t
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5. H o r t o n and Mills ( 2/22).
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Chapter Notes 229
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Br uce , C . R . E v ans , P. B. C . Fe nw ick , and V. S p e nce r , "E ffe ct o f Pr e s e nt ing N o v e l
Ve r bal Mat e r ial D ur ing S lo w -W av e Sleep,"Nature225 ( 1970): 873- 74. Adv e r t is ing
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26. F, j. E v ans and W . O r char d, "S le e p Le ar ning: T he S ucce s s ful W ak ing R e call
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27. A. Gr o s v e no r and L. D . Lack , "T he E ffe ct o f S le e p Be fo r e o r Aft e r
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C H A P T E R 4
1. D . O . Lyo n, "T he R e lat io n o f Le ngt h o f Mat e r ial t o T im e T ak e n fo r Le ar ning
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R e call o f I de as Le ar ne d w it h a Vis ual Mne m o nic" ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f
t he W e s t e r n Ps ycho lo gical As s o ciat io n, S an Jo s e , C alif., Ap r il 1985). E lde r lyPo o n
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McC allin, "C o gnit iv e S t r at e gie s in Le ar ning Map s " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing
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Chapter Notes 2 3 1
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O bje ct ," Cognitive Psychology11 ( 1979): 287-307.
30. L. S . C e r m ak , Improving Your Memory( N e w Y o r k : McGr aw - H ill, 1976), 27.
31. M. C . W it t r o ck , "S t ude nt s ' T ho ught Pr o ce s s e s ," in Handbook of Research
on Teaching, 3de d., e d. M. C . W it t r o ck ( N e w Y o r k : Macm illan, 1986), 297-314.
C H A P T E R 5
1. D . A. Be k e r ian and A. D . Badde le y, "S at ur at io n Adv e r t is ing and t he R e p e t i-
t io n E ffe ct "Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior19 ( 1980): 17-25; A. M.
Gle nbe r g and M. M. Br adle y, "Me nt al C o nt iguit y," Journal of Experimental Psychol-
ogy: Human Learning and Memory5 ( 1979): 88- 97.
2. S cho o l bo yJ. Br o t he r s and E . P. F. E agan, Ten Days to a Successful Memory
( E ngle w o o d C liffs , N .J.: Pr e nt ice - H all, 1957), 61. Pr o fe s s o r S anfo r dE . C . S anfo r d,
"Pr o fe s s o r S anfo r d's Mo r ning Pr aye r ," in N e is s e r ( 3/21), 176-77.
3. W ick e lgr e n ( 4/19).
4. W . C . F. Kr ue ge r , "T he E ffe ct o f O v e r le ar ning o n R e t e nt io n," Journal of
Experimental Psychology12 ( 1929): 71-78. S e e als o T . 0. N e ls o n, R . J. Lo ne s io , A.
P. S him am ur a, R . F. Landw e hr , and L. N ar e ns , "O v e r le ar ning and t he Fe e ling o f
Kno w ing," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition8
( 1982): 279- 88.
5. Bahr ick ( 2/20).
6. N e ls o n e t al. ( 5/4).
7. R . F. Maye r , "C an Y o u R e p e at T hat ? Qualit at iv e E ffe ct s o f R e p e t it io n and
Adv ance O r ganize r s o n Le ar ning fr o m S cie nce Pr o s e ," Journal of Educational Psy-
chology75 ( 1983); 40- 49.
8. Many o f t he e xam p le s and r e s e ar ch r e p o r t e d in t his s e ct io n ar e fr o m Lo ft us
( 2/3); Pint r ich e t al. ( 1/7); I . G. S ar as o n, e d., Test Anxiety: Theory, Research and
Application( H ills dale , N .J.: E r lbaum , 1980); andH . M. VanD e r Plo e g, R . S chw ar ze r ,
and C . D . S p ie lbe r ge r , e d., Advances in Test Anxiety Research, v o l. 3 ( H ills dale , N .J.:
E r lbaum , 1984).
9. J. C . C av anaugh, J. G. Gr ady, and M. Ps r lm ut t e r , "Fo r ge t t ing and U s e o f
Me m o r y Aids in 20- t o 70-Y e ar -O lds ' E v e r yday Life ," International Journal of Aging
and Human Development17 ( 1983): 113- 22.
10. Anxie t y int e r fe r e nce no t cle ar Pint r ich e t al. ( 1/7). E nco ding, o r ganizing,
r e t r ie v ingW . J. McKe achie , "D o e s Anxie t y D is r up t I nfo r m at io n Pr o ce s s ing o r D o e s
Po o r I nfo r m at io n Pr o ce s s ing Le ad t o Anxie t y?," International Review of Applied
Psychology 33 ( 1984): 187-203. T hr e e s o ur ce s J. L. D e ffe nbache r and S . L.
H azale us , "C o gnit iv e , E m o t io nal, and Phys io lo gical C o m p o ne nt s o f T e s t Anxie t y,"
Cognitive Therapy and Research9 ( 1985): 169- 80.
Chapter Notes 2 3 3
11. T e chnique s S ar as o n ( 5/8); D . C . Lap p ,Don't Forget: Easy Exercises for a
Better Memory at Any Age( N e w Y o r k : McGr aw H ill, 1987). E lde r lyJ. A. Y e s av age ,
"R e laxat io n and Me m o r y T r aining in 39 E lde r ly Pat ie nt s ," American Journal of
Psychiatry141 ( 1984): 778- 81; J. A. Y e s av age and R . Jaco b, "E ffe ct s o f R e laxat io n
and Mne m o nics o n Me m o r y, At t e nt io n and Anxie t y in t he E lde r ly," Experimental
Aging Research10 ( 1984): 211- 14. At hle t ics J. E . T ur nur e and J. F. Lane , "S p e cial
E ducat io nal Ap p licat io ns o f Mne m o nics ," in McD anie l and Pr e s s le y ( 3/10), 329- 57.
12. N e ls o n e t al. ( 5/4).
13. S t udy s k ills C . E . W e ins t e in and V. L. U nde r w o o d, "Le ar ning S t r at e gie s :
T he H o w o f Le ar ning," in Thinking and Learning Skills: Relating Instruction to
Research, v o l. 1, e d. J. W . S e gal, S . F. C hip m an, and R . Glas e r ( H ills dale , N .J.:
E r lbaum , 1985), 241- 58. Le ar ning S t r at e gy C o ur s e W . J. McKe achie , P. R . Pint r ich,
and Y . G. Lin, "Le ar ning t o Le ar n," in Cognition, Information Processing, and
Motivation, e d. G. d'Y dw e lle ( Am s t e r dam : E ls e v ie r , 1984), 601- 18.
14. K. Kir k land and J. G. H o llands w o r t h, Jr ., "E ffe ct iv e T e s t T ak ing: S k ills -
Acquis it io n Ve r s us Anxie t y- R e duct io n T e chnique s , "Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology48 ( 1980): 431- 39.
15. R e as o n and Lucas ( 2/24).
16. T he s e s t udie s and o t he r s ar e de s cr ibe d by S t e r n ( 2/3); Jo hns o n and H as he r
( 1/2); and A. Me m o n and V. Br uce , "C o nt e xt E ffe ct s in E p is o dic S t udie s o f Ve r bal and
Facial Me m o r y: "A R e v ie w ," Current Psychological Research & Reviews4 ( 1985), 349-
69.
17. I m aginingS . M. S m it h, "R e m e m be r ing I n and O ut o f C o nt e xt , "Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory5 ( 1979): 460- 71. Pur p o s e ly
as s o ciat ingE . E ich, "C o nt e xt , Me m o r y, and I nt e gr at e d I t e m /C o nt e xt I m age r y,"
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 11 ( 1985):
764- 70.
18. S . M. S m it h, "E nhance m e nt o f R e call U s ing Mult ip le E nv ir o nm e nt al C o n-
t e xt s D ur ing Le ar ning," Memory & Cognition10 ( 1982): 405- 12.
19. D . M. Lande r s , "Me nt al Pr act ice and I m age r y in S p o r t s " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d
at t he Am e r ican I m age r y C o nfe r e nce , N e w Y o r k , N o v e m be r 1987). R . M. S uinn,
"I m age r y and S p o r t s ," in S he ik h ( 3/8), 507- 34.
20. S t at is t ics co ur s e S . M. S m it h and E . Z. R o t hk o p f, "Var ying E nv ir o nm e nt al
C o nt e xt o f Le s s o ns t o C o m p e ns at e fo r Mas s e d T e aching" ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he
m e e t ing o f t he Am e r ican E ducat io nal R e s e ar ch As s o ciat io n, N e w Y o r k , 1982.) C it e d
in S m it h ( 5/18). Pat ie nt s A. D . Badde le y, "Me m o r y T he o r y and Me m o r y T he r ap y,"
in W ils o n and Mo ffat ( 1/4), 5- 27, s e e p age 26.
21. D r ugs , m o o ds P. H . Blane y, "Affe ct and Me m o r y: A Review,"Psychologi-
cal Bulletin99 ( 1986): 229- 46; D . A. O v e r t o n, "C o nt e xt ual S t im ulus E ffe ct s o f D r ugs
and I nt e r nal S t at e s ," in Context and Learning, e d. P. D . Bals am and A. T o m ie
( H ills dale , N .J.: E r lbaum , 1985); G. Lo w e , "S t at e - D e p e nde nt R e t r ie v al E ffe ct s w it h
S o cial D r ugs ," in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 1/12). W o r ds , p ict ur e s S . M. S m it h, A.
Gle nbe r g, and R . A. Bjo r k , "E nv ir o nm e nt al C o nt e xt and H um an Me m o r y," Memory
& Cognition6 ( 1978): 342- 53; E . W ino gr ad and S . D . Lynn, "R o le o f C o nt e xt ual
I m age r y in As s o ciat iv e R e call," Memory & Cognition7 ( 1979): 29- 34.
22. L. Bak e r and J. L. S ant a, "C o nt e xt , I nt e gr at io n, and R e t r ie v al," Memory &
Cognition5 ( 1977): 308- 14.
23. S t r o ngS . M. S m it h and E . Ve la, ".O ut s hining: T he R e lat iv e E ffe ct iv e ne s s
o f C ue s " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he Ps ycho no m ic S o cie t y, N e w O r le ans ,
N o v e m be r 1986); Jo hns o n and H as he r ( 1/2). Me as ur e dR . A. Bjo r k and A. R ichar d-
s o n-Klav e hn, "C o nt e xt R e ins t at e m e nt and H um an Me m o r y: A T he o r e t ical T axo no m y
o f E m p ir ical E ffe ct s " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he Ps ycho no m ic S o cie t y,
S e at t le , N o v e m be r 1987).
24. Br o t he r s and E gan ( 5/2), 24. O n t he im p o r t ance o f int e r e s t s e e S . H idi and
W . Bair d, "I nt e r e s t ingne s s A N e gle ct e d Var iable in D is co ur s e Pr o ce s s ing," Cogni-
tive Science10 ( 1986): 179- 94.
25. H unt e r ( 1/5), 122.
26. C hildr e nB. A. Ke nne dy and D . J. Mille r , "Pe r s is t e nt U s e o f Ve r bal
R e he ar s al as a Funct io n o f I nfo r m at io n Abo ut I t s Value ," Child Development47 ( 1976):
566- 69. Adjus t m e nt s J. M. S as s e nr at h, "T he o r y and R e s ult s o n Fe e dback and
R e t e nt io n," Journal of Educational Psychology67 ( 1975): 894- 99.
27. R . E . LaPo r t e and J. F. Vo s s , "R e t e nt io n o f Pr o s e Mat e r ials as a Funct io n
o f Po s t acquis it io n T e s t ing," Journal ofEducational Psychology67 ( 1975): 259- 66. S e e
als o K. A. Kie w r a and S . L. Be nt o n, "T he E ffe ct s o f H ighe r - O r de r R e v ie w Que s t io ns
w it h Fe e dback o n Achie v e m e nt Am o ng Le ar ne r s W ho T ak e N o t e s o r R e ce iv e t he
I ns t r uct o r 's N o t e s ," Human Learning4 ( 1985): 225- 31; and A. W . S alm o ni, R . A.
S chm idt , and C . B. W alt e r , "Kno w le dge o f R e s ult s and Mo t o r Le ar ning: A R e v ie w
and C r it ical Ap p r ais al," Psychological Bulletin95 ( 1984): 355- 86.
28. C o r r e ct iv e fe e dback Br o p hy ( 4/20). I ns t r uct o r Pr o gr am R . Van H o ut e n,
Learning Through Feedback: A Systematic Approach for Improving Academic Perform-
ance( N e w Y o r k : H um an S cie nce s Pr e s s , 1980).
29. J. F. King, E . B. Ze chm e is t e r , and J. J. S haughne s s y, "Judgm e nt s o f
Kno w ing: T he I nflue nce o f R e t r ie v al Pr act ice ," American Journal of Psychology93
( 1980): 329- 43.
C H A P T E R 6
1. S cho o l s k ills ar e dis cus s e d in R . C ar m an and W . R . Adam s , Study Skills: A
Students Guide for Survival ( N e w Y o r k : W ile y, 1985); C . T . Mo r gan and J. D e e s e ,
How to Study, 2d e d. ( N e w Y o r k : McGr aw - H ill, 1979); W . Plauk , How to Study in
College, 3d e d. ( Bo s t o n: H o ught o n Mifflin, 1984).
2. S t udy t im e U nde r w o o d ( 1/3). N ar r o w r ange o f le ar ning s t r at e gie s J. S no w -
m an, "Le ar ning T act ics and S t r at e gie s ," in Cognitive Classroom Learning: Under-
standing, Thinking, and Problem Solving, e d. G. D . Phye and T . Andr e ( N e w Y o r k :
Acade m ic Pr e s s , 1986), 243- 75. Go o d s t ude nt s S . F. C hip m an and J. W . S e gal,
"H ighe r C o gnit iv e Go als fo r E ducat io n: An I nt r o duct io n," in S e gal e t al. ( 5/13), 1- 19.
3. W e ins t e in and U nde r w o o d ( 5/13).
4. B. H aye s -R o t h, "E v o lut io n o f C o gnit iv e S t r uct ur e and Pr o ce s s e s ," Psycholog-
ical Review84 ( 1977): 260- 78.
5. D . I . Ande r s o n and J. L. Bye r s , "E ffe ct s o f T e s t I t e m s and D e gr e e o f
S im ilar it y up o n I nt e r fe r e nce in Le ar ning fr o m Pr o s e Mat e r ials ," Psychological Reports
42 ( 1978): 591- 600.
6. J. W . Fage n and C . R o v e e - C o llie r , "Me m o r y R e t r ie v al: A T im e -Lo ck e d
Pr o ce s s in I nfe ncy," Science222 ( 1983): 1349-51.
Chapter Notes 2 3 5
7. Jo hns o n and H as he r ( 1/2); W . N . R unquis t , "T he Ge ne r alit y o f t he E ffe ct s o f
S t r uct ur e S im ilar it y o n C ue D is cr im inat io n and R e call," Canadian Journal of Psychol-
ogy 37 ( 1983): 484- 97; B. Gunt e r , C . Be r r y, and B. R . C liffo r d, "Pr o act iv e I nt e r fe r -
e nce E ffe ct s w it h T e le v is io n N e w s I t e m s : Fur t he r Evidence," Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Human Learning and Memory7 ( 1981): 480- 87.
8. R o o m s B. Z. S t r and, "C hange o f C o nt e xt and R e t r o act iv e I nhibit io n,"
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior9 ( 1970): 202- 06. S p e ak e r s E . Z.
R o t hk o p f, D . G. Fis he r , and M. J. Billingt o n, "E ffe ct s o f S p at ial C o nt e xt D ur ing
Acquis it io n o n t he R e call o f At t r ibut e I nfo r m at io n," Journal of Experimental Psychol-
ogy: Learning, Memory, and Cognition8 ( 1982): 126- 38.
9. Fir s t s t udyB. J. U nde r w o o d and J. S . Fr e und, "E ffe ct o f T e m p o r al S e p ar a-
t io n o f T w o T as k s o n Pr o act iv e I nhibit io n," Journal of Educational Psychology 78
( 1968): 50- 54. S e co nd s t udyG. Ke p p e l, "Facilit at io n in S ho r t - and Lo ng- t e r m
R e t e nt io n o f Pair e d As s o ciat e s Fo llo w ing D is t r ibut e d Pr act ice in Le ar ning, "Journal of
Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior3 ( 1964): 91- 111.
10. S t r and ( 6/8).
11. Fir s t quo t e W ick e lgr e n ( 4/19), 39- 40. S e co nd quo t e U nde r w o o d ( 1/3),
218.
12. U .S . D e p t . o f E ducat io n, What Works ( 4/20), 39. W e ll- r e ce iv e dJ.
Bale s , "What Works: C o ns e ns us R e p o r t Ge t s Go o d Mar k s fr o m R e s e ar che r s ," APA
Monitor 17 ( May, 1986): 13; M. S . S m it h, "What Works, W o r k s !" Educational
Researcher15 ( Ap r il 1986): 29- 30; ho w e v e r , s e e G. V. Glas s , "What Works: Po lit ics
and R e s e ar ch," Educational Researcher16 ( Mar ch, 1987): 5- 10.
13. Fir s t s t udyK. C . Blo o m and T . J. S hue ll, "E ffe ct s o f Mas s e d and
D is t r ibut e d Pr act ice o n t he Le ar ning and R e t e nt io n o f S e co nd- Language Vo cabular y,"
Journal of Educational Research74 ( 1981): 245- 48. S e co nd s t udyA. D . Badde le y
and D . J . A. Lo ngm an, "T he I nflue nce o f Le ngt h and Fr e que ncy o f T r aining S e s s io ns
o n R at e o f Le ar ning t o T yp e ," Ergonomics21 ( 1978): 627- 35. T hir d s t udyBahr ick
( 3/4); s e e als o H . P. Bahr ick and E . Phe lp s , "R e t e nt io n o f S p anis h Vo cabular y O v e r 8
Y e ar s "Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13
( 1987): 344- 49.
14. R e v ie w ingJ. H . R e yno lds and R . Glas e r , "E ffe ct s o f R e p e t it io n and S p ace d
R e v ie w up o n R e t e nt io n o f a C o m p le x Le ar ning T as k "Journal of Educational Psychol-
ogy 55 ( 1964): 297- 308. T e achingF. N . D e m p s t e r , "T he S p acing E ffe ct and Allie d
Phe no m e na: E ducat io nal I m p licat io ns " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he Ps y-
cho no m ic S o cie t y, N e w O r le ans , N o v e m be r 1986); C . P. R e a and V. Mo digliani,
"E ducat io nal I m p licat io ns fo r t he S p acing E ffe ct ," in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 1/12). N am e s
Bahr ick ( 2/20). Face s A. G. Go lds t e in and J. E . C hance , "E nhance d Face R e co gni-
t io n Me m o r y Aft e r D is t r ibut e d Vie w ing" ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he
Ps ycho no m ic S o cie t y, S e at t le , N o v e m be r 1987).
15. C o ns o lidat e H . W e ingar t ne r and E . S . Par k e r , e d., Memory Consolidation:
Psychobiology of Cognition( H ills ide , N .J.: E r lbaum , 1984). Le ct ur e F. J. D i Ve s t a
and D . A. S m it h, "T he Paus ing Pr incip le : I ncr e as ing t he E fficie ncy o f Me m o r y fo r
O ngo ing E v e nt s ," Contemporary Educational Psychology 4( 1979): 288- 96; O t he r
p o s s ible r e as o ns fo r t he s p acing e ffe ct hav e als o be e n s ugge s t e d; s e e , fo r e xam p le ,
R . L. Gr e e ne , "S p acing E ffe ct s in Me m o r y: T he R o le o f R e he ar s al S t r at e gie s " ( p ap e r
p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he Ps ycho no m ic S o cie t y, S e at t le , N o v e m be r 1987).
16. R . M. Go r m an, Psychology of Classroom Learning( C o lum bus , O hio :
C har le s E . Me r r ill, 1974), 174; H unt e r ( 1/5), 135.
17. A. M. Gle nbe r g and T . S . Le hm an, "S p acing R e p e t it io ns o v e r 1 W e e k ,"
Memory & Cognition8 ( 1980): 528- 38.
18. D . C . C andland, Psychology: The Experimental Approach( N e w Y o r k : Mc-
Gr aw - H ill, 1968); J. M. S aw r e y and C . M. T e lfo r d, e ds ., Educational Psychology, 4t h
e d. ( Bo s t o n: Allyn & Baco n, 1973).
19. M. J. Br e e n and J. M. Jur e k , "S e r ial Le ar ning as a Funct io n o f Age and Par t
Ve r s us W ho le Le ar ning Pr o ce dur e s ," Psychological Reports36 ( 1975): 767-73.
20. H unt e r ( 1/5), 133.
21. Go r m an ( 6/16), 173.
22. A. E . D . S cho nfie ld, "Le ar ning, Me m o r y, and Aging," in Handbook of
Mental Health and Aging,e d. J. E . Bir r e n and R . B. S lo ane ( E ngle w o o d C liffs , N .J.:
Pr e nt ice - H all, 1980), 214- 44.
23. Fir s t s t udyV. P. O r lando and K . G. H ayw ar d, "A C o m p ar is o n o f t he
E ffe ct iv e ne s s o f T hr e e S t udy T e chnique s fo r C o lle ge S t ude nt s ," in Reading: Disci-
plined Inquiry in Process and Practice, e d. P. D . Pe ar s o n and J. H ans e n ( C le m s o n,
S .C .: N at io nal R e ading C o nfe r e nce , 1978), 242- 45. S e co nd s t udyC . P. T ho m p s o n,
S . J. W e nge r , and C . A. Bar t ling, "H o w R e call Facilit at e s S ubs e que nt R e call: A
R e ap p r ais al," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory4
( 1978): 210- 21. Fe e dback J. F. King, E . B. Ze chm e is t e r , and J. J. S haughne s s y,
"Judgm e nt s o f Kno w ing: T he I nflue nce o f R e t r ie v al Pr act ice ," American Journal of
Psychology93 ( 1980): 329- 43.
24. T e s t ingR . J. N unge s t e r and P. C . D uchas t e l, "T e s t ing Ve r s us R e v ie w :
E ffe ct s o n R e t e nt io n," Journal of Educational Psychology74 ( 1982): 18- 22; W . B.
W hit t e n and J. M. Le o nar d, "Le ar ning fr o m T e s t s : Facilit at io n o f D e laye d R e call by
I nit ial R e co gnit io n Alt e r nat iv e s , "Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning
and Memory6 ( 1980): 127- 34. C hildr e nT . Pe t r o s and K. H o v ing, "T he E ffe ct s o f
R e v ie w o n Y o ung C hildr e n's Me m o r y fo r Pr o s e ," Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology39 ( 1980): 33- 43.
25. Pauk ( 6/1), 94; H . C . E llis , Fundamentals of Human Learning, Memory,
and Cognition, 2d e d. ( D ubuque , I o w a; W . C . Br o w n, 1978), 125.
26. L. T . Fr as e and B. J. S chw ar t z, "E ffe ct o f Que s t io n Pr o duct io n and
Ans w e r ing o n Pr o s e R e call, "Journal of Educational Psychology67 ( 1975): 628- 35.
27. F. R o bins o n, Effective Study( N e w Y o r k : H ar p e r & R o w , 1946).
28. Ge ne r al- p ur p o s e s ys t e m s D . F. D ans e r e au, "Le ar ning S t r at e gy R e -
s e ar ch," in S e gal e t al. ( 5/13), 209- 39. R e ading t e xt bo o k H . S inge r and D . D o nlan,
Reading and Learning from Text{Bo s t o n: Lit t le , Br o w n, & C o ., 1980). Fo r a m o r e
e xt e ns iv e dis cus s io n s e e F. P. R o bins o n, Effective Study, 4t h e d. ( N e w Y o r k : H ar p e r
& R o w , 1970) and Mo r gan and D e e s e ( 6/1).
29. L. M. R e de r , "T e chnique s Av ailable t o Aut ho r , T e ache r , and R e ade r t o
I m p r o v e R e t e nt io n o f t he Main I de as o f a C hap t e r ," S e gal, and Glas e r in C hip m an
( 4/6), 37- 64; F. K. Aldr ich, "I m p r o v ing t he R e t e nt io n o f Aur ally Pr e s e nt e d I nfo r m a-
t io n," in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 1/12).
30. J. D . Br ans fo r d and M. K. Jo hns o n, "C o nt e xt ual p r e r e quis it e s fo r U nde r -
s t anding: S o m e I nv e s t igat io ns o f C o m p r e he ns io n and R e call," Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior 11( 1972): 717- 26.
Chapter Notes 237
31. Adv ance o r ganize r s - J. Luit e n, W . Am e s , and G. Ack e r s o n, "A Me t a-
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Chapter Notes 2 3 9
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36. C o lle ge s t ude nt s R . S o m m e r , The Mind's Eye: Imagery in Everyday Life
( N e w Y o r k : D e ll, 1978), 127; K. A. Blick and C . J. W ait e , "A S ur v e y o f Mne m o nic
T e chnique s U s e d by C o lle ge S t ude nt s in Fr e e - r e call Le ar ning," Psychological Reports
29 ( 1971): 76- 78. E nglis h co lle ge s t ude nt s and ho us e w iv e s H ar r is ( 7/7), 31- 38.
E lde r lyW ino gr ad and S im o n ( 7/17).
37. S no w m an ( 6/2).
38. Po s it iv e r e lat io ns hip be t w e e n r e call and r at e d v iv idne s s R . C . Ande r s o n
andj. L. H idde , "I m age r y and S e nt e nce Le ar ning," Journal of Educational Psychology
62 ( 1971): 526- 30. S e nt e nce s and p ar agr ap hs P. J. H o lm e s and D . J. Mur r ay, "Fr e e
R e call o f S e nt e nce s as a Funct io n o f I m age r y and Pr e dict abilit y," Journal of Experi-
mental Psychology102 ( 1974): 748- 50; W . E . Mo nt ague and J. F. C ar t e r , "Viv idne s s
o f I m age r y in R e calling C o nne ct e d D is co ur s e ," Journal of Educational Psychology 64
( 1973): 72- 75. Adje ct iv e s E . P. Kir chne r , "Viv idne s s o f Adje ct iv e s and t he R e call
o f Me aningful Ve r bal Mat e r ial," Psychonomic Science15 ( 1969): 71- 72. Fam ilar it y
B. A. Br ack e n, "R e lat iv e I m age - E v o k ing Abilit y o f Pe r s o nalize d and N o np e r s o nalize d
S e nt e nce s ," Journal of Mental Imagery 5 ( 1981): 121- 24. S o m e s t udie s hav e no t
fo und v iv idne s s e ffe ct s fo r v e r bal m at e r ials , due at le as t in p ar t t o diffe r e nce s in
de finit io ns and m e t ho ds ; s e e S . E . T aylo r and S . C . T ho m p s o n, "S t alk ing t he E lus iv e
'Viv idne s s ' E ffe ct ," Psychological Review89 ( 1982): 155- 81.
39. R . C . Ande r s o n, "C o ncr e t izat io n and S e nt e nce Le ar ning," Journal of Edu-
cational Psychology66 ( 1974): 179- 83; Ale s andr ini ( 4/27).
C H A P T E R 8
1. G. A. Mille r , E . Galant e r , and K. H . Pr ibr am , Plans and the Structure of
Behavior( N e w Y o r k : H o lt , 1960), 134.
2. W . H . Bur nham , "Me m o r y, H is t o r ically and E xp e r im e nt ally C o ns ide r e d: I .
An H is t o r ical S k e t ch o f t he O lde r C o nce p t io ns o f Me m o r y," American Journal of
Psychology 2( 1888): 39- 90.
3. Bo o k o n m ne m o nics McD anie l and Pr e s s le y ( 3/10). D e t aile d acco unt o f
le git im acyH igbe e ( 7/12); H igbe e ( 7/1); K. L. H igbe e , "T he Le git im acy o f Mne m o n-
ics in I ns t r uct io n," The Journal of the International Learning Science Association1
( 1982): 9- 13.
4. C . C o r no ldi, "W hy S t udy Mne m o nics ?" in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 1/12); M.
Pr e s s le y and M. A. McD anie l, "D o ing Mne m o nics R e s e ar ch W e ll: S o m e Ge ne r al
Guide line s and a S t udy," in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 1/12); P. Mo r r is , "Pr act ical S t r at e gie s
fo r H um an Le ar ning and R e m e m be r ing," in Adult Learning: Psychological Research
and Applications, e d. M. J. A. H o w e ( Lo ndo n: W ile y, 1977), 125-44; I . M. L. H unt e r ,
"I m age r y, C o m p r e he ns io n, and Mne m o nics ," Journal of Mental Imagery 1 ( 1977):
65- 72.
6. T w o s e co nds B. R . Buge ls k i, E . Kidd, and J. S e gm e n, "I m age r y as a
Me diat o r in O ne -T r ial Pair e d- As s o ciat e Le ar ning, "Journal of Experimental Psychology
76 ( 1968): 69- 73. As s o ciat io ns , p ict ur e s W . A. W ick e lgr e n, Learning and Memory
( E ngle w o o d C liffs , N .J.: Pr e nt ice - H all, 1977), 338. S ignificance o f t im e diffe r e nce
B. R . Buge ls k i, "T he I m age as Me diat o r in O ne -T r ial Pair e d-As s o ciat e Le ar ning: I I I .
S e que nt ial Funct io ns in S e r ial Lis t s , "Journal of Experimental Psychology103 ( 1974):
298- 303; R . R . H o ffm an, A. Fe nning, and T . Kap lan, "I m age Me m o r y and Bizar r e -
ne s s : T he r e I s an E ffe ct " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he Ps ycho no m ic
S o cie t y, Philade lp hia, N o v e m be r 1981). Pair e d as s o ciat e s B. R . Buge ls ld, "W o r ds
and T hings and I m age s ," American Psychologist25 ( 1970): 1002-12.
7. Pr act ice im p r o v e s s p e e dKat z ( 7/24). Le ar ning Ge r m anJ. W . H all and K.
C . Fus o n, "Pr e s e nt at io n . R at e s in E xp e r im e nt s o n Mne m o nics : A Me t ho do lo gical
N o t e ," Journal ofEducational Psychology 78( 1986): 233- 34.
8. Gr une be r g e t al ( 7/7), 304.
9. A. C o r be t t , "R e t r ie v al D ynam ics fo r R o t e and Vis ual I m age r y Mne m o nics ,"
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior16 ( 1977): 233- 46.
10. Be lle zza ( 7/22).
12. P. M. W o r t m an and P. B. S p ar ling, "Acquis it io n and R e t e nt io n o f Mne m o nic
I nfo r m at io n in Lo ng-t e r m Me m o r y," Journal of Experimental Psychology102 ( 1974):
22- 26.
Chapter Notes 2 4 3
13. W o r t r aan and S p ar ling ( 8/12); F. J . D i Ve s t a and P. M. S uns hine , "T he
R e t r ie v al o f Abs t r act and C o ncr e t e Mat e r ials as Funct io ns o f I m age r y, Me diat io n, and
Mne m o nic Aids," Memory & Cognition 2( 1974): 340- 44.
14. Be lle zza ( 7/2).
15. T . S cr uggs , M. A. Mas t r o p ie r i, J. R . Le v in, and J . S . Gaffhe y, "Facilit at ing
t he Acquis it io n o f S cie nce Fact s in Le ar ning- dis able d S t ude nt s ," American Educa-
tional Research Journal 22( 1984): 575- 86.
16. D . W . H ut t o n and J. A. Le s co hie r , "S e e ing t o Le ar n: U s ing Me nt al I m age r y
in t he C las s r o o m ," in Fle m ing and H ut t o n ( 4/25), 113- 32; G. E . S p e ide l & M. E .
T r o y, "T he E bb and Flo w o f I m age r y in E ducat io n," in S he ik h and S he ik h ( 4/25), 11-
38.
17. Pe o p le diffe r R ichar ds o n ( 4/25), chap . 9.; M. E . S ut he r land, J . P H ar r e ll,
and C . I s aacs , "T he S t abilit y o f I ndiv idual D iffe r e nce s in I m age r y Abilit y," Journal of
Mental Imagery11 ( 1987): 97- 104. Be ne fit m o r e by m ak ing v is ual as s o ciat io ns J. A.
S le e , "T he U s e o f Vis ual I m age r y in Vis ual Me m o r y T as k s : A C aut io nar y N o t e ," in
Fle m ing and H ut t o n ( 4/25), 53- 74; A. Kat z, "W hat D o e s it Me an t o be a H igh
I m age r ?" in Y uille ( 3/12), 39- 63; M. D e nis , "I ndiv idual I m age r y D iffe r e nce s and
Pr o s e Pr o ce s s ing," in McD anie l and Pr e s s le y ( 3/10), 204- 17.
18. C ap acit y t o us e im age r yPaiv io ( 3/14), chap . 6; A. R ichar ds o n, "T he
Vo lunt ar y U s e o f Me m o r y I m age r y as an Aid t o Le ar ning and Pe r fo r m ance ," in
Fle m ing and H ut t o n ( 4/25), 21- 32; A. A. S he ik h, K. S . S he ik h, and L. M. Mo le s k i,
"T he E nhance m e nt o f I m aging Abilit y," in S he ik h and S he ik h ( 4/25); 223- 39. Le ar ne d
s k illBe lle zza (7/22); Kat z ( 8/17). Pr act ice act iv it ie s t o he lp de v e lo p im age r y abilit y
ar e giv e n by K. H ank s and L. Be llis t o n, Rapid Viz: A New Method for the Rapid
Vtzualization of Ideas( Lo s Alt o s , C alif.: W illiam Kaufm an, 1980).
19. M. Pr e s s le y and J. R . Le v in, "E labo r at iv e Le ar ning S t r at e gie s fo r t he
I ne fficie nt Le ar ne r ," in Handbook of Cognitive, Social, and Neuropsychological Aspects
of Learning Disabilities, e d. S . J. C e ci ( H ills dale , N .J.: E r lbaum , 1986); M. Pr e s s le y,
C . J. Jo hns o n, and S . S ym o ns , "E labo r at ing t o Le ar n and Le ar ning t o E labo r at e ,"
Journal of Learning Disabilities29 ( 1987): 76- 91; Po o n ( 1/4); J. T . E . R ichar ds o n, L.
S . C e r m ak , S . P. Black fo r d, and M. O 'C o nno r , "T he E fficacy o f I m age r y Mne m o nics
Fo llo w ing Br ain D am age ," in McD anie l and Pr e s s le y ( 3/10), 303- 28; J . E . T ur nur e
and J . F. Lane ( 5/11); M. Mas t r o p ie r i, T . S cr uggs , and J. R . Le v in, "Mne m o nic
I ns t r uct io n in S p e cial E ducat io n," in McD anie l and Pr e s s le y ( 3/10), 358- 76; W ils o n
( 6/45).
20. Buge ls k i ( 8/6, 1974); A. Paiv io , "I m age r y and Lo ng- t e r m Me m o r y," in
Studies in Long Term Memory, e d. A. Ke nne dy and A. W ilk e s ( N e w Y o r k : Jo hn W ile y
and S o ns , 1975), 57- 88.
21. H igbe e ( 7/1); M. Pr e s s le y, "E labo r at io n and Me m o r y D e v e lo p m e nt ," Child
Development 53 ( 1982): 296- 309; M. Pr e s s le y and J. D e nnis - R o unds , "T r ans fe r o f a
Mne m o nic Ke yw o r d S t r at e gy at T w o Age Le v e ls "Journal of Educational Psychology
72 ( 1980): 575- 82.
22. C o m p r e he ns iv e ins t r uct io ns J. T . O 'S ulliv an and M. Pr e s s le y, "C o m p le t e -
ne s s o f I ns t r uct io n and S t r at e gy T r ans fe r "Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
38 ( 1984): 275- 88; S no w m an ( 7/15). Kinde r gar t e nE . B. R yan, G. W . Le dge r , and
K. A. W e e d, "Acquis it io n and T r ans fe r o f an I nt e gr at e d I m age r y S t r at e gy by Y o ung
C hildr e n," Child Development58 ( 1987): 443- 52.
23. Pr o m p t ingPr e s s le y & D e nnis - R o unds ( 8/21). O lde r childr e nB. F. Jo ne s
and J. W . H all, "S cho o l Ap p licat io ns o f t he Mne m o nic Ke yw o r d Me t ho d as a S t udy
S t r at e gy by E ight h Graders," Journal of Educational Psychology72 ( 1982): 230- 37;
M. Pr e s s le y, J. R . Le v in, and S . L. Br yant , "Me m o r y S t r at e gy I ns t r uct io n D ur ing
Ado le s ce nce : W he n I s E xp licit I ns t r uct io n N e e de d?" in Pr e s s le y and Le v in ( 1/10),
25- 49.
24. M. Pr e s s le y, D . L. Fo r r e s t - Pr e s s le y, E . E llio t - Faus t , and G. Mille r ,
"C hildr e n's U s e o f C o gnit iv e S t r at e gie s , H o w t o T e ach S t r at e gie s , and W hat T o D o I f
T he y C an't Be T aught ," in.Pr e s s le y and Br aine r d ( 1/13), 1- 47.
25. S t ude nt s K. L. H igbe e , "W hat D o C o lle ge S t ude nt s Ge t Fr o m a Me m o r y-
I m p r o v e m e nt C o ur s e " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he E as t e r n Ps ycho lo gical
As s o ciat io n, N e w Y o r k C it y, Ap r il 1981). E lde r lyJ. D . Pr at t and K. L. H igbe e , "U s e
o f an I m age r y Mne m o nic by t he E lde r ly in N at ur al S e t t ings ," Human Learning 2
( 1983): 227- 35; L. E . W o o d and J. D . Pr at t , "Pe gw o r d Mne m o nic as an Aid t o
Me m o r y in t he E lde r ly: A C o m p ar is o n o f Fo ur Age Gr o up s ," Educational Gerontology
13 ( 1987): 325- 37; Poon( 1/4); R o be r t s ( 1/10).
26. Any m e nt al s k illT ur nur e and Lane ( 5/11); P. L. Pe t e r s o n and S . R . S w ing,
"Pr o ble m s in C las s r o o m I m p le m e nt at io n o f C o gnit iv e S t r at e gy R e s e ar ch," in Pr e s s le y
and Le v in ( 6/34), 267- 87; E . C . But t e r fie ld, "T o w ar d S o lv ing t he Pr o ble m o f
T r ans fe r ," in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 1/12). J. R . H aye s , "T hr e e Pr o ble m s in T e aching
Ge ne r al S k ills ," in C hip m an e t al. ( 4/6), 391- 406. T he r ap yBadde le y ( 5/20), 26.
27. S . J. D e r r y and D . A. Mur p hy, "S ys t e m s T hat T r ain Le ar ning Abilit y: Fr o m
T he o r y t o Pr act ice ," Review of Educational Research56 ( 1986): 1- 39; Kat z ( 7/24);
M. Pr e s s le y, J. G Bo r k o w s k i, and J. O 'S ulliv an, "C hildr e n's Me t am e m o r y and t he
T e aching o f Me m o r y S t r at e gie s ," in Metacognition, Cognition, and Human Perform-
ance: Theoretical Perspectives, v o l. 1, e d. D . L. Fo r r e s t - Pr e s s le y, G. E . MacKinno n,
and T . G. W alle r ( O r lando , Fla.: Acade m ic Pr e s s , 1985), 111- 53; Pr e s s le y e t al.
( 1/7).
28. Pauk ( 6/1), 111.
29. G. H . Bo w e r , "E ducat io nal Ap p licat io ns o f Mne m o nic D e v ice s ," in Interac-
tion: Readings in Human Psychology, e d. K. 0. D o yle , Jr . ( Le xingt o n, Mas s .: D . C ;
H e at h & C o ., 1973), 201- 10. Quo t e is o n p age 209.
30. N um e r o us addit io nal r e s e ar ch r e fe r e nce s o n t he s e p s e udo - lim it at io ns , in-
cluding s o ur ce s o f r e s e ar ch s t udie s and quo t at io ns r e fe r r e d t o but no t cit e d in t his
chap t e r , can be fo und in H igbe e ( 7/12).
31. Lo ft us ( 2/3), 187.
32. Vo cat io nal, m ilit ar y us e s T ur nur e and Lane ( 5/11). Milit ar y t r ainingR .
Br aby, J. P. Kincaid, and F. A. Aagar d, Use of Mnemonics in Training Materials: A
Guide for Technical Writers( T AE G R e p o r t no . 60, O r lando , Fla.: U .S . N av y T r aining
Analys is and E v aluat io n Gr o up , July 1978); D . Gr iffit h, A Review of the Literature on
Memory Enhancement: The Potential and Relevance of Mnemotechnks for Military
Training( T e chnical R e p o r t no . 436, Fo r t H o o d, T e x.: U .S . Ar m y R e s e ar ch I ns t it ut e
fo r t he Be hav io r al and S o cial S cie nce s , D e ce m be r 1979). Pr o s e D e nis ( 4/27); C .
McC o r m ick and J. R . Le v in, "Mne m o nic Pr o s e - Le ar ning S t r at e gie s , "in McD anie l and
Pr e s s le y ( 3/10); 392- 406.
33. W ils o n and Mo ffat ( 1/4); W ils o n ( 6/45).
Chapter Notes 2 4 5
34. Po t e nt ial v alue o f im age r y t e chnique s W it t r o ck ( 4/31). R e s e ar ch o n m e nt al
e labo r at io n in ins t r uct io nLe v in ( 7/33); Le v in and Pr e s s le y ( 7/29); J. R . Le v in and
M. Pr e s s le y, "Mne m o nic Vo cabular y I ns t r uct io n: W hat 's Fact , W hat 's Fict io n," in
Individual Differences in Cognition, v o l. 2, e d. R . F. D illo n ( O r lando , Fla.: Acade m ic
Pr e s s , 1985), 145- 72.
35. Pr o ble m s o lv ingG. Kaufm an and T . H e ls t r up , "Me nt al I m age r y and
Pr o ble m S o lv ing: I m p licat io ns fo r t he E ducat io nal Pr o ce s s ," in S he ik h and S he ik h ( 4/
25), 113- 44.
36. H . H . Ke ndle r , Basic Psychology: Brief Version, 3d e d. ( Me nlo Par k , C alif.
W . A. Be njam in, 1977), 205.
37. C law s o n e t al. ( 7/32); T . Lo w e , K. J. S co r e s by, and K. L. H igbe e , "T he
R o le o f E ffo r t in U s ing a Vis ual Mne m o nic" ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he
W e s t e r n Ps ycho lo gical As s o ciat io n, S an Jo s e , C alif., Ap r il 1985).
38. S e nt e nce s J. D . Br ans fo r d and B. S . S t e in, The Ideal Problem Solver( S an
Fr ancis co : W . H . Fr e e m an, 1984), 54- 58. Fact s G. L. Br ads haw andJ. R . Ande r s o n,
"E labo r at iv e E nco ding As an E xp lanat io n o f Le v e ls o f Pr o ce s s ing," Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior21 ( 1982): 165- 74; s e e als o H o r t o n and Mills ( 2/22),
247- 75.
39. Be lle zza ( 7/2); Le v in and Pr e s s le y ( 8/34).
40. H unt e r ( 8/4), 70.
41. Psychology Today: An Introduction, 2d e d. ( D e l Mar , C alif.: C R M Bo o k s ,
1972), 97.
42. Be lle zza ( 7/2).
C H A P T E R 9
1. T hir d diffe r e nce Buge ls k i ( 8/6, 1974). Fo ur t h diffe r e nce L. W . Bar s alo u
and D . R . S e w e ll, "C o nt r as t ing t he R e p r e s e nt at io n o f S cr ip t s and C at e go r ie s , "Journal
of Memory and Language24 ( 1985): 646- 65.
2. D . L. Fo t h, "Mne m o nic T e chnique E ffe ct iv e ne s s as a Funct io n o f W o r d
Abs t r act ne s s and Me diat io n I ns t r uct io n," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal
Behavior 12( 1973): 239- 45.
3. K. L. H igbe e , "Mne m o nic S ys t e m s in Me m o r y: Ar e T he y W o r t h t he E ffo r t ?"
( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he R o ck y Mo unt ain Ps ycho lo gical As s o ciat io n,
Pho e nix, Ar iz., May 1976); Gr iffit h ( 8/32).
4. Fir s t findingBe lle zza ( 7/14). S e co nd findingBe lle zza ( 7/22). T hir d find-
ingF. S . Be lle zza, "T he S p at ial- Ar r ange m e nt Mne m o nic," Journal of Educational
Psychology75 ( 1983): 830- 37. Fo ur t h findingH . L. R o e dige r I I I , "T he E ffe ct iv e ne s s
o f Fo ur Mne m o nics in O r de r ing R e call," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
Learning and Memory6 ( 1980): 558- 67. Fift h findingB. R . Buge ls k i, "T he As s o ci-
at io n o f I m age s ," in Images, Perception, and Knowledge, e d. J. M. N icho ls ( Bo s t o n:
D . R e ide l, 1977), 37- 46.
5. C law s o n e t al. ( 7/32).
6. S t udie s o f e ffe ct iv e ne s s S no w m an ( 6/2). Fiv e lis t s F. S . Be lle zza, "A
Mne m o nic Bas e d o n Ar r anging W o r ds o n Vis ual Pat t e r ns ," Journal of Educational
Psychology 78 ( 1986): 217- 24. Lo ng lis t F. S . Be lle zza, D . L. R ichar ds , and R .
Ge is e lm an, "S e m ant ic Pr o ce s s ing and O r ganizat io n in Fr e e R e call," Memory &
Cognition 4( 1976): 415- 21; F. S . Be lle zza, F. L. C he s s m an I I , and B. G. R e ddy,
"O r ganizat io n and S e m ant ic E labo r at io n in Fr e e R e call," Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 3 ( 1977): 539- 50; G. Gains t and J. S .
Fr e und, "E ffe ct s o f S ubje ct - ge ne r at e d S t o r ie s o n R e call, " Bulletin of the Psychonomic
Society12 ( 1978): 185- 88.
7. I ndiaS . K. Gup t a, "As s o ciat iv e Me m o r y: R o le o f Mne m o nics in I nfo r m at io n
Pr o ce s s ing and O r de r ing R e call," Psycho-Lingua15 ( 1985), 89- 94. Am ne s iac p a-
t ie nt s R . Ko v ne r , S . Mat t is , and R . Pas s , "S o m e Pat ie nt s C an Fr e e ly R e call Lar ge
Am o unt s o f I nfo r m at io n in N e w C o nt e xt s ," Journal of Clinical and Experimental
Neuropsychology7 ( 1985): 395- 411. Br ain-dam age d p at ie nt s W ils o n ( 6/45).
8. G. H . Bo w e r , "H o w t o . . . uh . . . R e m e m be r !" Psychology Tbday, O ct o be r
1973, 63- 70. Quo t e is o n p age 63.
9. D . C ar ne gie , Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business ( N e w Y o r k :
As s o ciat io n Pr e s s , 1926), 60.
10. D . W . Mat he s o n, Introductory Psychology: The Modern View( H ins dale , H I .:
T he D r yde n Pr e s s , 1975), 233.
11. T . B. W o o dbur y, "Be - at t it ude s in Bus ine s s ," in Successful Leadership, e d.
M. L. W at e r s ( S alt Lak e C it y: D e s e r e t Bo o k , 1961), 236- 50. Quo t e is o n p age 236.
12. H ank s and Be llis t o n ( 8/18), 135.
13. S e v e r al e xam p le s o f ho w t o do t his ar e p r o v ide d in B. Fur s t , Stop Forgetting,
chap . 10, r e v . L. Fur s t and G. S t o r m ( Gar de n C it y, N .Y .: D o uble day & C o ., 1979).
14. C . V. Y o ung, The Magic of a Mighty Memory ( W e s t N yack , N .Y .: Par k e r
Publis hing C o ., 1971), 67.
15. S o m e e xam p le s ar e T . Buzan, Speed Memory( Lo ndo n: S p he r e Bo o k s Lt d.,
1971); D . H e r s e y, How to Cash in on Your Hidden Memory Power( E ngle w o o d C liffs ,
N .J.: Pr e nt ice - H all, 1963); Lo r ayne and Lucas ( 7/27); T . G. Mads e n, How to Stop
Forgetting and Start Remembering( Pr o v o , U t ah: Br igham Y o ung U niv e r s it y Pr e s s ,
1970); M. N . Y o ung and W . B. Gibs o n, How to Develop an Exceptional Memory( N o r t h
H o llyw o o d, C alif.: W ils hir e Bo o k C o ., 1974).
C H A P T E R 10
1. Y at e s ( 7/1).
2. G. H . Bo w e r , "Analys is o f a Mne m o nic D e v ice ," American Scientist58 ( 1970):
496- 510; C . C o r no ldi and R . D e Be ni, "I m age r y and t he 'Lo ci' Mne m o nic," Interna-
tional Imagery Bulletin2 ( 1984): 10-13; C . C o r no ldi and R . D e Be ni, "R e t r ie v al
T im e s in t he U s e o f C o ncr e t e and Abs t r act Mne m o nic C ue s As s o ciat e d t o Lo ci," in
Imagery 2, e d. D . F. Mar k s and D . G. R us s e ll ( D une din, N e w Ze aland: H um an
Pe r fo r m ance As s o ciat e s , in p r e s s ); G. Le a, "C hr o no m e t r ic Analys is o f t he Me t ho d o f
Lo ci," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance104
( 1975): 95- 104; H im ur e and Lane ( 5/11).
3. I . Be gg and D . S ik ich, "I m age r y and C o nt e xt ual O r ganizat io n," Memory &
Cognition12 ( 1984): 52- 59.
Chapter Notes 2 4 7
4. Buge ls k i ( 8/6, 1974).
5. Lur ia ( 3/17), 31- 33.
6. H igbe e ( 9/3).
7. S e v e r al s t udie s o n lo cat io ns Jo hns o n and H as he r ( 1/2). Po s it iv e ly r e lat e d
R . D e Be ni and C . C o r no ldi, "E ffe ct s o f t he Mne m o t e chnique o f Lo ci in t he
Me m o r izat io n o f C o ncr e t e W o r ds ," Acta Psychologica59 ( 1985): 1- 14.
8. R . N . H abe r , "T he Po w e r o f Vis ual Pe r ce iv ing," Journal of Mental Imagery5
( 1981): 1- 16; E . A. Lo v e lace and S . D . S o ut hall, "Me m o r y fo r W o r ds in Pr o s e and
T he ir Lo cat io ns o n t he Page ," Memory & Cognition11 ( 1983), 429- 34; R o t hk o p f e t
al. ( 6/8), 50- 54.
9. R e m e m be r ing p ict ur e s v e r s us w o r ds Par k e t al. ( 3/12). Landm ar k s G. W .
E v ans , P. L. Br e nnan, M. A. S k o r p anich, and D . H e ld, "C o gnit iv e Map p ing and
E lde r ly Adult s : Ve r bal and Lo cat io n Me m o r y fo r U r ban Landm ar k s ," Journal of
Gerontology39 ( 1984): 452- 57; Link s ys t e m T ur nur e and Lane ( 5/11).
10.. Lo v e lace and S o ut hall ( 10/8).
11. E ffe ct s o f D iffe r e nt p at t e r ns o n le ar ningBe lle zza ( 7/14); Be lle zza ( 9/6).
Le ar ning and no t e - t ak ing s t r at e gie s C . D . H o lle y and D . F. D ans e r e au, e ds ., Spatial
Learning Strategies: Techniques, Applications, and Related Issues ( O r lando , Fla.:
Acade m ic Pr e s s , 1984). Fo ur t h gr ade r s R . D . Abbo t t and R . E . H ughe s , "E ffe ct o f
Ve r bal- Gr ap hic N o t e - T ak ing S t r at e gie s o n W r it ing" ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing
o f t he Am e r ican E ducat io nal R e s e ar ch As s o ciat io n, S an Fr ancis co , Ap r il 1986).
12. R . E . R aw le s , "T he Pas t and Pr e s e nt o f Mne m o t e chny," in Gr une be r g ( 4/
17), 164- 71.
13. Pr o v ince s and cap it als A. I . S chulm an, "Map s and Me m o r abilit y," in T he
Acquisition of Symbolic Skills, e d. D . R o ge r s and J. A. S lo bo da ( N e w Y o r k : Ple num
Pr e s s , 1982), 359- 67. I m aginar y is landN . H . S chw ar t z and R . W . Kulhav y, "Map
Fe at ur e s and t he R e call o f D is co ur s e ," Contemporary Educational Psychology6 ( 1981):
151- 58. C r e at ing m ap lik e r e p r e s e nt at io nR . S . D e an and R . W . Kulhav y, "I nflue nce
o f S p at ial O r ganizat io n in Pr o s e Le ar ning," Journal of Educational Psychology 73
( 1981): 57- 64.
14. W o r d lis t s D e Be ni and C o r no ldi ( 10/7); R . D e Be ni and C . C o r no ldi, "T he
E ffe ct s o f I m aginal Mne m o nics o n C o nge nit ally T o t al Blind and o n N o r m al S ubje ct s ,"
in Imagery 1, e d. D . F. Mar k s and D . G. R us s e ll ( D une din, N e w Ze aland: H um an
Pe r fo r m ance As s o ciat e s , 1983), 54- 59; R o e dige r ( 9/4),' 558- 67; S no w m an ( 6/2);
W ils o n ( 6/45). Vis ible lo ciS . Ke m p and C . D . v an de r Kr o gt , "E ffe ct o f Vis ibilit y o f
t he Lo ci o n R e call U s ing t he Me t ho d o f Lo ci," Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society23
( 1985): 202- 04. Pr o s e R e m e m be r ingJ. S no w m an, E . V Kr e bs , and L. Lo ck har t ,
"I m p r o v ing R e call o f I nfo r m at io n fr o m Pr o s e in H igh- r is k S t ude nt s t hr o ugh Le ar ning
S t r at e gy T r aining," Journal of Instructional Psychology 7 ( 1980): 35- 40; als o s e e
S no w m an ( 7/15); and R . D e Be ni, "T he Aid Giv e n By t he 'Lo ci' Me m o r y T e chnique in
t he Me m o r izat io n o f Pas s age s ," in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 1/12).
15. C . E . W e ins t e in, W . E . C ubbe r ly, F. W . W ick e r , V. L. U nde r w o o d, L..K.
R o ne y, and D . C . D ut y, "T r aining Ve r s us I ns t r uct io n in t he Acquis it io n o f C o gnit iv e
Le ar ning S t r at e gie s ," Contemporary Educational Psychology6 ( 1981): 159- 66.
16. E lde r lyJ. A. Y e s av age and T . L. R o s e , "S e m ant ic E labo r at io n and t he
Me t ho d o f Lo ci: A N e w T r ip fo r O ld Le ar ne r s ," Experimental Aging Research10
( 1984): 155- 60; L. Ans chut z, C . J. C am p , R . P. Mar k le y, and J. J. Kr am e r ,
"Maint e nance and Ge ne r alizat io n o f Mne m o nics fo r Gr o ce r y S ho p p ing by O lde r
Adult s ," Experimental Aging Research11 ( 1985): 157-60. Blind Adult s P. A. R aia,
"C o gnit iv e S k ill T r aining o f Adv e nt it io us ly Blinde d E lde r ly W o m e n: T he E ffe ct s o f
T r aining in t he Me t ho d o f Lo ci o n Fr e e R e call Pe r fo r m ance " ( Ph.D . dis s ., U niv e r s it y
o f Mar yland- C o lle ge Par k , 1979); D e Be ni and C o r no ldi ( 10/14). Br ain-dam age d
Pat ie nt s W ils o n ( 6/45).
17. D e Be ni and C o r no ldi ( 10/7); G. H . Bo w e r and J. S . R e it m an, "Mne m o nic
E labo r at io n in Mult ilis t Le ar ning," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior11
( 1972): 478- 85; A. L. Br o w n, "Pr o gr e s s iv e E labo r at io n and Me m o r y fo r O r de r in
C hildr e n," Journal of Experimental Child Psychology19 ( 1975): 383- 400.
18. H . F. C r o v it z, Gallon's Walk( N e w Y o r k : H ar p e r & R o w , 1970), 44.
C H A P T E R 11
1. Paiv io ( 3/18), 173.
2. Bo w e r and R e it m an ( 10/17), 478- 85; Be lle zza ( 7/2).
3. Mille r e t al. ( 8/1), 135- 36.
4. T he s e findings hav e be e n s um m ar ize d by H igbe e ( 9/3) and by Gr iffit h ( 8/32).
5. Addit io nal s t udie s o n e ffe ct iv e ne s s F. S . Be lle zza and G. H . Bo w e r , "R e -
m e m be r ing S cr ip t - Bas e d T e xt ," Poetics 11 ( 1982): 1- 23; R o e dige r ( 9/4); W o o d and
Pr at t ( 8/25). C at e go r ie s int e r fe r e w it h p e gw o r ds B. G. R e ddy and F. S . Be lle zza,
"I nt e r fe r e nce Be t w e e n Mne m o nic and C at e go r ical O r ganizat io n in Me m o r y," Bulletin
of the Psychonomic Society24 ( 1986): 169-71.
6. J. L. E llio t and J. R . Ge nt ile , "T he E fficacy o f a Mne m o nic T e chnique fo r
Le ar ning D is able d and N o ndis able d Ado le s ce nt s ," Journal of Learning Disabilities19
( 1986): 237- 41.
7. R e m e m be r ing co nce p t s D ye r and Me ye r ( 7/30). C o lle ge s t ude nt s H igbe e
and Millar d ( 7/30); Mar k ham e t al. ( 4/6); W o o d and Pr at t ( 8/25); E ffo r t Lo w e ,
S co r e s by, and H igbe e ( 8/37). C hildr e nT . P. As ay, K. L. H igbe e , andR . K. Mo r gan,
"E ffe ct s o f a Vis ual Mne m o nic o n C hildr e n's Me m o r y fo r S ayings " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d
at t he m e e t ing o f t he R o ck y Mo unt ain Ps ycho lo gical As s o ciat io n, Albuque r que , N .M.,
Ap r il 1982). Adult s Pr at t and H igbe e ( 8/25); W o o d and Pr at t ( 8/25).
8. Pr at t and H igbe e ( 8/25, s t udy 1).
9. Pauk ( 6/1), 107.
10. Mas t r o p ie r i e t al. ( 8/19).
11. J. R . Le v in, C . B. McC o r m ick , and B. J. D r e t zk e , "A C o m bine d Pict o r ial
Mne m o nic S t r at e gy fo r O r de r e d I nfo r m at io n," Educational Communication and
Technology Journal29 ( 1981): 219- 25.
12. S no w m an ( 7/15). D . T . Ve it , T . E . S cr uggs , and M. A. Mas t r o p ie r i,
"E xt e nde d Mne m o nic I ns t r uct io n W it h Le ar ning D is able d S t ude nt s ," Journal of
Educational Psychology78 ( 1986): 300- 08.
13. J. A. Glo v e r and A. L. H ar v e y, "R e m e m be r ing W r it t e n I ns t r uct io ns : T ab A
Go e s int o S lo t C , o r D o e s I t ?" ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he Am e r ican
E ducat io nal R e s e ar ch As s o ciat io n, S an Fr ancis co , Ap r il 1986); V. T im m e , D . D e ylo ff,
Chapter Notes 2 4 9
M. R o ge r s , D . D inne l, and J. A. Glo v e r , "O r al D ir e ct io ns ; R e m e m be r ing W hat t o D o
W he n" ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he Am e r ican E ducat io nal R e s e ar ch
As s o ciat io n, S an Fr ancis co , Ap r il 1986).
14. Am ne s iac p at ie nt s C . D . E v ans , Rehabilitation of the Head Injured( Lo n-
do n: C hur chill Liv ings t o ne , 1981), 72- 73. T r aining Pr o gr am B. A. W ils o n and N .
Mo ffat ( 7/7).
15. K. L. H igbe e , "C an Y o ung C hildr e n U s e Mne m o nics ?" Psychological Reports
38 ( 1976): 18.
16. B. R . Buge ls k i, "I m age s as Me diat o r s in O ne - T r ial Pair e d- As s o ciat e Le ar n-
ing. I I : S e lf- t im ing in S ucce s s iv e Lis t s , "Journal of Experimental Psychology77 ( 1968):
328- 34.
17. Bo w e r and R e it m an ( 10/17).
18. Br aby e t al. ( 8/32), 60- 71.
C H A P T E R 1 2
1. R . Gr e y, Memoria Technica: or, a New Method of Artificial Memory, 2d e d.
( Lo ndo n: C har le s King, 1732).
2. M. G. v o n Fe inaigle , The New Art of Memory, 2d e d. ( Lo ndo n: S he r w o o d,
N e e ly, & Jo ne s , 1813).
3. F. Fauv e l- Go ur aud, Phreno-Mnemonotechnic Dictionary: A Philosophical
Classification of all the Homophonic Words of the English Language, p ar t fir s t ( N e w
Y o r k : H o ue l & Macay, 1844); Jam e s ( 1/15), 669; A. Lo is e t t e , Assimilative Memory, or
How to Attend and Never Forget( N e w Y o r k : Funk & W agnalls , I nc., 1899); 66- 108.
4. Fur s t ( 9/13); Buzan ( 9/15); H e r s e y ( 9/15).
5. T he r e s e ar ch up t o t he m id- 1970s is s um m ar ize d by H igbe e ( 9/3) and by
Gr iffit h ( 8/32).
6. Me t r ic e quiv ale nce s D . Br uce and M. C le am o ns , "A T e s t o f t he E ffe ct iv e -
ne s s o f t he Pho ne t ic ( N um be r - C o ns o nant ) Mne m o nic S ys t e m ," Human Learning1
( 1982): 83- 93. S e co nd s t udyP. E . Mo r r is and P. J . Gr e e r , "T he E ffe ct iv e ne s s o f
t he Pho ne t ic Mne m o nic S ys t e m ," Human Learning3 ( 1984): 137- 42. T hir d s t udy
G. W . R . Pat t o n and P. D . Lant zy, "T e s t ing t he Lim it s o f t he Pho ne t ic Mne m o nic
S ys t e m ," Applied Cognitive Psychology( in p r e s s ). S e e als o G. W . R . Pat t o n, "T he
E ffe ct o f t he Pho ne t ic Mne m o nic S ys t e m o n Me m o r y fo r N um e r ical Mat e r ial," Human
Learning5 ( 1986): 21- 28.
7. T . E . Go r do n, P. Go r do n, E . Vale nt ine , and J. W ilding, "O ne Man's Me m o r y:
A S t udy o f a Mne m o nis t ," British Journal of Psychology72 ( 1984): 1- 14. ( 3/19), 1-
14. S co r e s by e t al. ( 3/20). S ix s t ude nt s m e nt al calculat io nW e U s ( 3/19), 49- 54/59-
61.
8. S . S lak , "Lo ng- T e r m R e t e nt io n o f R ando m S e que nce D igit al I nfo r m at io n w it h
t he Aid o f Pho ne m ic R e co ding: A C as e R e p o r t ," Perceptual and Motor Skills33 ( 1971):
455- 60.
9. Paiv io , "S t r at e gie s in Language Le ar ning" in Pr e s s le y and Le v in ( 6/34), 189-
210; Paiv io ( 3/14), 254- 55.
10. D ick e l ( 7/13); S . S lak , "O n Pho ne t ic and Pho ne m ic S ys t e m s : A R e p ly t o M.
J. D ick e l," Perceptual and Motor Skills61 ( 1985): 727- 33.
2 5 0
C H A PT E R N O T E S
11. Lo is e t t e ( 12/3), 73-74.
12. E S . H am ilt o n, Mastering Your Memory( N e w Y o r k : Gr am e r cy Publis hing
C o ., 1947); s e e als o t he s o ur ce s cit e d in no t e 15 o f chap t e r 9.
13. T he bo o k is av ailable fr o m E r ne s t W e ck baugh, 1718 R o ge r s Place #1A,
Bur bank , C alif. 91504.
14. S e e t he s o ur ce s cit e d in no t e 15 o f chap t e r 9.
C H A P T E R 13
1. E lde r lyE . M. Ze lins k i, M. J. Gile w s k i, and L. W . T ho m p s o n, "D o Labo r a-
t o r y T e s t s R e lat e t o S e lf-as s e s s m e nt o f Me m o r y Abilit y in t he Y o ung and O ld?" in
Po o n e t al. ( 1/12), 519- 44. Pat ie nt s B. W ils o n, "Me m o r y T he r ap y in Pr act ice ," in
W ils o n and Mo ffat ( 1/4), 89- 111.
2. V. P.H unt and Lo v e ( 3/18), 255. Bar k e r Family Weekly, S e p t e m be r 1975.
Luce Br o t he r s and E agan ( 5/2), 104.
3. Me m o r y fo r face s Bahr ick ( 2/20); G. D av ie s , H . E llis , and J. S he p he r d,
Perceiving and Remembering Faces ( Lo ndo n: Acade m ic Pr e s s , 1981): E ye w it ne s s
t e s t im o nyS . J. .C e t i, M. P. T o glia, and D . E R o s s , e d., Children's Eyewitness
Testimony( N e w Y o r k : S p r inge r -Ve r lag, 1987); J. W . S he p he r d, H . D . E llis , and G. M.
D av ie s , Identification Evidence: A Psychological Evaluation ( Abe r de e n, S co t land:
Abe r de e n U niv e r s it y Pr e s s , 1982); G. L. W e lls and E . F. Lo ft us , e ds ., Eyewitness
Testimony: Psychological Perspectives( N e w Y o r k : C am br idge U niv e r s it y Pr e s s , 1984);
S . Llo yd-Bo s t o ck and B. R . C liffo r d, e d., Evaluating Witness Evidence( C hice s t e r ,
E ngland: W ile y, 1982).
4. S . Par r y and K. L. H igbe e , "R e m e m be r ing Pe o p le : R e s e ar ch o n Me m o r y fo r
N am e s and Face s " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f T he R o ck y Mo unt ain Ps ycho -
lo gical As s o ciat io n, Las Ve gas , Ap r il 1984).
5. H o r t o n and Mills ( 2/22).
6. R e e d ( 2/23).
7. D iffe r e nce am o ng p e o p le Bahr ick e t al. ( 2/18). C o lle ge s t ude nt s Bahr ick
( 2/20). H o us e w iv e s Badde le y ( 2/3), 124. S e x diffe r e nce s Be hr ick ( 2/20); K. A.
D e ffe nbache r , E . L. Br o w n, and W . S t ur gill, "S o m e Pr e dict o r s o f E ye w it ne s s
Accur acy," in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 4/17), 219- 26; S . J. McKe lv ie , "S e x D iffe r e nce s in
Facial Me m o r y," in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 4/17), 263- 69.
8. W o m e nJ. C . Bar t le t t and J. E . Le s lie , "Aging and Me m o r y fo r Face s Ve r s us
S ingle Vie w s o f Face s , "Memory & Cognition14 ( 1986): 371- 81. Pr o fe s s o r s Bahr ick
( 2/20). C hange s J. C . Bar t le t t , J. Le s lie , and A. H t bbs , "Aging and Me m o r y Fo r
Pict ur e s o f Face s " ( Pap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he Ps ycho no m ic S o cie t y,
S e at t le , N o v e m be r 1987).
9. 96 p e r ce nt K. D e ffe nbache r , E . Br o w n, and W . S t ur gill, "Me m o r y fo r Face s
and t he C ir cum s t ance s o f T he ir E nco unt e r " ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he
Ps ycho no m ic S o cie t y, D e nv e r , N o v e m be r 1975). 75 p e r ce nt r e co gnit io n o f high
s cho o l clas s m at e s Bahr ick e t al. ( 2/18).
10. R . J. Phillip s , "R e co gnit io n, R e call, and I m age r y o f Face s ," in Gr une be r g,
Mo r r is , andS yk e s , ( 4/17), 270- 77.
Chapter Notes 2 5 1
11. H . E llis , J . S he p he r d, and G. D av ie s , "An I nv e s t igat io n o f t he U s e o f Pho t o -
Fit T e chnique fo r R e calling Faces," British Journal of Psychology66 ( 1975): 29- 37.
12. Fir s t s t udyJ. D . R e ad and R . G. W ilbur I I , "Av ailabilit y o f Face s and
N am e s in R e call," Perceptual and Motor Skills41 ( 1975): 263- 70. S e co nd s t udyH .
M. C lar k e , "R e call and R e co gnit io n fo r Face s and N am e s ," Journal of Applied
Psychology18 ( 1934): 757- 63.
13. Pr o fe s s o r s Bahr ick ( 2/20). C las s m at e s Bahr ick e t al. ( 2/18). N am e r e c-
o gnit io n fas t e r A. Paiv io and I . Be gg, "Pict ur e s and W o r ds in Vis ual S e ar ch,"
Memory & Cognition 2( 1974): 515- 21.
14. T ip o f T he T o ngue Bur k e ( 2/26). O bje ct iv e fr e que ncyJ . F. H all, "Me m -
o r y fo r S ur nam e s ," Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society19 ( 1982): 320- 22.
15. R e calling nam e s o f clas s m at e s W illiam s and H o llan ( 4/21). R e calling fa-
m o us p e r s o n's nam e Y ar m e y ( 2/25). O bje ct J. E . May and K. N . C layt o n, "I m aginal
Pr o ce s s e s D ur ing t he At t e m p t t o R e call N am e s ," Journal of Verbal Learning and
Verbal Behavior12 ( 1973): 683-88- R e co gnit io n m e m o r y and co nt e xt A. Go lds t e in
and J. C hance , "Labo r at o r y S t udie s o f Face R e co gnit io n," in S he p he r d e t al. ( 13.3),
81- 104; H o r t o n and Mills ( 2/22).
16. S . D . C o x and R . H . H o p k ins , "Pr im ing T r e at m e nt s and Lo ng- t e r m
Me m o r y" ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he Ps ycho no m ic S o cie t y, Pho e nix,
Ar iz., N o v e m be r 1979).
17. S . J. Br ant , "N am e R e call as a Funct io n o f I nt r o duct io n T im e ," Psychological
Reports50 ( 1982): 377- 78.
18. H . Lo r ayne , Remembering People: The Key to Success ( N e w Y o r k : S t e in &
D ay, 1975).
19. A lis t o f m e m o r y- t r aining bo o k s is giv e n in no t e 15 o f chap t e r 9. R e s e ar ch
w it h e lde r ly p e o p le , fo r e xam p le , has fo und p r act ice t o be a v e r y im p o r t ant fact o r in
im p r o v ing nam e - face m e m o r y, s e e Po o n ( 1/4), 449.
20. "I k no w t he face but no t t he nam e "R e e d ( 2/23). S e lf- co ns cio us C . E .
Kim ble and H . D . Ze hr , "S e lf- C o ns cio us ne s s , I nfo r m at io n Lo ad, S e lf- Pr e s e nt at io n,
and Me m o r y in a S o cial S it uat io n "Journal of Social Psychology118( 1982): 39- 46.
21. B. M. Gadze lla and D . A. W hit e he ad, "E ffe ct s o f Audit o r y and Vis ual
Mo dalit ie s in R e call o f W o r ds , "Perceptual and Motor Skills40 ( 1975): 255- 60.
22. D . L. McC ar t y, "I nv e s t igat io n o f a Vis ual I m age r y Mne m o nic D e v ice fo r
Acquir ing Face -N am e As s o ciat io ns ," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
23. Lo r ayne ( 13/18).
24. S e v e r al s t udie s R . S . Malp as s , "T r aining in Face R e co gnit io n," in D av ie s
e t al. ( 13/3), 271- 84; W ino gr ad and S im o n ( 7/17). D is t inct iv e fe at ur e E . W ino gr ad,
"E nco ding O p e r at io ns W hich Facilit at e Me m o r y fo r Face s Acr o s s t he Life S p an," in
Gr une be r g e t al. ( 4/17), 255- 62. T o ld t o r e m e m be r face s P. G. D e v ine and R . S .
Malp as s , "O r ie nt ing S t r at e gie s in D iffe r e nt ial Face R e co gnit io n," Personality and
Social Psychology Bulletin11 ( 1985): 33- 40.
25. K. Laughe r y, B. R ho de s , and G. Bat t e n, "C o m p ut e r - Guide d R e co gnit io n
and R e t r ie v al o f Facial I m age s ," in S he p he r d e t al. ( 13/3), 251- 70.
26. At t r act iv e ne s s J. W . S he p he r d and H . D . E llis , "T he E ffe ct o f At t r act iv e -
ne s s o n R e co gnit io n Me m o r y fo r Face s ," American Journal of Psychology86 ( 1973):
627- 33. R ace J. W . S he p he r d, J. B. D e r e go w s k i, and H . D . E llis , "A C r o s s - C ult ur al
S t udy o f R e co gnit io n Me m o r y fo r Face s ," International Journal of Psychology 9
( 19747): 205- 12. S m ile R . E . Galp e r and J. H o chbe r g, "R e co gnit io n Me m o r y fo r
Pho t o gr ap hs o f Face s , "American Journal of Psychology84 ( 1971): 351-54.
27. J. S he p he r d, G. D av ie s , and H . E llis , "S t udie s o f C ue S alie ncy," in
S he p he r d, e t al. ( 13/3), 105- 32; K. Pe zde k and J. K. R e yno lds , "Facial R e co gnit io n
Me m o r y" ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he Ps ycho no m ic S o cie t y, S e at t le ,
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28. P. N . S hap ir o and S . Pe nr o d, "Me t a- Analys is o f Facial I de nt ificat io n S t ud-
ie s , " Psychological Bulletin100( 1986): 139-56.
29. Lo r ayne ( 13/18), 201.
30. Lo ft us ( 2/3), 186.
31. Landaue r and Bjo r k ( 6/39).
32. A. D . Y ar m e y, "Pr o act iv e I nt e r fe r e nce in S ho r t -T e r m R e t e nt io n o f H um an
Face s ," Canadian Journal of Psychology28 ( 1974): 333- 38.
33. S am e p r incip le s as o t he r m ne m o nics T ur nur e and Lane ( 5/11). E xce p t io n
t o lack o f p r act icalit yLo ft us ( 2/3), 187.
34. Fir s t s t udyP. E . Mo r r is , S . Jo ne s , and P. H am p s o n, "An I m age r y
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( 1978): 335- 36. S e co nd s t udyMcC ar t y ( 13/22).
35. E lde r lyJ. A. Y e s av age , T . L. R o s e , and G. H . Bo w e r , "I nt e r act iv e
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C H A P T E R 14
1. H ar r is and Mo r r is ( 2/20); R e as o n and Mycie ls k a ( 2/24).
2. R e as o n and Mycie ls k a ( 2/24), 243.
3. Badde le y ( 2/3); Po o n ( 1/4).
4. C av anaugh e t al. ( 5/9).
5. Br ack e n ( 7/3), 115.
6. C av anaugh e t al. ( 5/9), 113-22.
7. E lde r lyPo o n ( 1/4); D . H . Kaus le r , "E p is o dic Me m o r y: Me m o r izing Pe r -
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14. USA Weekend, O ct o be r 4- 6, 1985.
15. T he 1970s quo t e s ar e by Allan Paiv io , E r ne s t H ilgar d, Go r do n Bo w e r , and
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( 7/33).
16. A lar ge p ar t o f t his r e s e ar ch has be e n do ne by Jo e l Le v in and Michae l
Pr e s s le y and t he ir as s o ciat e s , and m uch o f it has be e n cit e d in chap t e r s 7 and 8.
Addit io nal r e le v ant r e s e ar ch has be e n s um m ar ize d by H igbe e ( 7/1); N . S . S uzuk i,
"I m age r y R e s e ar ch w it h C hildr e n: I m p licat io ns fo r E ducat io n," in S he ik h and S he ik h
( 4/25), 179- 98; and J. R . Le v in, "E ducat io nal Ap p licat io ns o f Mne m o nic Pict ur e s :
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17. H . Lo r ayne , Good MemoryGood Student ( N e w Y o r k : S t e in & D ay, 1976);
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18. Go o d s t ude nt s Le v in ( 14/16). Gift e d s t ude nt s T . E . S cr uggs , M. A.
Mas t r o p ie r i, J . Mo ns o n, and C . Jo r ge ns e n, "Maxim izing W hat Gift e d S t ude nt s C an
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19. U .S . D e p ar t m e nt o f E ducat io n, What Works( 4/20), 37. T e ache r s ' p e r s p e c-
t iv e D e v ine ( 14/15), 285- 86; C . E . W e ins t e in and R . E . Maye r , "T he T e aching o f
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20. T he Jap ane s e m ne m o nics and U .S . fr act io n m ne m o nics ar e de s cr ibe d in
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Pr o ble m s ," in McD anie l and Pr e s s le y ( 3/10), 407- 27; and K. L. H igbe e and S .
Kunihir a, "C r o s s - C ult ur al Ap p licat io ns o f Y o dai Mne m o nics ," Educational Psychologist
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1987). T he o t he r m ne m o nics ar e als o de s cr ibe d in K. L. H igbe e , "Ap p lie d Mne m o nics
R e s e ar ch Ap p lie d" ( p ap e r p r e s e nt e d at t he m e e t ing o f t he 21s t I nt e r nat io nal C o ngr e s s
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o f Mne m o nics ," in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 1/12). Fo r m o r e info r m at io n o n language - s k ills
2 5 4
C H A PT E R N O T E S
m ne m o nics , co nt act Le land Michae l, MKM, 809 Kans as C it y S t r e e t , R ap id C it y, S .
D ak . 57701; and N ancy S t e v e ns o n, S t e v e ns o n Language S k ills , 85 U p land R o ad,
At t le bo r o , Mas s . 02703. Fo r m o r e info r m at io n o n bas ic m at h m ne m o nics , co nt act Jan
S e m p le at S t e v e ns o n Language S k ills .
21. C hip m an and S e gal ( 6/2).
22. T e xas C hr is t ian U niv e r s it yD ans e r e au ( 6/28). T e xas W e ins t e in and U n-
de r w o o d ( 5/13). S im ilar p r o gr am s W e ins t e in and Maye r ( 14/19).
23. W e ins t e in and Maye r ( 14/19).
24. Pe t e r s o n and S w ing ( 8/26); R . M. Plant , "R e ading R e s e ar ch: I t s I nflue nce
o n C las s r o o m Pr act ice ," Educational Research28 ( 1986), 126- 31.
25. Le v in and Pr e s s le y ( 8/34), 168.
26. Fo r e xam p le , s e e J. Kilp at r ick , "D o ing Mat he m at ics W it ho ut U nde r s t anding
I t : A C o m m e nt ar y o n H igbe e and Kunihir a," Educational Psychologist20 ( 1985): 65-
68. C o m p ar e K. L. H igbe e and S . Kunihir a, "S o m e Que s t io ns ( and a Fe w Ans w e r s )
Abo ut Y o dai Mne m o nics : A R e p ly t o Kilp at r ick , Pr e s s le y, and Le v in," Educational
Psychologist20 ( 1985): 77- 81.
27. W . D . R o hw e r , Jr ., and F. N . D e m p s t e r , "Me m o r y D e v e lo p m e nt and
E ducat io nal Pr o ce s s e s ," in Perspectives on the Development of Memory and Cognition,
e d. R . V. Kail, Jr ., and J. W . H age n ( H ills dale , N .J.: E r lbaum , 1977), 407- 35.
28. S cho o l t as k s W e ins t e in and Maye r ( 14/19), 325. Pr e s ide nt s Lo r ayne ,
Successful Student( 14/17), 14. Lo ft ie r e ducat io nal go als Bo w e r ( 9/8), 70.
29. Go als o f e ducat io nC hip m an and S e gal ( 6/2). Pr o ce s s o f e ducat io nS hue ll
( 4/3).
30. R e v ie w o f m e m o r y r e s e ar chM. J. A. H o w e and S . J. C e ci, "E ducat io nal
I m p licat io ns o f Me m o r y R e s e ar ch," in Applied Problems in Memory, e d. M. M.
Gr une be r g and P. E . Mo r r is ( N e w Y o r k : Acade m ic Pr e s s , 1979), 59. Me m o r izat io n as
a p r e cur s o r t o unde r s t andingB. H aye s -R o t h and C . W alk e r , "C o nfigur al E ffe ct s in
H um an Me m o r y: T he S up e r io r it y o f Me m o r y O v e r E xt e r nal I nfo r m at io n S o ur ce s as a
Bas is fo r I nfe r e nce Ve r ificat io n," Cognitive Science3 ( 1979): 119- 40. I nfe r e nce s T .
E . S cr uggs , M. A. Mo s t r o p ie r i, B. B. McLo o ne , and J. R . Le v in, "Mne m o nic
Facilit at io n o f Le ar ning D is able d S t ude nt s ' Me m o r y fo r E xp o s it o r y Pr o s e," Journal of
Educational Psychology79 ( 1987): 27- 34.
31. R e as o ning and unde r s t andingT . T r abas s o , "T he R o le o f Me m o r y as a
S ys t e m in Mak ing T r ans it iv e I nfe r e nce s ," in Kail and H age n ( 14/27), 333- 66. C o m -
p ut e r p r o gr am M. Le bo w it z, "U s ing Me m o r y in T e xt U nde r s t anding," in Experience,
Memory, and Reasoning, e d. J. L. Ko lo dne r and C . K. R e is be ck ( H ills dale , N .J.:
E r lbaum , 1986). C o nce p t s D ye r and Me ye r ( 7/30). C le ar t hink ingR . Fle s ch, The
Art of Clear Thinking( N e w Y o r k : Bar ne s & N o ble , 1973), 8.
32. I m p o r t ant r o le o f m e m o r yS t e r n ( 2/3), chap . 11; J. L. Ko lo dne r and R . L.
S im p s o n, "Pr o ble m S o lv ing and D ynam ic Me m o r y," in Ko lo dne r and R ie s be ck ( 14/
31). S t udie s o f p r o ble m s o lv ingJ. Br ans fo r d, R . S he r w o o d, N . Vye , and J. R ie s e r ,
"T e aching T hink ing and Pr o ble m S o lv ing: R e s e ar ch Fo undat io ns ," American Psychol-
ogist 41 ( 1986): 1078- 89. Pr o ble m - s o lv ing t e chnique s Br ans fo r d and S t e in ( 8/38,
chap . 3); s e e als o J. B. Be lm o nt , L. Fr e e s m an, and D . Mit che ll, "Pr o ble m S o lv ing
and Me m o r y,"in Gr une be r g e t al. ( 1/12).
33. U .S . D e p ar t m e nt o f E ducat io n, What Works( 4/20), 37.
I ndex
A
Abs e nt m inde dne s s and m e m o r y, 203-
11
p r o s p e ct iv e r e m e m be r ing and, 205-
9
e xt e r nal r e m inde r s , 206- 9
r e t r o s p e ct iv e r e m e m be r ing and,
209- 11
Abs t r act m at e r ial, us ing im age s fo r ,
108- 9
Acr o nym s , us e fulne s s , 98- 101
Acr o s t ics , us e , 98- 101
Age o r yo ut h as affe ct ing abilit y t o
im p r o v e m e m o r y, m yt h as t o ,
9- 10
As s o ciat ing face w it h nam e , 198- 9
As s o ciat io n, 52- 56
r e v ie w ing, 199- 200
At k ins o n, R ichar d, 101
At t e nt io n, p aying, e ffe ct , 59- 61
Bad m e m o r ie s , be ing s t uck w it h,
m yt h as t o , 6- 7
Bas ic p r incip le s fo r r e m e m be r ing, 46-
61
as s o ciat io n and, 52- 56
"T hat r e m inds m e ," 53- 55
t hink ing ar o und it , t e chnique s
fo r , 55- 56
at t e nt io n, e ffe ct s o f p aying, 59- 61
co nt e xt ; e ffe ct s o f le ar ning in ce r -
t ain co nt e xt s , 67- 69
fe e dback in le ar ning, e ffe ct s , 72
ap p licat io n o f p r incip le o f, 73
int e r e s t in t hings , e ffe ct s , 69- 72
im p o r t ance , 71
incr e as ing int e r e s t and, 71
lack o f p aying at t e nt io n, e ffe ct , 59-
61
le ar ning and, 46
m e aningfulne s s , e ffe ct , 46- 50
fam iliar it y and, 47- 48
lack o f s e ns e and, 46- 47
p at t e r ns , us e fulne s s , 49- 50
r hym e s , e ffe ct , 48
o r ganizat io n, e ffe ct iv e ne s s , 50- 53
ge t t ing it all t o ge t he r , ne e d fo r ,
50- 52
s e r ial p o s it io n, e ffe ct , 53
r e laxat io n, e ffe ct s , 64- 67
s t r e s s ful s it uat io ns and, 64- 67
2 5 5
2 5 6 I N D E X
Bas ic p r incip le s fo r r e m e m be r ing (cont.)
r e p e t it io n, im p o r t ance o f, 62- 64
o v e r le ar ning, e ffe ct , 63
r e s ult s , 64
s t r e s s ful s it uat io ns , e ffe ct s o f r e lax-
at io n, 64- 67
v is ualizat io n, e ffe ct s , 56- 59
s t udie s o f v is ual im age r y, 57- 59
c
C ale ndar , us e fulne s s o f m e m o r izing,
97- 98
chunk ing and, 98
C hain s ys t e m o f m ne m o nics . See Link
Mne m o nics
C har act e r is t ics o f m ne m o nic s ys t e m s .
See s p e cific s ubje ct he adings
C hunk ing, p r o ce s s o f, 20- 21, 98
C lut t e r ing yo ur m ind by r e m e m be r ing
t o o m uch, m yt h as t o , 13
C o m p ar is o ns be t w e e n diffe r e nt t yp e s
o f m ne m o nic s ys t e m s . See
s p e cific s ubje ct he adings
C o nt e xt ; e ffe ct s o f le ar ning in ce r t ain
co nt e xt s , 67- 69
D
D e finit io n o f m ne m o nics , 94
D e m o ns t r at io ns us ing Pho ne t ic Mne -
m o nics , 180- 81
D igit - s o und e quiv ale nt s as bas is fo r
Pho ne t ic Mne m o nics , 173- 76
E
E ducat io n, us e o f m ne m o nics in, 211-
17
m e m o r y in, 215- 17
E ide t ic m e m o r y o r im age r y, 40
de s cr ibe d, 40
lim it at io ns o n, 40
E ffe ct iv e le ar ning, s t r at e gie s fo r , 74-
92
ho w w e ll p r incip le s and s t r at e gie s
w o r k , 90- 92
int e r fe r e nce , e ffe ct o f r e duct io n o f;
fact o r s affe ct ing, 75- 78
ho w w e ll m at e r ial is le ar ne d and,
75
int e r v e ning act iv it y, am o unt o f,
75
le ar ning co nt e xt s , s im ilar it ie s ,
76- 77
m e aningfulne s s o f m at e r ial, 75
s im ilar it y o f int e r v e ning act iv it y,
76
t im e be t w e e n le ar ning s e s s io ns ,
77- 78
m e t ho d o f le ar ning, 78- 83
br e ak ing up s t udy t im e , e ffe ct s , 81
w ho le o r p ar t le ar ning, de t e r m ining
e fficie ncy, 81- 83
r e cit at io n
de fine d, 83
us e fulne s s , 83- 85
r ule s fo r m e m o r y, 91- 92
s p acing le ar ning o v e r t im e p e r io ds ,
78- 81
cr am m ing, e ffe ct s , 78- 79
e ffe ct s , 78- 81
m as s e d le ar ning, 80
s p ace d r e p e t it io ns , 78
s t ude nt s , fo r , 74- 92
s t udy m e t ho ds , 85- 90
cr it e r ia fo r , 85
e v aluat io n, 92
que s t io ning co nt e nt s o f bo o k s , 87
r e ading, 87- 88
r e cit at io ns , 88
r e v ie w ing, 88- 90
s ur v e y m e t ho d, 85
E xce p t io nal m e m o r y abilit ie s , ho w
t he y w o r k , 39- 43
E xe r cis ing m e m o r y has e ffe ct lik e e x-
e r cis ing m us cle , m yt h as t o ,
10-12
F
Face s and nam e s o f p e o p le , us ing
m ne no m ics fo r r e m e m be r ing,
188- 202
nam e m e m o r y, fact o r s affe ct ing,
192- 93
Index 2 5 7
r e call and r e co gnit io n and, 191- 92
r e co gnizing face s , 190- 91
r e co gnit io n and r e call and, 191-
92
r e s e ar ch as t o m e m o r y fo r p e o p le ,
189- 93
s ys t e m fo r r e m e m be r ing, 194- 202
as s o ciat io n, r e v ie w ing, 199- 200
face and nam e , as s o ciat io n, 198-
99
face , fo cus ing o n, 196- 98 .
ge t t ing t he nam e , im p o r t ance o f,
194
ho w w e ll t he s ys t e m w o r k s , 200-
2
m ak ing t he nam e m e aningful, 196
Fe e dback in le ar ning, e ffe ct s , 72
Fir s t le t t e r s , us e in m ne m o nics , 98-
101
Fo r ge t t ing
ho w fas t w e fo r ge t , 35- 37
le ar ninig and fo r ge t t ing, co r r e lat io n
be t w e e n, 36
m e m o r y at t ic as illus t r at iv e o f m e -
chanis m s o f fo r ge t t ing, 34
w hy and ho w w e fo r ge t , 33- 35
cue de p e nde ncy and, 34- 35
de cay as r e as o n, 33
dis t o r t io n and, 35
int e r fe r e nce and, 34
r e p r e s s io n and, 33
G
Gr e y, R ichar d, 173
H
H o lm e s , O liv e r W e nde ll, 59
H o w m e m o r y w o r k s , 32- 45
e ide t ic im age r y, 40
de s cr ibe d, 40
e xce p t io nal m e m o r y abilit ie s , ho w
t he y w o r k , 39- 43
fo r ge t t ing, w hy and ho w w e fo r ge t ,
33- 35
cue de p e nde ncy and, 34- 35
de cay as r e as o n, 33
dis t o r t io n and, 35
ho w fas t w e fo r ge t , 35- 37
int e r fe r e nce and, 34
le ar ning and fo r ge t t ing, co r r e la-
t io n be t w e e n, 36
m e m o r y at t ic as illus t r at iv e o f
m e chanis m s o f fo r ge t t ing, 34
r e p r e s s io n and, 33
im age r y, us e fulne s s o f, 39
v is ual im age r y, 39
p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y, 39- 43
de s cr ibe d, 40
p ict ur e s v s . w o r ds , cap acit y fo r
m e m o r y o f p ict ur e s , 38
s le e p le ar ning, ho w w e ll it w o r k s ,
43- 45
s le e p s t age s and, 44
s ublim inal le ar ning and, 44- 45
s ublim inal le ar ning, 44- 45
w o r ds v s . p ict ur e s , cap acit y fo r
m e m o r y o f p ict ur e s , 38
I de as , r e m e m be r ing, us e fulne s s o f
Pe g Mne m o nics fo r , 166- 68
I m age r y, us e
See alsos p e cific s ubje ct he adings
us e fulne s s , 39
v is ual im age r y, 39- 40
I m p r o v ing m e m o r y, e ffe ct s o f yo ut h
o r age , m yt hs abo ut , 9- 10
I nt e r e s t in t hings , e ffe ct , 69- 72
incr e as ing int e nt and, 71
I nt e r fe r e nce , e ffe ct o f r e duct io n o f;
fact o r s affe ct ing e ffe ct iv e
le ar ning and, 75- 78
ho w w e ll m at e r ial is le ar ne d and, 75
int e r v e ning act iv it y, am o unt o f, 75
le ar ning co nt e xt s , s im ilar it y o f, 76-
77
s im ilar it y o f int e r v e ning act iv it y, 76
2 5 8 I N D E X
I nt e r fe r e nce (cont.)
77- 78
I nt r o duct io n t o m ne m o nics , 93- 112
J
Jam e s , W illiam , 11
K
Ke yw o r ds , 101- 2
Pho ne t ic Mne m o nics , fo r , 219- 22
L
Lack o f p aying at t e nt io n, e ffe ct , 59,
61
Le ar ne r s
See alsoE ffe ct iv e le ar ning, s t r at e -
gie s fo r
de fine d, 75
Le ar ning, e ffe ct iv e m e t ho ds o f
ho w w e ll p r incip le s and s t r at e gie s
w o r k , 90- 92
int e r fe r e nce , e ffe ct o f r e duct io n o f;
fact o r s affe ct ing, 75- 78
ho w w e ll m at e r ial is le ar ne d and,
. 75
int e r v e ning act iv it y, am o unt o f,
75
le ar ning co nt e xt s , s im ilar it ie s ,
76- 77
s im ilar it y o f int e r v e ning act iv it y,
76
77- 78
m e t ho d o f le ar ning, 78- 83
br e ak ing up s t udy t im e , e ffe ct s ,
81
w ho le o r p ar t le ar ning, de t e r m in-
ing e fficie ncy, 81- 83
r e cit at io n
de fine d, 83
r ule s fo r m e m o r y, 91- 92
s p acing le ar ning o v e r t im e p e r io ds ,
78- 81
cr am m ing, e ffe ct s , 78- 79
e ffe ct s , 78- 81
s p ace d r e p e t it io ns , 78
s t ude nt s , fo r , 74- 92
s t udy m e t ho ds , 85- 90
cr it e r ia fo r , 85
e v aluat io n, 92
que s t io ning co nt e nt s o f bo o k s ,
87
r e ading, 87- 88
r e cit at io ns , 88
r e v ie w ing, 88- 90
s ur v e y m e t ho d, 85
Le git im acy o f lim it at io ns and p s e udo -
lim it at io ns o n m ne m o nics ,
113- 30
See alsoLim it at io ns o n m ne m o nics ;
Ps e udo - lim it at io ns o n m ne -
m o nics
Lim it at io ns o n m ne m o nics , 113- 21
abs t r act m at e r ial and, 116- 17
im age r y abilit y and, 118- 19
int e r fe r e nce and, 119- 20
le ar ning and r e t e nt io n, 117- 18
m aint e nance and t r ans fe r and, 120-
21
r e t e nt io n and le ar ning and, 117- 78
t r ans fe r and m aint e nance and, 120-
21
Link Mne m o nics
de m o ns t r at io ns , 137- 38
e ffe ct iv e ne s s , 136- 38
lis t s o f t hings , us ing fo r , 139- 41
Lo ci s ys t e m , co m bining w it h, 155-
56
r e p o r t s o r s p e e che s , us ing fo r ,
141- 42
s p e e che s o r r e p o r t s , us ing fo r ,
141- 42
us ing, 139- 43
Lis t s o f t hings , us ing in Link Mne -
m o nics , 139- 41
Lo cat io ns , m e m o r y fo r , Lo ci Mne -
m o nics and, 150- 51
us ing lo cat io n t o aid m e m o r y, 151-
52
Index
2 5 9
Lo ci Mne m o nics , 144- 56
ancie nt fo r m o f m ne m o nics , 144
char act e r is t ics o f, 144- 49
co m bining w it h S t o r y o r Link s ys -
t e m s , 156
de s cr ibe d, 144- 49
Link s ys t e m , co m bining w it h, 156
lo cat io ns , m e m o r y fo r , 150- 51
us ing lo cat io ns t o aid m e m o r y,
151- 52
m e nt al filing s ys t e m , as , 153
s am e Lo ci, us ing o v e r and o v e r
again, 154
o r igin, 145
Pe g s ys t e m , co m p ar is o n w it h, 161-
62
again, 154
S t o r y s ys t e m , co m bining w it h, 156
us ing, 145- 47, 151- 52, 153- 56
Lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y
e p is o dic m e m o r y, 22- 24
p r o ce dur al m e m o r y, 22
s e m ant ic m e m o r y, 22- 23
s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y, r e lat io ns hip
w it h, 24- 25
diagr am m e d, 25
t yp e s , 22- 25
M
Mak ing nam e s m e m o r able , e ffe ct , 196
Mak ing up o w n m ne m o nics , us e ful-
ne s s , 109- 11
Me aningfulne s s , e ffe ct , 46- 50
Me as ur ing m e m o r y, 26- 29
r e call and, 26-27
r e co gnit io n as m e as ur e m e nt , 27- 29
Me m o r izing, e as y w ay as t o , m yt h as
t o , 4- 6
bad m e m o r ie s , m yt h as t o p e o p le
hav ing, 6- 7
Me m o r y at t ic as illus t r at iv e o f m e -
chanis m s o f fo r ge t t ing, 34
Me m o r y in e ducat io n, 215- 17
Me nt al filing s ys t e m s
Link Mne m o nics
Lo ci s ys t e m , co m bining w it h,
155- 56
141- 42
141- 42
us ing, 139- 43
Lo ci Mne m o nics , 144- 56
ancie nt fo r m o f m ne m o nics ,
144
co m bining w it h Link o r S t o r y
s ys t e m s , 156
Link s ys t e m , co m bining w it h,
156
o r igin, 145
Pe g s ys t e m , co m p ar is o n w it h,
161- 62
again, 154
S t o r y s ys t e m , co m bining w it h,
156
us ing, 145- 47, 151- 52, 153- 56
Pe g Mne m o nics , 157- 71
alp habe t p e gs , 160
ide as , us e fulne s s fo r r e m e m be r -
ing, 166- 68
Lo ci Mne m o nics , co m bining w it h,
161- 62
num be r s , us e fulne s s in r e m e m -
be r ing, 168- 69
o r igin, 158- 69
p e gw o r ds , us ing o v e r and o v e r
again, 169- 71
r e p e t it io n o f p e gw o r ds , 169- 71
2 6 0 I N D E X
Me nt al filing s ys t e m s (cont.)
r e s e ar ch s t udie s as t o e ffe ct iv e -
ne s s o f, 163- 64
s cho o lw o r k , e ffe ct iv e ne s s in, 165
us e fulne s s o f, 166- 69
us ing, 158- 59, 166- 71
Pho ne t ic Mne m o nics
de m o ns t r at io ns us ing, 180- 81
digit - s o U nd e quiv ale nt s as bas is
fo r , 173- 76
Gr e y, R ichar d, e ffe ct , 173
k e yw o r ds fo r , 219- 22
num be r s , r e m e m be r ing, 183- 86
o r igin o f, 173
S cr ip t ur e s , p r o gr am de v e lo p e d
fo r le ar ning bas e d o n, 186- 87
s o p his t icat io n o f, 172
s t udie s as t o , 179- 80
us ing t he s ys t e m , 176- 87
v e r s at ilit y o f, 172
v o n Fe inagle , Gr e go r , 173
W ink e lm an, int r o duct io n by, 173
S t o r y Mne m o nics
141- 42
141- 42
us ing, 139- 43
Mir acle s , w o r k ing w it h yo ur m e m o r y.
See Mne m o nics
Mne m o nics , ge ne r ally
abs e nt m inde dne s s and, 203- 11
e xt e r nal r e m e die s and, 206- 9
p r o s p e ct iv e r e m e m be r ing and,
206- 9
r e t r o s p e ct iv e r e m e m be r ing and,
209- 11
abs t r act m at e r ial, us ing im age s fo r ,
108- 9
acr o nym s , us e fulne s s , 98- 101
acr o s t ics , us e , 98- 101
bas ic p r incip le s o f, 102- 4
as s o ciat io n and, 103
at t e nt io n and, 103
ge ne r ally, 102- 4
m e aningfulne s s , 103
o r ganizat io n, 103
v is ualizat io n, 103
cale ndar , us e fulne s s o f m e m o r izing,
97- 98
chunk ing and, 98
chain s ys t e m . See Link Mne m o nics
chunk ing, 98
de fine d, 94
e ducat io n, us e in, 211- 17
m e m o r y in, 215- 17
N ak ane , Mas achik a, 213
fir s t le t t e r s , 98- 101
int r o duct io n t o , 93- 112
k e yw o r ds , 101- 2
le git im acy o f lim it at io ns and p s e udo -
lim it at io ns , 113- 30
See alsoLim it at io ns ; Ps e udo -
Lim it at io ns
lim it at io ns o f, 11321
abs t r act m at e r ial and, 116- 17
im age r y abilit y and, 118- 19
int e r fe r e nce and, 119- 20
le ar ning and r e t e nt io n, 117- 18
m aint e nance and t r ans fe r and,
120- 21
r e t e nt io n and le ar ning, 117- 18
t im e as fact o r , 114- 16
t r ans fe r and m aint e nance and,
. 120- 21
v e r bat im m e m o r y and, 119
Link m ne no m ics
Lo ci s ys t e m , co m bining w it h,
155- 56
141- 42
us ing, 139- 43
Lo ci s ys t e m , 144- 56
ancie nt fo r m o f m ne m o nics , 144
Index 2 6 1
co m bining w it h Link o r S t o r y
s ys t e m s , 156
Link s ys t e m , co m bining w it h,
156
m e nt al filing s ys t e m , as , 153
o r igin, 145
Pe g s ys t e m , co m p ar is o n w it h,
161- 62
s am e Lo ci, us ing o v e r and o v e r ,
154
S t o r y s ys t e m , co m bining w it h,
156
us ing, 145- 47, 151- 52, 153- 56
m ak ing up o w n m ne m o nics , us e ful-
ne s s , 109- 11
m e nt al filing s ys t e m s . See Me nt al
filing s ys t e m s
Pe g m ne m o nics , 157- 71
ide as , us e fulne s s fo r r e m e m be r -
ing, 166- 68
Lo ci m ne m o nics , co m bining w it h,
161- 62
num be r s , us e fulne s s in r e m e m -
be r ing, 168- 69
o r igin, 158- 59
p e gw o r ds , us ing o v e r and o v e r
again, 169- 71
r e s e ar ch s t udie s as t o e ffe ct iv e -
ne s s o f, 163- 64
s cho o lw o r k , e ffe ct iv e ne s s in, 165
us ing, 158- 59, 166- 71
p e o p le 's nam e s and fe ce s , us ing
m ne m o nics fo r r e m e m be r ing,
188- 202
192- 93
r e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y fo r p e o p le ,
189- 93
s ys t e m fo r r e m e m be r ing, 194-
202. See alsoPe o p le 's nam e s
and face s , us ing m ne m o nics fo r
r e m e m be r ing
Pho ne t ic m ne m o nics
digit - s o und e quiv ale nt s as bas is
fo r , 173- 76
k e yw o r ds fo r , 210- 22
o r igin o f, 173
S cr ip t ur e s , p r o gr am de v e lo p e d
fo r le ar ning bas e d o n, 186- 87
v o n Fe inagle , Gr e go r , 173
p r o nunciat io n, 94
p s e udo - lim it at io ns , 121- 30
r hym e s , us e , 95- 96
s am p le s , 95- 96
s t age m ne m o nis t s , fe at s o f, 93
v e r bal and v is ual fo r m s , 94
v e r bal as s o ciat io n, e ffe ct iv e ne s s ,
111- 12
v is ual as s o ciat io ns , m ak ing e ffe c-
t iv e us e o f, 104- 12
v is ual fo r m s , 94
Myt hs abo ut m e m o r y, 1- 15
age as affe ct ing abilit y t o im p r o v e
m e m o r y, 9- 10
bad m e m o r ie s , p e o p le be ing s t uck
w it h, 6- 7
, clut t e r ing m e m o r y by r e m e m be r ing
t o o m uch, 13
e xe cis ing m e m o r y has e ffe ct lik e
e xe r cis ing m us cle , 10- 12
im p r o v ing m e m o r y, e ffe ct s o f age
o r yo ut h, 9- 10
2 6 2
I N D E X
Myt hs abo ut m e m o r y (cont.)
m e m o r izing, e as y w ay as t o , 4- 6
o nly t e n p e r ce nt o f m e nt al p o t e nt ial
is us e d, 14- 15
p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r ie s , p e o p le ar e
ble s s e d w it h,. 7- 8
r e m e m be r ing t o o m uch can clut t e r
yo ur m ind, 13
s e cr e t t o a go o d m e m o r y, e xis t e nce
o f, 3- 4
t hing, m e m o r y as , 2- 3
t r aine d m e m o r y ne v e r fo r ge t s , 12-
13
N
N am e m e m o r y, fact o r s affe ct ing, 192-
93
N am e s and face s o f p e o p le , us ing
188- 202
192- 93
r e call and r e co gnit io n, 191- 92
r e co gnit io n and r e call and, 191-
92
r e s e ar ch as t o m e m o r y fo r p e o p le ,
189- 93
face and nam e , as s o ciat io n, 198-
99
face , fo cus ing o n, 196- 98
194
ho w w e ll t he s ys t e m w o r k s , 200-
2
N um be r s , r e m e m be r ing, 183- 86
us e fulne s s in r e m e m be r ing, 168- 69
o
O nly 10 p e r ce nt o f m e nt al p o t e nt ial is
us e d, m yt h as t o , 14- 15
O r ganizat io n, e ffe ct iv e ne s s , 50- 53
ge t t ing it alt o ge t he r , ne e d fo r , 50-
52
s e r ial p o s it io n e ffe ct and, 53
P
Pe g Mne m o nics , 157- 71
r e s e ar ch s t udie s as t o , 163- 64
ide as , us e fulne s s fo r r e m e m be r ing,
166- 68
Lo ci m ne m o nics , co m bining w it h,
161- 62
num be r s , us e fulne s s in r e m e m be r -
ing, 168- 69
o r igin, 158- 59
p e gw o r ds , us ing o v e r and o v e r ,
169- 71
r e s e ar ch s t udie s as t o e ffe ct iv e ne s s
o f, 163- 64
s cho o lw o r k , us e fulne s s in, 165
us e fulne s s
ide as , r e m e m be r ing, 166- 68
s cho o lw o r k , r e m e m be r ing, 165
us ing 158- 59, 166- 71
Ft e o p le 's nam e s and face s , us ing
188- 202
192- 93
face and nam e , as s o ciat ing, 198-
99
face , fo cus ing o n, 196- 98
194
ho w w e ll s ys t e m w o r k s , 200- 2
r e co gnit io n and r e call, 191- 92
r e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y fo r p e o p le ,
189- 93
Index
2 6 3
Pho ne t ic Mne m o nics
digit - s o und e quiv ale nt s as bas is fo r ,
173- 76
k e yw o r ds fo r , 219- 22
o r igin o f, 173
S cr ip t ur e s , p r o gr am de v e lo p e d fo r
le ar ning bas e d o n, 186- 87
v o nFe inagle , Gr e go r , 173
Pho t o gr ap hic m e m o r y, 39- 43
de s cr ibe d, 40
lim it at io ns , 40
p e o p le w ho ar e ble s s e d w it h, m yt h
as t o , 7- 8
Pict ur e s v s . w o r ds
cap acit y fo r m e m o r y o f p ict ur e s , 38
Pr o ce s s e s and s t age s o f m e m o r y, 17-
19
acquis it io n s t age , 17- 19
r e t r ie v al s t age , 17- 19
s t o r age s t age , 17- 19
Pr o nunciat io n, 94
Ps e udo - lim it at io ns o f m ne m o nics ,
121- 30
cr ut che s , m ne m o nics , as 127- 29
m ne m o nics giv e s yo u m o r e t o r e -
m e m be r , 125- 27
p r act icalit y o f m ne m o nics as is s ue ,
122- 24
t r ick s , m ne m o nics as , 129- 30
unde r s t anding no t aide d by m ne -
m o nics , 124- 25
R
R e cit at io n
de fine d, 83
us e fulne s s o f, 83- 85
R e co gnizing face s , 190- 91
r e co gnit io n and r e call, 191- 92
R e laxat io n, e ffe ct s , 64- 67
R e m e m be r ing, bas ic p r incip le s fo r ,
46- 61
as s o ciat io n and, 52- 56
"T hat r e m inds m e ", 53- 55
t hink ing ar o und it , t e chnique s
fo r , 55- 56
at t e nt io n, e ffe ct s fo r p aying, 59-
61
co nt e xt ; e ffe ct s o f le ar ning in ce r -
t ain co nt e xt s , 67- 9
fe e dback in le ar ning, e ffe ct s , 72
int e r e s t in t hings , e ffe ct s , 69- 72
incr e as ing int e r e s t and, 71
lack o f p aying at t e nt io n, e ffe ct , 59-
61
le ar ning and, 46
m e aningfulne s s , e ffe ct , 46- 50
o r ganizat io n, e ffe ct iv e ne s s , 50- 53
ge t t ing it all t o ge t he r , ne e d fo r ,
50- 52
s e r ial p o s it io n, e ffe ct , 53
r e laxat io n, e ffe ct s , 64- 67
r e p e t it io n, im p o r t ance o f, 62- 64
r e s ult s , 64
s t r e s s ful s it uat io ns , e ffe ct s o f r e lax-
at io n, 64- 67
v is ualizat io n, e ffe ct s , 56- 59
R e p e t it io n, im p o r t ance o f, 62- 64
r e s ult s , 64
R e s e ar ch s t udie s as t o m ne m o nics .
See s p e cific s ubje ct he adings
R hym e s , us e , 95- 96
R ule s fo r m e m o r y, 91- 92
2 6 4 I N D E X
S cho o lw o r k , us e fulne s s o f Pe g Mne -
m o nics in, 165
S cr ip t ur e s , p r o gr am de v e lo p e d fo r
le ar ning bas e d o n; Pho ne t ic
Mne m o nics , 186- 87
S e cr e t t o go o d m e m o r y, m yt h as t o
e xis t e nce o f, 3- 4
S ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y, 19- 22
chunk ing p r o ce s s and, 20- 21
r e lat io ns hip t o lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y,
24- 25
diagr am m e d, 25
S le e p le ar ning, ho w w e ll it w o r k s , 43-
45
s le e p s t age s and, 44
s ublim inal le ar ning, 44- 45
S o p his t icat io n o f Pho ne t ic Mne m o n-
ics , 172
S p acing le ar ning o v e r t im e p e r io ds , e f-
fe ct , 78- 81
cr am m ing, 78- 79
s p ace d r e p e t it io n, 78
S t age m ne m o nis t s , fe at s o f, 93
S t age s and p r o ce s s e s o f m e m o r y, 17-
19
S t o r y Mne m o nics
141- 42
141- 42
us ing, 139- 43
S t udie s as t o s p e cific t yp e s o f m ne -
m o nics , See s p e cific s ubje ct
he adings
S ublim inal le ar ning; s le e p le ar ning,
44- 45
T
T hing, m e m o r y as , 2- 3
T im e as fact o r in m ne m o nics , 114- 16
T ip - o f- t he - t o ngue p he no m e no n
im p licat io ns fo r unde r s t anding w hat
m e m o r y is , 30- 33
T r aine d m e m o r y ne v e r fo r ge t s , m yt h
as t o , 12- 13
U
U s e fulne s s o f m ne m o nics . See s p e cific
s ubje ct he adings
U s ing t he m ne m o nic s ys t e m s . See
s p e cific s ubje ct he adings
V
Ve r bal and v is ual fo r m s o f m ne m o nics ,
94
Ve r bal as s o ciat io ns , e ffe ct iv e ne s s ,
111- 12
Ve r bat im m e m o r y, lim it at io ns o f, 119
Ve r s at ilit y o f Pho ne t ic Mne m o nics ,
172
Vis ual as s o ciat io ns , m ak ing e ffe ct iv e
us e o f, 104- 112
bizar e ne s s , e ffe ct , 107- 8
int e r act io n and, 104- 5
v iv idne s s and, 105
Vis ual and v e r bal fo r m s o f m ne m o nics ,
94
Vis ualizat io n, e ffe ct , 56- 59
Vo n Fe inagle , Gr e go r , 173
W
W e chs le r Me m o r y S cale , 3
W hat m e m o r y is , 16- 31
lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y
diagr am o f s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y-
lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y r e lat io n-
s hip , 25
e p is o dic m e m o r y, 22- 24
p r o ce dur al m e m o r y, 22
Index
2 6 5
s e m ant ic m e m o r y, 22- 23
s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y, r e lat io ns hip
w it h; diagr am o f, 24- 25
t yp e s o f, 22- 25
m e as ur ing m e m o r y, 26- 29
r e call, 26- 27
r e co gnit io n, 27- 29
s ho r t - t e r m m e m o r y, 19- 22
chunk ing p r o ce s s , 20- 21
diagr am o f r e lat io ns hip be t w e e n
lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y and, 25
lo ng- t e r m m e m o r y and; diagr am
o f, 24- 25
w hat go o d it is , 21- 22
s t age s and p r o ce s s e s o f m e m o r y,
17- 19
t ip - o f- t he - t o ngue p he no m e no n
im p licat io ns fo r unde r s t anding
w hat m e m o r y is , 30- 31
W hat yo u can e xp e ct fr o m yo ur m e m -
o r y
Myt hs abo ut
age as affe ct ing abilit y t o im p r o v e
m e m o r y, 9- 10
bad m e m o r ie s , p e o p le be ing
s t uck w it h, 6- 7
clut t e r ing m e m o r y by r e m e m be r -
ing t o o m uch, 13
e xe r cis ing m e m o r y has s am e e f-
fe ct as e xe r cis ing m us cle , 10-
12
im p r o v ing m e m o r y, e ffe ct s o f
yo ut h o r age , 9- 10
m e m o r izing, e as y w ay as t o , 4- 6
o nly 10 p e r ce nt o f m e nt al p o t e n-
t ial is us e d, 14- 15
p ho t o gr ap hic m e m o r ie s , be ing
. ble s s e d w it h, 7- 8
r e m e m be r ing t o o m uch can clut -
t e r yo ur m ind, 13
s e cr e t t o a go o d m e m o r y, e xis -
t e nce o f, 3- 4
t hing, m e m o r y as , 2- 3
t r aine d m e m o r y ne v e r fo r ge t s ,
12- 13
W ink e lm an, int r o duct io n o f Pho ne t ic
Mne m o nics by, 173
W o r ds v s . p ict ur e s
cap acit y fo r m e m o r y o f p ict ur e s , 38
Y
Y o ut h o r age as affe ct ing abilit y t o im -
p r o v e m e m o r y, m yt hs as t o ,
9- 10
About the Author
Kenneth L. Higbee is a p r o fe s s o r o f p s ycho lo gy at Br igham Y o ung
U niv e r s it y, w he r e he t e ache s o n- cam p us and ho m e - s t udy m e m o r y
co ur s e s . H e als o co nduct s r e s e ar ch o n m e m o r y, and has p ublis he d
num e r o us s cie nt ific ar t icle s . I n addit io n, he has giv e n hundr e ds o f
le ct ur e s and w o r k s ho p s , t e aching m e m o r y s k ills and r e p o r t ing his m e m -
o r y r e s e ar ch t hr o ugho ut t he U nit e d S t at e s and in s e v e r al o t he r co unt r ie s .

Kenneth L. Higbee Your Memory How It Works and How To Improve It 2001

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