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612 792 0 FMBEGINPAGE
53 710.81 45 710.81 2 L
0 X
0 K
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1.14 H
0 Z
N
0 12 Q
(T) 45 712 T
275.42 710.81 51.9 710.81 2 L
V
N
(opic #2: Center of Gravity & Pitch Stability) 51.9 712 T
91.92 691.63 45 691.63 2 L
V
0.47 H
N
1 9.5 Q
(Introduction) 45 692.67 T
0.77 (Last time we talked about how a wing generates lift. This time I) 45 682.1
7 P
1.44 (want to get more into airplane design, focusing on the topic of) 45 671.67
P
0.51 (pitch stability or \322where do I place that darn CG\323. If you\325ve eve
r) 45 661.17 P
1.48 (wondered what all those terms like center of lift, neutral point,) 45 650.
67 P
0.6 (aerodynamic center) 45 640.17 P
0.6 (, and center of pressure really mean, then this) 119.8 640.17 P
(is the article for you.) 45 629.67 T
0.23 (Before I get into the meat of the matter) 45 611.17 P
0.23 (, I\325ll spend some time on a) 194.63 611.17 P
1.82 (few very basic but important ideas. Most people know what a) 45 600.67 P
2 F
-0.21 (for) 45 590.17 P
-0.21 (ce) 55.72 590.17 P
1 F
-0.21 ( is so I won\325) 64.15 590.17 P
-0.21 (t explain it here, but I will talk about its rotational) 110.07 590.17 P
0.89 (equivalent. A) 45 579.67 P
2 F
0.89 (moment of for) 100.3 579.67 P
0.89 (ce) 154.99 579.67 P
1 F
0.89 ( \050or) 163.42 579.67 P
2 F
0.89 (moment) 181.02 579.67 P
1 F
0.89 ( for short\051 is simply a) 211.07 579.67 P
0.11 (rotational force. One way to get a rotational force is by applying a) 45 5
69.17 P
1.72 (normal \050linear\051 force at some distance from a pivot point. The) 45 5
58.67 P
0.16 (greater this distance or) 45 548.17 P
2 F
0.16 (moment arm) 134.2 548.17 P
1 F
0.16 ( is, the lar) 182.07 548.17 P
0.16 (ger the moment will) 219.81 548.17 P
0.4 (be. When we talk about airplanes, we must realize that they are 3) 45 537.6
7 P
0.29 (dimensional objects moving through a 3 dimensional world. Such) 45 527.17
P
0.38 (objects can move along 3 linear axes and 3 rotational axes, so we) 45 516.
67 P
2.93 (say that they have \3226 degrees of freedom\323. They can move) 45 506.17
P
0.26 (forward/backward, left/right, or up/down, and they can also pitch,) 45 495
.67 P
0.79 (yaw) 45 485.17 P
0.79 (, and roll. W) 60.19 485.17 P
0.79 (e call the \336rst three types of motion) 109.53 485.17 P
2 F
0.79 (translation) 252.96 485.17 P
1 F
0.79 (,) 294.63 485.17 P
(and the last three types of motion) 45 474.67 T
2 F
(r) 173.91 474.67 T
(otation) 177.25 474.67 T
1 F
(.) 204.15 474.67 T
0.29 (If we apply a linear force to an object such as an airplane, we can) 45 45
6.17 P
1.44 (predict what it will do as long as we know where its center of) 45 445.67
P
1.26 (gravity is. The center of gravity \050CG\051, which is sometimes also) 45
435.17 P
0.69 (called the center of mass, can be thought of as the pivot point of) 45 424
.67 P
1.29 (the object. Here is an example: Picture yourself as an astronaut) 45 414.1
7 P
0.01 (\337oating in space. Y) 45 403.67 P
0.01 (our favourite model airplane is \337oating in front) 117.91 403.67 P
1 (of you, motionless. Y) 45 393.17 P
1 (ou then use your \336nger to apply a force to) 129.05 393.17 P
0.35 (dif) 45 382.67 P
0.35 (ferent parts of the model. If the force you apply passes straight) 55.37 3
82.67 P
-0.02 (through the center of gravity) 45 372.17 P
-0.02 (, your model will move \050translate\051 but) 152.91 372.17 P
1.58 (it will not rotate. If the force you apply passes) 45 361.67 P
0 F
1.58 (almost) 237.68 361.67 P
1 F
1.58 ( straight) 264.57 361.67 P
-0.2 (through the center of gravity) 45 351.17 P
-0.2 (, your model will) 152.17 351.17 P
0 F
-0.2 (mostly) 219.11 351.17 P
1 F
-0.2 ( translate, but) 246 351.17 P
0.82 (it will also rotate slightly) 45 340.67 P
0.82 (. If the force you apply passes nowhere) 142.59 340.67 P
0.22 (near the center of gravity) 45 330.17 P
0.22 (, then your model will mostly rotate, and) 140.68 330.17 P
0.31 (only slightly translate. As you can see, the farther from the center) 45 3
19.67 P
-0.08 (of gravity that you apply your force, the more of it gets turned into) 45
309.17 P
0.82 (a rotational movement, and the less of it becomes a translational) 45 298.
67 P
(movement.) 45 288.17 T
0.46 (W) 45 269.67 P
0.46 (e can apply this idea to the ef) 53.2 269.67 P
0.46 (fect of a single control surface on) 167.21 269.67 P
2.4 (an airplane. If your airplane is \337ying along and you give up) 45 259.17
P
0.7 (elevator) 45 248.67 P
0.7 (, the immediate result will be determined by how big the) 75.19 248.67 P
0.95 (force applied by the control surface is, and how far away it acts) 45 238.
17 P
-0.02 (from the center of gravity) 45 227.67 P
-0.02 (. In the case of up elevator) 141.81 227.67 P
-0.02 (, the change in) 241.71 227.67 P
2.42 (tail lift acts far away from the center of gravity producing a) 45 217.17
P
2.12 (relatively lar) 45 206.67 P
2.12 (ge moment, so the result is mostly rotation \050nose) 95.19 206.67 P
0.53 (pitches up\051 and very little translation \050loss of lift\051. If we com
pare) 45 196.17 P
1.25 (this to application of wing \337aps, we can see that in this second) 45 18
5.67 P
-0.06 (case the change in wing lift is acting much closer to the CG, so we) 45 1
75.17 P
(have more translation \050increase in lift\051 and less rotation. In both of) 4
5 164.67 T
0.64 (the examples above \050change in tail lift, change in wing lift\051 I did)
45 154.17 P
0.15 (not mention that the immediate forces are followed by subsequent) 45 143.6
7 P
0.81 (forces caused by changes in angle of attack. I will come back to) 45 133.1
7 P
(this idea later since it is at the heart of pitch stability) 45 122.67 T
(.) 242.89 122.67 T
108.52 103.13 45 103.13 2 L
V
N
(The Forces on Y) 45 104.17 T
143.69 103.13 107.57 103.13 2 L
V
N
(our Plane) 107.57 104.17 T
-0.05 (Now is a good time to talk about the forces applied to the dif) 45 93.67
P
-0.05 (ferent) 274.87 93.67 P
0.16 (parts of your plane by the air) 45 83.17 P
0.16 (. The important parts of the plane are) 155.11 83.17 P
0.06 (the wing, the horizontal stabilizer) 45 72.67 P
0.06 (, and the vertical \336n. These three) 172.2 72.67 P
1.74 (parts all work in very similar ways, and in fact all your plane) 45 62.17
P
0.77 (really consists of is several wings held in position by a fuselage.) 45 51
.67 P
324 45 576 720 R
7 X
V
0 X
1.85 (How your plane acts is determined by the orientation of these) 324 713.67
P
0.32 (\322wings\323 \050horizontal or vertical\051, their size and shape, and ho
w far) 324 703.17 P
(away they are from the center of gravity) 324 692.67 T
(.) 475.98 692.67 T
2.07 (If we take a cross-section of one of these \322wings\323 we get an) 324 67
4.17 P
2 F
0.37 (airfoil) 324 663.67 P
1 F
0.37 (, which is a simple 2 dimensional shape that can be used to) 347.74 663.67
P
0.76 (describe many aspects of \337ight. The pressure distribution around) 324 6
53.17 P
1.27 (the airfoil can be drawn as a bunch of tiny arrows showing the) 324 642.67
P
-0.22 (individual forces acting on the airfoil. W) 324 632.17 P
-0.22 (e can combine these into a) 476.67 632.17 P
1.62 (single lift force positioned at what we call the) 324 621.67 P
2 F
1.62 (center of lift) 514.45 621.67 P
1 F
1.62 ( or) 564.1 621.67 P
2 F
0.42 (aer) 324 611.17 P
0.42 (odynamic center) 336.3 611.17 P
1 F
0.42 ( of the airfoil and which acts perpendicular to) 399.71 611.17 P
2.58 (the oncoming air) 324 600.67 P
2.58 (. Along with this translational force there is) 392.95 600.67 P
0.59 (almost always a rotational moment about the aerodynamic center) 324 590.17
P
3.34 (since the individual tiny forces don\325) 324 579.67 P
3.34 (t all point in the same) 477.32 579.67 P
0.29 (direction. Note that we could have chosen any point on the airfoil) 324 56
9.17 P
0.05 (and talked about the lift produced there and the rotational moment) 324 55
8.67 P
0.77 (around it, however we chose the aerodynamic center since it has) 324 548.1
7 P
0.92 (one very important property: The magnitude of the aerodynamic) 324 537.67
P
0.72 (moment around it does not change with angle of attack, only the) 324 527.1
7 P
0.24 (magnitude of the lift vector does. This makes it a very convenient) 324 51
6.67 P
0.95 (spot, worthy of the name \322aerodynamic center\323. Now for a very) 324 5
06.17 P
2.08 (astounding fact: The aerodynamic center of ALL airfoils is at) 324 495.67
P
0.74 (almost exactly 25% of the way along the chord from the leading) 324 485.17
P
0.6 (edge. This does not change - ever) 324 474.67 P
0.6 (. The only exceptions are when) 454.39 474.67 P
0.42 (the air \337ow separates from the airfoil, or when the speed of \337ight)
324 464.17 P
0.99 (approaches mach 1. In supersonic \337ight, the aerodynamic center) 324 453
.67 P
-0.2 (of all airfoils moves back to almost exactly 50% of their chord, but) 324
443.17 P
-0.22 (very few of us R/C modelers will ever encounter this kind of speed) 324 4
32.67 P
(with our models!) 324 422.17 T
1.24 (W) 324 403.67 P
1.24 (e can extend the idea of a 2 dimensional airfoil \050in\336nite span) 332.
2 403.67 P
0.35 (wing\051 to a three dimensional \050\336nite span\051 wing. The aerodynami
c) 324 393.17 P
0.04 (center or center of lift of a wing has all the same properties as was) 324
382.67 P
0.42 (described for an airfoil, except it is harder to talk about the chord) 324
372.17 P
0.62 (of a wing, especially if the wing is swept and/or tapered. In such) 324 36
1.67 P
3.89 (cases we use a special mean \050or average\051 aerodynamically) 324 351.17
P
6.16 (equivalent chord in all of our calculations. This) 324 340.67 P
2 F
6.16 (mean) 555.44 340.67 P
-0.19 (aer) 324 330.17 P
-0.19 (odynamic chor) 336.3 330.17 P
-0.19 (d) 392.43 330.17 P
1 F
-0.19 (, or MAC for short, can usually be derived with) 397.17 330.17 P
0.4 (simple high school geometry and formulas \050see \336gure 1\051. A more) 32
4 319.67 P
-0.22 (precise de\336nition of the MAC is \322the chord through the centroid of)
324 309.17 P
-0.03 (your wing\325) 324 298.67 P
-0.03 (s plan area, whose aerodynamic center is representative) 365.36 298.67 P
1.3 (of the wing as a whole.\323 If your wing has a simple rectangular) 324 288.
17 P
-0.13 (planform, like that of many R/C aircraft, the MAC is really easy to) 324
277.67 P
0.58 (\336gure out - it\325) 324 267.17 P
0.58 (s the same as the chord half way along the span. If) 378.22 267.17 P
1.03 (your wing is swept and/or tapered \050i.e. has a trapezoidal shape\051,) 3
24 256.67 P
-0.23 (the method shown in \336gure 1 can be used to \336nd out the length and)
324 246.17 P
-0.08 (position of the MAC. For more complex wings, such as those with) 324 235.
67 P
1.71 (multiple tapers or curved outlines, \336rst break up the wing into) 324 22
5.17 P
1.49 (equal span trapezoids, then use the method in \336gure 1 on each) 324 214.
67 P
-0.03 (trapezoid and combine the results using an area-weighted average.) 324 20
4.17 P
0.29 (In any case, once you know where the MAC is on your airplane\325) 324 193.
67 P
0.29 (s) 572.31 193.67 P
2.14 (wing, you can be certain that the aerodynamic center and the) 324 183.17 P
0.43 (center of lift of the wing will be 25% back from the leading edge) 324 172
.67 P
(of the MAC.) 324 162.17 T
358.54 124.13 324 124.13 2 L
V
N
(Figure 1:) 324 125.17 T
0.16 (Geometrical method for MAC determination, using half of wing\325) 324 114.
67 P
0.16 (s) 572.31 114.67 P
0.1 (span: Add the length of the tip chord below the root chord and the) 324 104
.17 P
0.33 (length of the root chord above the tip chord. Draw a line between) 324 93.
67 P
0.71 (the two endpoints just created. Where this line intersects the line) 324 8
3.17 P
1.36 (from the midpoint of the root chord to the mid point of the tip) 324 72.67
P
0.79 (chord is the centroid of the trapezoidal wing shape and indicates) 324 62.
17 P
(the location of the MAC. The aerodynamic center of the wing will) 324 51.67 T
45 729 576 756 R
7 X
V
1 20 Q
0 X
(From The Aeronautics File) 198 742.67 T
1 14 Q
(By Max Feil) 504 742.67 T
FMENDPAGE
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612 792 0 FMBEGINPAGE
1 9.5 Q
0 X
0 K
(be one quarter of the way along the MAC from its leading edge.) 45 749.67 T
1.27 ( Y) 45 513.3 P
1.27 (ou may have guessed by now that we can extend the idea of) 54.55 513.3 P
1.61 (aerodynamic center from the \322wings\323 on an airplane \050i.e. main) 45
502.8 P
0.87 (wing and stab\051 to the entire airplane. The aerodynamic center or) 45 49
2.3 P
0.17 (center of lift of the entire airplane will be somewhere between the) 45 48
1.8 P
0.51 (centers of lift of the wing and stab, and closer to the lar) 45 471.3 P
0.51 (ger) 260.5 471.3 P
0.51 (, more) 272.24 471.3 P
-0.09 (ef) 45 460.8 P
-0.09 (fective lift producer) 52.2 460.8 P
-0.09 (. When you think about it, this makes perfect) 126.88 460.8 P
1.95 (sense. What may not be so obvious is that this point on your) 45 450.3 P
0.53 (airplane is \336xed and never moves, as long as your airplane keeps) 45 43
9.8 P
0.59 (\337ying and as long as it doesn\325) 45 429.3 P
0.59 (t break the sound barrier! Angle of) 161.7 429.3 P
0.7 (attack, airfoil selection, and angles of incidence do not af) 45 418.8 P
0.7 (fect the) 268.1 418.8 P
0.03 (position of the plane\325) 45 408.3 P
0.03 (s aerodynamic center) 125.48 408.3 P
0.03 (. In fact, if you take two) 205.65 408.3 P
1.51 (totally dif) 45 397.8 P
1.51 (ferent airplanes and they have the same relative sizes) 83.52 397.8 P
0.67 (and shapes of wing and tail, their aerodynamic centers will be in) 45 387.
3 P
-0.19 (the same relative position. This is something to keep in mind when) 45 37
6.8 P
2.13 (making rough sketches of a new design, since starting with a) 45 366.3 P
(proven outline \050top view\051 will help ensure your chance of success.) 45 35
5.8 T
1 (The airplane\325) 45 337.3 P
1 (s aerodynamic center or center of lift is also called) 96.35 337.3 P
0.25 (the) 45 326.8 P
2 F
0.25 (Neutral Point) 59.23 326.8 P
1 F
0.25 (\050NP\051 due to its ef) 114.05 326.8 P
0.25 (fect on stability of the aircraft,) 180.28 326.8 P
-0.09 (which I will talk about in a minute. First I\325ll take a second to recap
) 45 316.3 P
-0.03 (the last few paragraphs. W) 45 305.8 P
-0.03 (e talked about airfoils, then wings made) 145.6 305.8 P
1.75 (up of airfoils, then airplanes made up of wings. Each of these) 45 295.3 P
1.83 (objects has one special point called the) 45 284.8 P
2 F
1.83 (aer) 207.77 284.8 P
1.83 (odynamic center) 220.07 284.8 P
1 F
1.83 ( or) 284.89 284.8 P
2 F
0.2 (center of lift) 45 274.3 P
1 F
0.2 ( or) 91.81 274.3 P
2 F
0.2 (neutral point) 104.86 274.3 P
1 F
0.2 (. All three of these names refer to the) 154.37 274.3 P
0.43 (same spot, but we must always be careful to mention whether we) 45 263.8 P
0.89 (are referring to a 2-d airfoil, a wing, or to the entire airplane. In) 45
253.3 P
0.34 (normal usage, when we say \322center of lift\323 we are usually talking) 4
5 242.8 P
1.53 (about a wing, and when we say \322neutral point\323 we are usually) 45 232
.3 P
1.29 (talking about the entire aircraft, but this may not always be the) 45 221.
8 P
1.69 (case. As an example consider a \337ying wing aircraft. The wing) 45 211.3
P
1.41 (center of lift and aircraft neutral point will be at the same spot) 45 200
.8 P
(since there is no tail!) 45 190.3 T
156.49 170.76 45 170.76 2 L
V
0.47 H
0 Z
N
(Center of Pressure Debunked) 45 171.8 T
0.73 (Now is probably the best time to mention the) 45 161.3 P
2 F
0.73 (center of pr) 225.33 161.3 P
0.73 (essur) 270.73 161.3 P
0.73 (e) 290.41 161.3 P
1 F
0.73 (,) 294.63 161.3 P
3.36 (which is likely the most misunderstood concept in \322layman) 45 150.8 P
-0.12 (aerodynamics\323. Luckily it is also quite meaningless when it comes) 45
140.3 P
0.66 (to aircraft design. Remember when I introduced the center of lift) 45 129.
8 P
0.66 (earlier) 45 119.3 P
0.66 (, I also said that you cannot talk about the translational lift) 68.86 119
.3 P
1.91 (acting at that point without always remembering the rotational) 45 108.8 P
1.17 (moment about that point. W) 45 98.3 P
1.17 (ell the center of pressure is a tricky) 155.7 98.3 P
0.64 (combination of both of these ideas \050translation and rotation\051, and)
45 87.8 P
2.01 (as a result becomes intuitively hard to deal with. One way to) 45 77.3 P
-0.09 (de\336ne center of pressure \050CP\051 is \322that point at which the lif
t vector) 45 66.8 P
0.26 (would have to act in order to create the correct rotational moment) 45 56.
3 P
45 45 297 756 C
49.72 528.63 292.28 746.5 C
157.47 677.38 157.35 593.5 2 L
0.5 H
2 Z
0 X
0 K
N
69.22 713.5 69.22 605.5 267.22 578.5 267.22 632.5 4 Y
N
267.22 605.5 69.22 659.5 2 L
11 X
N
267.22 632.5 267.22 740.5 2 L
N
69.22 605.5 69.22 551.5 2 L
N
267.22 740.5 69.22 551.5 2 L
N
3 9 Q
0 X
(Cr) 55.72 640.72 T
(Cr) 271.24 682.47 T
(Ct) 271.72 604 T
(Ct) 55.72 574.47 T
(MAC) 159.22 614.5 T
(a.c.) 159.35 653.88 T
156.92 655.36 157.8 656.29 0.44 RR
V
N
143.43 659.06 154.97 655.75 143.43 652.44 144.64 655.75 4 Y
V
144.64 655.75 128.72 655.75 2 L
N
81.75 652.69 70.22 656 81.75 659.31 80.55 656 4 Y
V
108.97 656 80.55 656 2 L
N
61.16 701.96 64.47 713.5 67.78 701.96 64.47 703.17 4 Y
V
64.47 703.17 64.47 693.25 2 L
N
67.53 668.04 64.22 656.5 60.91 668.04 64.22 666.83 4 Y
V
64.22 680 64.22 666.83 2 L
N
(d) 115.97 653.75 T
(y) 61.72 684.5 T
3 8 Q
(Cr = Root Chord, Ct = T) 106.43 573.01 T
(ip Chord) 191 573.01 T
(Length of MAC: MAC = 2/3[Cr+Ct - CrCt/\050Cr+Ct\051]) 110.55 563.67 T
(MAC distance from root: d = span/2) 80.29 554.67 T
3 6 Q
( x) 208.5 554.67 T
3 8 Q
( \050Cr-MAC\051/\050Cr-Ct\051) 213.17 554.67 T
(a.c. distance from root l.e.: y = d) 72.55 545.67 T
3 6 Q
(x) 190.99 545.67 T
3 8 Q
( tan\050theta\051 + MAC/4) 193.99 545.67 T
(\050theta = sweep angle at l.e.\051) 169.88 536.38 T
45 45 297 756 C
0 0 612 792 C
324 45 576 756 R
7 X
0 K
V
1 9.5 Q
0 X
0.27 (about the aerodynamic center) 324 749.67 P
0.27 (.\323 As an example, consider a normal) 436.29 749.67 P
0.37 (\337at bottom wing. Its center of lift will be at 25% MAC. W) 324 739.17 P
0.37 (ings of) 549.53 739.17 P
0.62 (this type \050positive camber\051 all have an inherent negative \050leadin
g) 324 728.67 P
4.05 (edge down\051 pitching moment, which is constant about the) 324 718.17 P
0.24 (aerodynamic center for all angles of attack before stall. But as the) 324
707.67 P
0.81 (angle of attack of a wing changes, the amount of lift it produces) 324 697
.17 P
-0.05 (also changes. Because of the way it is de\336ned, the wing\325) 324 686.6
7 P
-0.05 (s CP must) 537.59 686.67 P
-0.18 (move as the size of the lift vector increases or decreases in order to) 3
24 676.17 P
0.97 (keep the negative pitching moment of the wing constant. As the) 324 665.67
P
-0.14 (angle of attack and therefore the lift of a wing increases \050such as at
) 324 655.17 P
0.77 (the start of a loop\051, the center of pressure moves forward from a) 324
644.67 P
0.22 (position behind the aerodynamic center) 324 634.17 P
0.22 (, getting close to but never) 474.21 634.17 P
1.2 (quite reaching the aerodynamic center) 324 623.67 P
1.2 (. Similarly) 473.23 623.67 P
1.2 (, when angle of) 513.89 623.67 P
0.05 (attack decreases \050such as when you push down on the stick to lose) 324
613.17 P
3.03 (some altitude or do an outside loop\051, the wing\325) 324 602.67 P
3.03 (s CP moves) 525.12 602.67 P
0.25 (backward. When the lift vector reaches zero \050at an angle of attack) 324
592.17 P
1.55 (just under 0 degrees\051 the CP will actually be millions of miles) 324 58
1.67 P
1.08 (behind the wing, at minus in\336nity! As angle of attack decreases) 324 57
1.17 P
1.12 (further) 324 560.67 P
1.12 (, the CP pops over to plus in\336nity and starts approaching) 349.45 560.6
7 P
0.82 (the aerodynamic center from the front. All this movement of the) 324 550.1
7 P
1.53 (CP happens without any change in the pitching moment of the) 324 539.67 P
0.67 (wing, which is constant. In other words, a change in the position) 324 529
.17 P
0.37 (of the CP is totally meaningless when trying to make conclusions) 324 518.
67 P
0.5 (about rotational motion or forces. For this reason I will not use it) 324 5
08.17 P
2.85 (at all when talking about pitch stability or center of gravity) 324 497.67
P
-0.04 (location. Anybody I have ever heard try to do so has either made a) 324 4
87.17 P
1.73 (total mess, or has used the term center of pressure by mistake) 324 476.67
P
0.79 (when they really should have said aerodynamic center or neutral) 324 466.1
7 P
3 (point. One \336nal point about center of pressure: Symmetrical) 324 455.67 P
2.4 (airfoils do not have a built-in pitching moment, therefore the) 324 445.17
P
-0.17 (center of pressure does not move with changes in the magnitude of) 324 43
4.67 P
3.59 (the lift vector) 324 424.17 P
3.59 (. The wing\325) 381.8 424.17 P
3.59 (s CP will always be right at the) 432.48 424.17 P
-0.18 (aerodynamic center) 324 413.67 P
-0.18 (, unless the wing\325) 398.02 413.67 P
-0.18 (s camber changes through the) 463.91 413.67 P
2.13 (use of \337aps or ailerons. As an aside, since model rockets are) 324 403.
17 P
3.31 (almost always symmetrical objects with no control surfaces,) 324 392.67 P
2.42 (model rocket designers use the term CP instead of NP when) 324 382.17 P
0.7 (talking about rocket stability) 324 371.67 P
0.7 (, perhaps without even realizing that) 434.37 371.67 P
(they would not be able to do so in dif) 324 361.17 T
(ferent circumstances.) 465.4 361.17 T
378.06 341.63 324 341.63 2 L
V
0.47 H
0 Z
N
(Pitch Stability) 324 342.67 T
2.16 (W) 324 332.17 P
2.16 (e have \336nally arrived at the point where we can talk about) 332.2 332.1
7 P
0.22 (stability) 324 321.67 P
0.22 (. But \336rst, what do I mean by stability? Stability is simply) 353.97 32
1.67 P
0.17 (a tendency to go against a disturbance. For example, if your plane) 324 31
1.17 P
0.36 (is \337ying along and a gust of wind causes its nose to pitch up, you) 324
300.67 P
1.47 (want your plane to immediately oppose that motion so that the) 324 290.17
P
4.34 (pitch up is limited. This type of stability is called static) 324 279.67 P
0.51 (longitudinal stability) 324 269.17 P
0.51 (. If your plane was statically unstable, then a) 402.73 269.17 P
1.48 (slight pitch up caused by some disturbance would lead to even) 324 258.67
P
0.04 (more pitch up, which in turn would cause even more pitch up, and) 324 248.
17 P
-0.12 (so on. The result in an extreme case would be a very fast transition) 324
237.67 P
1.26 (from level \337ight to a vertical attitude with possible shedding of) 324
227.17 P
0.62 (wings or complete loss of pitch \050elevator\051 control. In a mild case)
324 216.67 P
2.99 (of instability or even reduced stability) 324 206.17 P
2.99 (, the model will seem) 482.56 206.17 P
3.16 (\322squirrely\323 in pitch, with the pilot having to make frequent) 324 19
5.67 P
2.79 (corrections for unexpected pitch changes. Some airplanes are) 324 185.17 P
-0.12 (designed with relaxed pitch stability) 324 174.67 P
-0.12 (, but in those cases a computer) 460.5 174.67 P
2.79 (is often used to quickly respond to pitch changes and make) 324 164.17 P
(corrections on behalf of the pilot to keep the plane \337ying straight.) 324 15
3.67 T
1.98 (I will now tell you the cardinal rule of pitch stability: For an) 324 135.
17 P
0.11 (airplane to be stable in pitch, its center of gravity must be forward) 324
124.67 P
0.98 (of the airplane\325) 324 114.17 P
0.98 (s neutral point by a safety factor called the static) 383.43 114.17 P
0.54 (mar) 324 103.67 P
0.54 (gin. The static mar) 338.59 103.67 P
0.54 (gin is usually expressed as a percentage of) 411.2 103.67 P
-0.01 (the length of the MAC. If the static mar) 324 93.17 P
-0.01 (gin is zero \050i.e. CG right at) 474.29 93.17 P
0.71 (NP\051 then the aircraft is termed \322neutrally stable\323, hence the ter
m) 324 82.67 P
-0.1 (\322neutral point\323. For conventional airplane designs \050i.e. planes w
ith) 324 72.17 P
1.11 (a wing and a stab\051 the static mar) 324 61.67 P
1.11 (gin should be between 5% and) 454.19 61.67 P
0.65 (15% of the MAC. An example will help here. Consider a typical) 324 51.17 P
FMENDPAGE
%%EndPage: "2" 3
%%Page: "3" 3
612 792 0 FMBEGINPAGE
1 9.5 Q
0 X
0 K
-0.05 (high wing trainer) 45 749.67 P
-0.05 (. A very likely NP location for this aircraft would) 109.75 749.67 P
0.31 (be at 38% of the MAC of its main wing. This can vary quite a bit) 45 739.1
7 P
1.56 (depending on the size of the wing vs. the tail and the distance) 45 728.67
P
2.59 (between the wing and the tail, but 38% MAC is a perfectly) 45 718.17 P
0.71 (realistic number) 45 707.67 P
0.71 (. If we wanted to use a 10% MAC static mar) 106.61 707.67 P
0.71 (gin,) 282.5 707.67 P
-0.11 (we would come up with a desired CG location of 28% MAC. Note) 45 697.17 P
1.45 (that this location is just slightly behind the center of lift of the) 45 6
86.67 P
-0.06 (main wing, which is at 25% MAC. This means that our tail will be) 45 676.
17 P
2.34 (slightly lifting in straight and level \337ight, unless the negative) 45 6
65.67 P
0.07 (pitching moment of the wing is big enough to overcome the entire) 45 655.1
7 P
0.61 (moment that is produced by having the CG behind the CL of the) 45 644.67 P
0.55 (main wing. Whether the tail lifts or not has no ef) 45 634.17 P
0.55 (fect on stability) 235.1 634.17 P
0.55 (,) 294.63 634.17 P
0.61 (as long as we have an appropriate static mar) 45 623.67 P
0.61 (gin. In fact since the) 217.33 623.67 P
0.3 (most common rule of thumb for R/C planes is to put the CG 30%) 45 613.17 P
1.69 (back from the leading edge of the MAC, and since this is 5%) 45 602.67 P
0.65 (behind the main wing\325) 45 592.17 P
0.65 (s center of lift, I\325ll bet that a lot more R/C) 132.1 592.17 P
(planes \337y with lifting tails than most people think.) 45 581.67 T
1.32 (Now let\325) 45 563.17 P
1.32 (s see why having the CG in front of the NP makes an) 79.27 563.17 P
0.77 (airplane stable. Remember that the NP is the center of lift of the) 45 552
.67 P
1.23 (entire aircraft. If a disturbance causes the plane to pitch up, the) 45 54
2.17 P
2.32 (angle of attack of both the main wing and the stabilizer will) 45 531.67 P
1.72 (increase, which causes an increase in the magnitude of the lift) 45 521.17
P
-0.03 (vector at the airplane\325) 45 510.67 P
-0.03 (s NP but no change in the rotational moment) 127.42 510.67 P
0.26 (about the NP) 45 500.17 P
0.26 (. W) 94.03 500.17 P
0.26 (e now have the equivalent of a linear force acting) 107.24 500.17 P
0.25 (behind the center of gravity) 45 489.67 P
0.25 (. As was discussed at the beginning of) 150.28 489.67 P
2.93 (this article, this will cause a nose-down moment which will) 45 479.17 P
3.77 (oppose the original disturbance. Simple, isn\325) 45 468.67 P
3.77 (t it? A similar) 233.21 468.67 P
0.07 (sequence of events takes place if the disturbance is in the opposite) 45 4
58.17 P
2.83 (direction, except the restoring moment will be nose-up. This) 45 447.67 P
1.32 (explanation can also be used to illustrate the unstable condition) 45 437.
17 P
1.3 (when the CG is behind the NP) 45 426.67 P
1.3 (. In that case the extra linear lift) 167.2 426.67 P
0.41 (force caused by the disturbance will create a moment in the same) 45 416.1
7 P
2.29 (direction as the disturbance. This starts a very quick \322vicious) 45 405
.67 P
0.06 (cycle\323 that will \337ip the plane out of control before a pilot has tim
e) 45 395.17 P
1.68 (to react. See \336gure 2 for a diagram which shows the stability-) 45 384.
67 P
7.45 (related forces acting on airplanes of several dif) 45 374.17 P
7.45 (ferent) 274.87 374.17 P
(con\336gurations.) 45 363.67 T
79.54 307.13 45 307.13 2 L
V
0.47 H
0 Z
N
(Figure 2:) 45 308.17 T
2.08 (Force setups of various airplane con\336gurations. There are \336ve) 45 29
7.67 P
1.51 (general CG locations, depending on your model\325) 45 287.17 P
1.51 (s design. They) 238.88 287.17 P
(are:) 45 276.67 T
2.27 (2.1 Conventional. CG at 20 to 25% of MAC from the MAC) 45 258.17 P
2.99 (leading edge, or a bit further back, as far as 28% or more) 45 247.67 P
1.85 (\050depending on the airfoil\051 to overcome part or all of the main) 45 2
37.17 P
(wing\325) 45 226.67 T
(s negative pitching moment.) 66.62 226.67 T
0.31 (2.2 Conventional with lifting tail. CG located as far aft as 80% of) 45 20
8.17 P
(the MAC from the MAC leading edge.) 45 197.67 T
-0.01 (2.3 T) 45 179.17 P
-0.01 (andem wings \050fore and aft wings of roughly equal areas\051. CG) 64.36
179.17 P
(located somewhere between the wings.) 45 168.67 T
1.23 (2.4 Canard \050horizontal tail \336rst\051. CG located ahead of aft lar) 4
5 150.17 P
1.23 (ger) 284.88 150.17 P
(wing.) 45 139.67 T
(2.5 Flying wing. CG at 9 to 17% of MAC.) 45 121.17 T
324 45 576 756 R
7 X
V
0 X
4.35 (Fig. 2-1. Force arrangement for longitudinal stability in a) 324 749.67 P
0.64 (conventional, rear) 324 739.17 P
0.64 (-tailed aircraft. The CG acting ahead of the CL) 392.98 739.17 P
2.9 (combines with the \050normally\051 negative pitching moment if a) 324 728.6
7 P
2.21 (cambered wing section is employed. The resulting nose down) 324 718.17 P
2.48 (force must be overcome by a \322down load\323 on the horizontal) 324 707.6
7 P
(tailplane.:) 324 697.17 T
1.02 (Fig. 2-2. Force arrangement for longitudinal stability in a lifting) 324 5
70.75 P
1.1 (tail \050eg. free-\337ight\051 model. As always the NP is behind the CG.) 3
24 560.25 P
0.64 (The tailplane is normally an airfoil section, usually \337at bottomed) 324
549.75 P
1.13 (and contributes to the overall lift, of) 324 539.25 P
1.13 (fsetting the ef) 467.45 539.25 P
1.13 (fect of the aft) 521.73 539.25 P
2.35 (CG. This force setup is used on high performance free \337ight) 324 528.75
P
1.24 (models, with horizontal tail surface areas roughly 35 to 45% of) 324 518.2
5 P
(their wing areas, which moves the NP rearward:) 324 507.75 T
-0.11 ( Fig. 2-3. Force arrangement for longitudinal stability in a tandem-) 324
389.67 P
0.03 (winged aircraft. The NP is roughly halfway between the 1/4 chord) 324 379.
17 P
(points of the two wings, with the CG ahead of it:) 324 368.67 T
0.79 (Fig. 2-4. Force arrangement for longitudinal stability in a canard) 324 25
3.2 P
0.48 (aircraft. The NP is further back, closer to the lar) 324 242.71 P
0.48 (ger aft wing, and) 510.25 242.71 P
(the CG is ahead of it:) 324 232.21 T
1.14 (Fig. 2-5. Force arrangement for longitudinal stability in a \337ying) 324
94.08 P
2.21 (wing. NP is right at wing CL. W) 324 83.58 P
2.21 (ing must have a POSITIVE) 462.76 83.58 P
1.43 (pitching moment to balance the CG in front of the CL. This is) 324 73.08 P
0.47 (usually provided by a re\337exed airfoil, and/or sweep plus washout) 324 6
2.58 P
324 45 576 756 C
324.66 604.58 575.34 694 C
451.62 642.12 M
422.03 641.84 377.14 633.57 345.43 638.38 D
338.7 639.4 339.13 645.51 356.98 648.9 D
381.24 653.54 392.87 647.58 414.98 646.07 D
423.67 645.48 443.64 644.1 451.62 642.12 D
0.5 H
2 Z
0 X
0 K
N
366.85 663.16 369.06 670.85 371.26 663.16 369.06 663.96 4 Y
V
369.06 643.72 369.06 663.96 2 L
N
334.04 642.26 334.58 634.27 329.89 640.75 332.23 640.75 4 Y
V
339.83 651.07 M
334.79 650.45 332.11 645.53 332.25 640.75 D
0 Z
N
536.67 642.1 M
521.88 641.97 505.09 637.26 489.24 639.43 D
485.87 639.89 480.43 643.63 489.35 645.16 D
501.48 647.25 507.3 644.56 518.36 643.88 D
522.7 643.61 532.68 642.99 536.67 642.1 D
2 Z
N
498.26 633.24 496.88 628.44 495.5 633.24 496.88 632.74 4 Y
V
496.88 632.74 496.88 642 2 L
N
3 9 Q
(lift) 354 658.27 T
(downlift) 499 628.27 T
366.54 624.87 364.06 616.22 361.58 624.87 364.06 623.97 4 Y
V
364.06 623.97 364.06 643.35 2 L
N
(gravity) 369.5 620.77 T
376.85 663.16 379.06 670.85 381.26 663.16 379.06 663.96 4 Y
V
379.06 643.72 379.06 663.96 2 L
N
(NP) 382 656.27 T
324 45 576 756 C
0 0 612 792 C
324 45 576 756 C
325.71 405 574.29 504.58 C
449.96 466.52 M
420.36 466.24 375.47 457.98 343.77 462.78 D
337.03 463.8 337.47 469.91 355.31 473.3 D
379.57 477.95 391.2 471.99 413.32 470.48 D
422.01 469.89 441.97 468.5 449.96 466.52 D
0.5 H
2 Z
0 X
0 K
N
365.18 487.56 367.39 495.25 369.6 487.56 367.39 488.36 4 Y
V
367.39 468.13 367.39 488.36 2 L
N
332.37 466.66 332.92 458.68 328.22 465.16 330.57 465.15 4 Y
V
338.17 475.48 M
333.12 474.86 330.45 469.93 330.58 465.15 D
0 Z
N
3 9 Q
(lift) 352.33 482.67 T
377.37 450.28 374.89 441.63 372.41 450.28 374.89 449.38 4 Y
V
374.89 449.38 374.89 468.75 2 L
2 Z
N
(gravity) 378.33 447.17 T
386.68 487.56 388.89 495.25 391.1 487.56 388.89 488.36 4 Y
V
388.89 468.13 388.89 488.36 2 L
N
(NP) 390.33 479.67 T
550.53 466.65 M
531.51 466.47 502.65 461.15 482.27 464.24 D
477.94 464.9 478.22 468.83 489.69 471.01 D
505.29 473.99 512.76 470.16 526.98 469.19 D
532.57 468.81 545.4 467.92 550.53 466.65 D
N
495.8 479.35 497.45 485.12 499.11 479.35 497.45 479.95 4 Y
V
497.45 467.68 497.45 479.95 2 L
N
475.17 467.6 475.29 461.61 472.01 466.63 473.77 466.54 4 Y
V
478.67 472.4 M
475.71 472.04 474.02 469.37 473.81 466.58 D
0 Z
N
(lift) 501 477.78 T
324 45 576 756 C
0 0 612 792 C
324 45 576 756 C
324.92 287.04 575.08 365.5 C
566.99 329.39 M
546.06 329.18 514.31 323.34 491.89 326.74 D
487.13 327.46 487.44 331.78 500.06 334.18 D
517.21 337.46 525.44 333.25 541.08 332.18 D
547.22 331.76 561.34 330.78 566.99 329.39 D
0.5 H
2 Z
0 X
0 K
N
506.95 343.93 508.6 349.7 510.26 343.93 508.6 344.53 4 Y
V
508.6 330.52 508.6 344.53 2 L
N
483.92 329.82 484.22 323.84 480.8 328.75 482.55 328.71 4 Y
V
487.94 335.71 M
484.47 335.29 482.59 332 482.57 328.71 D
0 Z
N
3 9 Q
(lift) 512.5 341.86 T
425.49 329.89 M
404.56 329.68 372.81 323.84 350.39 327.24 D
345.63 327.96 345.94 332.28 358.56 334.68 D
375.71 337.96 383.94 333.75 399.58 332.68 D
405.72 332.26 419.84 331.28 425.49 329.89 D
2 Z
N
365.45 344.43 367.1 350.2 368.76 344.43 367.1 345.03 4 Y
V
367.1 331.02 367.1 345.03 2 L
N
342.43 330.31 342.72 324.34 339.3 329.25 341.06 329.21 4 Y
V
346.44 336.21 M
342.97 335.79 341.09 332.5 341.07 329.21 D
0 Z
N
(lift) 371 342.36 T
440.81 349.51 443.01 357.2 445.22 349.51 443.01 350.31 4 Y
V
443.01 330.07 443.01 350.31 2 L
2 Z
N
(NP) 444.46 341.62 T
430.49 311.23 428.01 302.57 425.53 311.23 428.01 310.32 4 Y
V
428.01 310.32 428.01 329.7 2 L
N
(gravity) 431.46 308.12 T
324 45 576 756 C
0 0 612 792 C
324 45 576 756 C
325.18 146.41 574.82 229.04 C
566.76 186.31 M
537.17 186.03 492.28 177.76 460.57 182.57 D
453.84 183.59 454.27 189.7 472.12 193.09 D
496.38 197.73 508.01 191.78 530.13 190.27 D
538.82 189.67 558.78 188.29 566.76 186.31 D
0.5 H
2 Z
0 X
0 K
N
481.99 207.35 484.2 215.04 486.4 207.35 484.2 208.15 4 Y
V
484.2 187.91 484.2 208.15 2 L
N
454.17 185.95 454.72 177.97 450.02 184.44 452.37 184.44 4 Y
V
459.97 194.76 M
454.93 194.15 452.26 189.22 452.39 184.44 D
0 Z
N
391.82 185.29 M
377.02 185.16 360.23 180.45 344.38 182.62 D
341.01 183.08 335.57 186.82 344.49 188.35 D
356.62 190.44 362.44 187.75 373.5 187.07 D
377.84 186.81 387.82 186.18 391.82 185.29 D
2 Z
N
3 9 Q
(lift) 486.64 200.96 T
433.18 166.07 430.7 157.41 428.22 166.07 430.7 165.16 4 Y
V
430.7 165.16 430.7 184.54 2 L
N
(gravity) 436.14 161.96 T
446.49 204.85 448.7 212.54 450.9 204.85 448.7 205.65 4 Y
V
448.7 185.41 448.7 205.65 2 L
N
(NP) 451.64 197.96 T
350.69 194.13 352.07 198.94 353.45 194.13 352.07 194.64 4 Y
V
352.07 185.38 352.07 194.64 2 L
N
(lift) 357 195.52 T
324 45 576 756 C
0 0 612 792 C
FMENDPAGE
%%EndPage: "3" 4
%%Page: "4" 4
612 792 0 FMBEGINPAGE
1 9.5 Q
0 X
0 K
(and/or raised elevons, etc.:) 45 749.67 T
93.24 641.88 45 641.88 2 L
V
0.47 H
0 Z
N
(Designing Y) 45 642.92 T
161.35 641.88 92.29 641.88 2 L
V
N
(our Own Airplane) 92.29 642.92 T
1.76 (When you design your own plane, whether its con\336guration is) 45 632.42
P
-0.12 (conventional, lifting tail, tandem wing, canard, or \337ying wing, you) 4
5 621.92 P
0.53 (now know the two main design parameters for giving it adequate) 45 611.42
P
1.54 (longitudinal stability: The Neutral Point location, and the static) 45 600
.92 P
0.93 (mar) 45 590.42 P
0.93 (gin. Y) 59.59 590.42 P
0.93 (ou must determine these before you can tell where the) 83.3 590.42 P
(CG should be.) 45 579.92 T
0.47 (Determining the NP location: The most basic way of locating the) 45 561.42
P
1.81 (NP is to use the relative areas of the two horizontal lifting) 57.53 550.9
2 P
2.68 (surfaces, and locate the NP proportionately along the line) 57.53 540.42 P
0.01 (between the 25% MAC chord points of the two wings. In other) 57.53 529.92
P
3.31 (words, percentage distance = \050wing1 area\051/\050wing1 area +) 57.53 51
9.42 P
-0.06 (wing2 area\051. For example a tandem wing aircraft with wings of) 57.53 5
08.92 P
0.54 (equal area will \050according to this simple formula\051 have an NP) 57.53
498.42 P
0.35 (that is about mid way between the two quarter) 57.53 487.92 P
0.35 (-chord points of) 235.68 487.92 P
-0.2 (the two wings. Similarly) 57.53 477.42 P
-0.2 (, if an airplane has a canard that is 50%) 149.64 477.42 P
0.6 (the size of the main \050aft\051 wing, then this formula gives an NP) 57.53
466.92 P
0.7 (location that is one-third of the way between the main wing\325) 57.53 456.
42 P
0.7 (s) 293.31 456.42 P
(CL and the canard\325) 57.53 445.92 T
(s CL.) 130.01 445.92 T
0.44 (There are complicating factors, however) 56.66 427.42 P
0.44 (, that make the simple) 211.68 427.42 P
3.81 (area based formula inaccurate. If the two \322wings\323 have) 57.53 416.92
P
0.08 (dif) 57.53 406.42 P
0.08 (ferent aspect ratios, then the NP will be located closer to the) 67.9 406.
42 P
0.65 (one that is slimmer \050and therefore more ef) 57.53 395.92 P
0.65 (\336cient\051. Also, since) 221.89 395.92 P
1.34 (the rear wing operates in disturbed air) 57.53 385.42 P
1.34 (, the NP will be more) 209.1 385.42 P
0.38 (forward than the simple calculation predicts. The fuselage and) 57.53 374.
92 P
1.85 (propeller af) 57.53 364.42 P
1.85 (fect the location of the NP as well, as does the) 103.22 364.42 P
0.47 (presence of \337oats, etc. In spite of all this, if you understand at) 57.
53 353.92 P
0.27 (least the major factors that af) 57.53 343.42 P
0.27 (fect the NP location, you can add) 169.13 343.42 P
0.76 (a \322fudge factor\323 and arrive at a much better starting point for) 57.
53 332.92 P
1.07 (\337ight testing. If you are interested in more complex methods) 57.53 322
.42 P
1.15 (for NP determination, I can direct you to several sources for) 57.53 311.9
2 P
(this kind of information.) 57.53 301.42 T
4.21 (Determining the static mar) 45 282.92 P
4.21 (gin: A good rule of thumb for) 158.93 282.92 P
1.27 (conventional, lifting tail, and \337ying wing designs is to make) 57.53 27
2.42 P
-0.02 (the static mar) 57.53 261.92 P
-0.02 (gin 5 to 15 percent of the MAC of the main wing.) 108.46 261.92 P
0.49 (For tandem wing and canard designs, 15 to 25% or more may) 57.53 251.42 P
2.09 (be needed, especially if your NP calculation is too simple.) 57.53 240.92
P
0.72 (Using a conservative CG location as a starting point, you can) 57.53 230.4
2 P
2.78 (begin \337ight testing. Keep in mind that there are ways of) 57.53 219.92
P
1.57 (reducing the risk of \337ight testing. The March 1993 issue of) 57.53 209.
42 P
1.79 (Radio Control Modeler \050RCM\051 magazine had a really good) 57.53 198.92
P
0.92 (article on doing initial \337ight testing using small balsa \322chuck) 57.
53 188.42 P
2.95 (gliders\323 of your intended design. The article was entitled) 57.53 177.9
2 P
5.21 (\322Model Modeling - Pre-testing your design\323, by Clay) 57.53 167.42 P
(Ramskill.) 57.53 156.92 T
81.12 137.38 45 137.38 2 L
V
N
(Flying W) 45 138.42 T
128.99 137.38 80.74 137.38 2 L
V
N
(ing Example) 80.74 138.42 T
1.46 (I will now give an example of pitch stability calculations for a) 45 127.9
2 P
0.24 (non-conventional type of airplane. I own a Klingber) 45 117.42 P
0.24 (g W) 244.17 117.42 P
0.24 (ing \337ying) 260.11 117.42 P
0.88 (wing glider and a few months ago I wanted to calculate where I) 45 106.92
P
-0.06 (would put the CG so I could compare this to where the plans show) 45 96.4
2 P
0.97 (the correct CG range. The \336rst thing I had to \336gure out was the) 45
85.92 P
1.39 (location of the neutral point of the aircraft. Luckily on a \337ying) 45 7
5.42 P
0.02 (wing this is easy since it will be the same as the wing center of lift) 45
64.92 P
0.53 (- at 25% of the MAC. The Klingber) 45 54.42 P
0.53 (g W) 184.55 54.42 P
0.53 (ing is swept and tapered,) 200.78 54.42 P
45 45 297 756 C
46.41 658.25 295.59 746.5 C
254.59 693.96 M
212.32 693.56 148.18 681.75 102.89 688.61 D
93.27 690.08 93.89 698.8 119.39 703.65 D
154.04 710.28 170.66 701.77 202.26 699.61 D
214.67 698.76 243.19 696.79 254.59 693.96 D
0.5 H
2 Z
0 X
0 K
N
133.33 723.46 136.64 735 139.95 723.46 136.64 724.67 4 Y
V
136.64 696.25 136.64 724.67 2 L
N
85.17 704.41 94.89 706.75 87.89 699.61 87.4 702.51 4 Y
V
87.38 702.53 M
83.06 697.17 82.82 688.08 87.39 682.75 D
N
3 9 Q
(lift) 122.5 717.91 T
(NP) 140.5 718.41 T
119.89 677.28 117.41 668.63 114.93 677.28 117.41 676.37 4 Y
V
117.41 676.37 117.41 695.75 2 L
N
(gravity) 122.85 673.17 T
45 45 297 756 C
0 0 612 792 C
324 45 576 756 R
7 X
0 K
V
1 9.5 Q
0 X
0.69 (so I used the geometrical method shown in \336gure 1 to determine) 324 749
.67 P
1.36 (the mean aerodynamic chord. I ran into dif) 324 739.17 P
1.36 (\336culty with the next) 495.72 739.17 P
1.7 (step since at the time I had no idea how big the static mar) 324 728.67 P
1.7 (gin) 563.87 728.67 P
-0.08 (should be. At this point I decided to look at the plans and calculate) 32
4 718.17 P
0.2 (backwards. According to my numbers, they showed the allowable) 324 707.67 P
0.55 (CG range to be between 9% and 17% MAC. This means that the) 324 697.17 P
-0.22 (static mar) 324 686.67 P
-0.22 (gin they recommend is between 8% and 16% MAC. This) 360.77 686.67 P
2.49 (is not too dif) 324 676.17 P
2.49 (ferent than the 5% to 15% recommendation for) 379.57 676.17 P
0.2 (conventional designs. I can attest to the need for at least 8% static) 324
665.67 P
1.37 (mar) 324 655.17 P
1.37 (gin on the Klingber) 338.59 655.17 P
1.37 (g wing, since at \336rst I had the CG very) 416.6 655.17 P
0.42 (close to the rearward limit - maybe even a little behind it. During) 324 6
44.67 P
0.72 (the \336rst few test \337ights I lost control several times in tight turns
,) 324 634.17 P
0.19 (resulting in spiral dives into the ground. This taught me to respect) 324
623.67 P
6.36 (the rearward CG limit shown on plans, especially for) 324 613.17 P
0.51 (unconventional designs. T) 324 602.67 P
0.51 (o \336x the stability problem, I moved the) 424.27 602.67 P
0.81 (CG forward to increase the static mar) 324 592.17 P
0.81 (gin from 7% to about 12%) 471 592.17 P
(MAC.) 324 581.67 T
379.89 562.13 324 562.13 2 L
V
0.47 H
0 Z
N
(The Final Step) 324 563.17 T
0.02 (Now that we know how to \336gure out the approximate CG position) 324 552.
67 P
1.43 (needed to make our airplane stable in pitch, the \336nal step is to) 324 5
42.17 P
1.56 (choose an exact spot for the CG within the range of allowable) 324 531.67
P
1.55 (positions. As we move rearward within this range, the airplane) 324 521.17
P
1.32 (will become slightly more unstable but also more responsive in) 324 510.67
P
0.37 (pitch. As we move forward, the airplane will become more stable) 324 500.1
7 P
0.62 (but we may run out of elevator authority) 324 489.67 P
0.62 (, especially when \337aring) 481.37 489.67 P
(for landings.) 324 479.17 T
1.49 (The spot you choose for your CG within the stable range is to) 324 460.67
P
0.6 (some extent up to your personal preference - how you want your) 324 450.17
P
3.69 (airplane to handle. However sometimes there are additional) 324 439.67 P
0.7 (factors involved such as improving ground handling, or trying to) 324 429.1
7 P
0.49 (increase ef) 324 418.67 P
0.49 (\336ciency by reducing drag. Let\325) 365.16 418.67 P
0.49 (s look at a conventional) 483.89 418.67 P
2.39 (design: a high performance glider) 324 408.17 P
2.39 (. W) 461.14 408.17 P
2.39 (e can gain ef) 476.47 408.17 P
2.39 (\336ciency by) 531.7 408.17 P
0.74 (making the tail not provide any lift in cruising \337ight - remember) 324
397.67 P
1.44 (that lift also means drag, and that the wing is more ef) 324 387.17 P
1.44 (\336cient at) 541.61 387.17 P
0.7 (providing lift than the tail. T) 324 376.67 P
0.7 (o do this we simply place the CG at) 434.92 376.67 P
5.31 (the aerodynamic \322balance point\323 of the main wing. For) 324 366.17 P
1.27 (symmetrical airfoils, this will be at exactly the center of lift, or) 324
355.67 P
0.26 (25% MAC. For most other airfoils, this point is a little behind the) 324 3
45.17 P
2.18 (center of lift since we have to take into account the negative) 324 334.67
P
2.34 (pitching moment of the wing itself. An example CG location) 324 324.17 P
2.26 (might then be 28% MAC. Now we have a tail that does not) 324 313.67 P
0.33 (normally provide any down lift or up lift. Our glider is still stable) 324
303.17 P
1.55 (since we still have a healthy static mar) 324 292.67 P
1.55 (gin \050NP will be at 35%) 480.98 292.67 P
-0.03 (MAC or more\051. The glider) 324 282.17 P
-0.03 (, when perturbed by a gust of wind, will) 424.44 282.17 P
0.79 (have pitch stability since the tail will momentarily provide up or) 324 27
1.67 P
(down lift to help straighten out the nose.) 324 261.17 T
360.91 241.63 324 241.63 2 L
V
N
(Summary) 324 242.67 T
0.82 (That\325) 324 232.17 P
0.82 (s it for another installment of \322From the aeronautics \336le\323. I) 34
4.04 232.17 P
2.59 (hope that what I said made some sense. The main points to) 324 221.67 P
(remember are:) 324 211.17 T
1.53 (- Airfoils, wings, and airplanes all have a very important point) 324 192.
67 P
0.86 (referred to by one of three names: aerodynamic center) 324 182.17 P
0.86 (, center of) 536.07 182.17 P
(lift, neutral point.) 324 171.67 T
0.97 (- The \322center of pressure\323 is a strange beastie that is useless for)
324 161.17 P
(our purposes.) 324 150.67 T
1.09 (- For adequate longitudinal \050i.e. pitch\051 stability) 324 140.17 P
1.09 (, the CG must be) 507.59 140.17 P
(forward of the NP by a safety factor called the \322static mar) 324 129.67 T
(gin\323.) 543.37 129.67 T
2.8 (- The NP location depends mostly on the relative areas and) 324 119.17 P
0.79 (locations of the forward vs. the rear \322wings\323 on an airplane, and) 3
24 108.67 P
0.07 (will be located in proportion to those areas \050with a \322fudge factor\3
23\051) 324 98.17 P
(somewhere between the quarter chord points of those wings.) 324 87.67 T
0.67 (Next time I will explain why dihedral provides roll stability) 324 69.17 P
0.67 (. The) 555.83 69.17 P
(answer may surprise you!) 324 58.67 T
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612 792 0 FMBEGINPAGE
324 45 576 756 R
7 X
0 K
V
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612 792 0 FMBEGINPAGE
54 90 531 738 C
54 90 531 738 R
7 X
0 K
V
187.25 458.88 187.12 375 2 L
0.5 H
2 Z
0 X
N
232.7 687.29 M
190.43 686.93 142.45 673.47 97.16 679.65 D
87.54 680.97 72 691.65 97.5 696.02 D
132.15 702 148.77 694.33 180.36 692.38 D
192.78 691.62 221.29 689.84 232.7 687.29 D
N
232.7 615.21 M
190.43 614.81 126.29 603 81 609.86 D
71.38 611.33 72 620.05 97.5 624.9 D
132.15 631.53 148.77 623.02 180.36 620.86 D
192.78 620.01 221.29 618.04 232.7 615.21 D
N
99 495 99 387 297 360 297 414 4 Y
N
297 387 99 441 2 L
11 X
N
297 414 297 522 2 L
N
99 387 99 333 2 L
N
297 522 99 333 2 L
N
3 9 Q
0 X
(Cr) 85.5 422.22 T
(Cr) 301.02 463.97 T
(Ct) 301.5 385.5 T
(Ct) 85.5 355.97 T
(MAC) 189 396 T
(a.c.) 189.12 435.38 T
186.7 436.86 187.58 437.8 0.44 RR
V
N
173.21 440.56 184.75 437.25 173.21 433.94 174.42 437.25 4 Y
V
174.42 437.25 158.5 437.25 2 L
N
111.54 434.19 100 437.5 111.54 440.81 110.33 437.5 4 Y
V
138.75 437.5 110.33 437.5 2 L
N
90.94 483.46 94.25 495 97.56 483.46 94.25 484.67 4 Y
V
94.25 484.67 94.25 474.75 2 L
N
97.31 449.54 94 438 90.69 449.54 94 448.33 4 Y
V
94 461.5 94 448.33 2 L
N
(d) 145.75 435.25 T
(y) 91.5 466 T
3 8 Q
(Cr = Root Chord, Ct = T) 136.21 354.51 T
(ip Chord) 220.79 354.51 T
(Length of MAC: MAC = 2/3[Cr+Ct - CrCt/\050Cr+Ct\051]) 140.33 345.17 T
(MAC distance from root: d = span/2) 110.07 336.17 T
3 6 Q
( x) 238.28 336.17 T
3 8 Q
( \050Cr-MAC\051/\050Cr-Ct\051) 242.95 336.17 T
(a.c. distance from root l.e.: y = d) 102.33 327.17 T
3 6 Q
(x) 220.77 327.17 T
3 8 Q
( tan\050theta\051 + MAC/4) 223.77 327.17 T
(\050theta = sweep angle at l.e.\051) 199.66 317.88 T
111.44 644.71 114.75 656.25 118.06 644.71 114.75 645.92 4 Y
V
114.75 617.5 114.75 645.92 2 L
N
64.89 615.99 65.5 604 58.63 613.84 62.15 613.78 4 Y
V
73 628 M
65.98 627.14 62.18 620.45 62.16 613.79 D
0 Z
N
3 9 Q
(a.c.) 118.5 615 T
115.69 715.46 119 727 122.31 715.46 119 716.67 4 Y
V
119 688.25 119 716.67 2 L
2 Z
N
(a.c.) 121.5 686.25 T
258.78 558.92 M
237.64 558.72 205.57 552.81 182.93 556.24 D
178.12 556.98 178.43 561.34 191.18 563.76 D
208.5 567.08 216.81 562.82 232.61 561.74 D
238.82 561.32 253.08 560.33 258.78 558.92 D
N
198.15 573.67 199.8 579.44 201.46 573.67 199.8 574.27 4 Y
V
199.8 560.06 199.8 574.27 2 L
N
174.88 559.31 175.18 553.32 171.75 558.24 173.51 558.21 4 Y
V
178.93 565.31 M
175.43 564.88 173.53 561.55 173.51 558.24 D
0 Z
N
(a.c.) 201.68 557.67 T
347.53 652.76 M
326.39 652.58 302.4 645.85 279.76 648.94 D
274.95 649.6 267.17 654.95 279.92 657.13 D
297.25 660.12 305.56 656.28 321.36 655.31 D
327.56 654.93 341.82 654.04 347.53 652.76 D
2 Z
N
289.02 666.85 290.67 672.62 292.33 666.85 290.67 667.45 4 Y
V
290.67 653.24 290.67 667.45 2 L
N
(a.c.) 291.92 651.1 T
0 0 612 792 C
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