An Egyptian Bestiary

Author(s): Dorothea Arnold

Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, Vol. 52, No. 4, An Egyptian
Bestiary (Spring, 1995), pp. 1+7-64
Published by: The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3269051 .
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Dorothea Arnold
THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART
An
Egyptian Bestiary
:'
4w-6
In the most famousliterarywork
of ancient Egypt, Sinuhe, a
nobleman, fearingthe wrath of
a new pharaoh, fleesEgypt and
crosses the eastern desert into Asia.
Years later, asan old man, he returns
and describes hisperilous journeys:
"An attack of thirst overtook me,"
he writesabout adventures duringhis
desert crossing. "I wasparched, my
throat burned. I said, 'Thisisthe taste
of death."' To the ancient Egyptians
the vast arid landsflankingtheir fer-
tile valleycould indeed carrythe threat
of death. If theyventured beyond the
valleymargins, theymight suffer as
did Sinuhe, fall victim to predators,
or encounter strange and foreign
people. It must have seemed fitting
that the desert wasa "land of death,"
where the Egyptians buried their dead.
However, the desert wasalso the
bountiful realm that provided stone
for Egypt's magnificent buildings and
statuary, gold and semiprecious gems
for jewelry, metalsand minerals for
luxurygoodsand weapons, and clay
for pOtS. Most importantly, in ancient
timesthe Egyptian desert wasteeming
with wildlife.
Duringthe prehistoric period and
the Old Kingdom, the areasborder-
ingthe Nile valleyon the east and
west were steppe rather than barren
wasteland, supporting patches of grass,
shrubs, and even occasional trees.
Minor watercourses and sporadic rains
nourished the plants, and the vegeta-
tion in turn sustained a rich varietyof
animals. For humanslivingin the
Nile valley, wild steppe game consti-
tuted an important source of food in
these earlytimesand served asoffer-
ingsto the godsthrough all periodsof
Egyptian history. Huntingsteppe ani-
malsin the wide open landsgave
kingsand noblesample opportunities
to prove their valor and feel them-
selvesto be masters of the universe.
In Egyptian religion the existence of
abundant animal life in the "land of
death" became a potent symbol of life
after death. Innumerable representa-
tionsof desert and steppe animalsin
tombsand royal funerary monuments,
aswell asthe use of such animals as
amuletic objects, are evidence of this.
Duringthe whole pharaonic period,
wild herd animals such asantelope
and ibex and predators such aslions
and leopards roamed the steppe while
it turned gradually into desert. Many
other creatures-from tinyjerboas,
whose longhind legsenabled them
to perform acrobatic leaps, to hedge-
hogsand wildcats-made their homes
in the hillysteppe region. There were
still elephants and giraffes in thisarea
in fourth millennium Egypt, but they
gradually diminished ascultivation,
raisinglivestock, and clearingwood-
land, alongwith climatic changes,
caused steppe vegetation to recede.
Today, although the Egyptian desert
still supports some vegetation and wild-
life, man hasbrought manyEgyptian
desert species to the brink of extinction,
and the desert and steppe environ-
mentsthat the ancient Egyptians
knew can be found onlyin present-
daySudan or farther south.
7
The Egyptian Desert
I. Comb
Predynastic, ca. 3200 B.C. Ivory; h. 2X4 in.
(S.7 cm). Theodore M. DavisCollection,
Bequest of Theodore M. Davis, I9Ii
(30.8.224)
The animalsminutelycarved in relief
on thissmall comb (itsteeth now
missing) have been identified with
more or lesscertainty. On one side
(from the top) are a row of elephants
standingon giant cobras, then one
of a stork, which hasa snake under its
beak (indicating either itsfood or the
wetland environment it inhabits),
leadinga giraffe, three more storks,
and a heron or crane. The next three
rowsinclude a dogattacking the
hindmost of three large felines, a line
of antelope (possiblyone gazelle and
three oryx), and a line of what might
be dogsor pigs, endingin a star or
flower. On the comb's other side the
toptwo rowsare repeated, but below
them are canids(jackals?) in a row,
followed bycattle or wild bulls, and
again a line of dogsor pigs. The ani-
malsalternate directions from row to
r
row. Thlscreates an lmpresslon or
continuityand perpetuity, while the
fact that the entire space isfilled with
animalsspeaksof an overwhelming
abundance of animal life.
The elephants are more schemati-
callypresented than the other animals,
and their position atopthe serpents
seemsto be symbolic. The mythology
of manyAfrican peoplesassociates ele-
phantsand serpents with the creation
8
2. The Hunt in the Steppe
Saqqara, Dynasty, probablyca. 23S0 B.C.
Limestone; h. 23X4 in. (60.3 cm). Rogers
Fund, I908 (08.20I.Ig)
The bow and arrow wasthe most im-
. * * .
portant huntlngweapon ln anclent
Egypt, but duringthe Old and early
Middle Kingdoms grazinganimals
were often hunted with lassosafter
the herd had been driven into a stock-
ade. It wasimportant to catch the
animals alive so that theycould be fat-
tened in captivitybefore theywere
slaughtered. One detail (top) showsan
ibex, Capra ibex nubiana, beingroped
in the hillylandscape of the steppe.
The pen isnot represented in this
relief, asit isin manyother hunting
scenes. Dogsaccompany the hunts-
men; in the other detail (bottom)
one hound catchesa Dorcasgazelle,
Gazella dorcas, bythe leg, while
another attacks a hyena. A hare and a
gazelle crouch behind treesand bushes
to escape the hunters. Hieroglyphic
inscriptions give the animals' names
and describe the lasso hunt.
In addition to the well-known
complete tomb of Perneb, the Museum
ownsthe funerary chapel of Prince
Ra-m-kaj. The detailshere are taken
from a relief on itssouth wall. The
prince and heir to the throne must
have died prematurely, because a
tomb originally carved for a judge
named Neferiretnes wasadapted for
. i
. l1S lnterment.
of the universe. The uppermost row
of each relief maythusrepresent a cre-
ative deityto whom the rest of the
animals owe their existence. No human
beingisdepicted on the comb, but the
presence of the attacking dogshown
asdomesticated byitsupward-curling
tail hintsat the existence of man,
the hunter. Comparison with phara-
onic representations, such asthe
drawingin number I2, mayeven sug-
gest that thisdogbelongsto a ruling
chieftain or king.
While ivoryin pharaonic times
wasveryoften of hippo tooth, this
comb ismade of elephant ivory, an
indication that elephants maystill
have been roamingthe desert-steppes
at the end of the fourth millennium
B.C. Bythe beginningof dynastic his-
tory, elephants and giraffes were gone
from Egypt, and todaylionsno
longer live there.
6
01
V \
3. Gazelle
Dynasty I8, ca. I400 B.C. Tinted ivory,
wood, and blue-pigment inlay; h. 4/2 in.
(II.5 cm). Purchase, Edward S. Harkness
Gift, I926 (26.7.I292)
A love poem of the New Kingdom
likensthe passion of the lover to the
intensityof a gazelle asit fleesthe
hunter:
O that you came to your sister [lover]
swiftly,
Like a boundinggazelle in the wild;
Itsfeet reel, itslimbsare weary,
Terror hasentered itsbody.
A hunter pursues it with hishounds.
Thiselegant ivorygazelle seems
poised for just such a flight, itsslen-
der legsset daintilyon the uneven
ground of the steppe. It standsamong
desert plantsthat are incised into the
wooden base and filled with blue pig-
ment. The plumplittle bodyis
smooth and lustrous, the head held
alertlyon a swanlike neck, and the
circular eyestinted a velvetybrown.
Purple coloringon the forehead and
muzzle, aswell asasymmetrically
applied purple-brown lineson the
back and tail, mayindicate differ-
encesin the shadingof the fur. The
hoovesare dark brown. The animal's
earsare broken off, and the horns,
originally made of another material,
. .
are mlsslng.
The gazelle statuette wasmost
probably part of a rich burial equip-
ment. In thiscontext the animal
served asa symbol for the powersof
renewal that Egyptians attributed to
all desert and steppe animals. The
Museum also possesses the mummy
of a real gazelle that wasburied with
the coffin of a Theban ladyof
Dynasgr 26 (664-525 B.C.).
4. Weight of Three Deben in the
Shape of a Gazelle
DynastyI8, reign of AmenhotepIII,
ca. I390-I353 B.C. Bronze; h. 2X8 in.
(5.4 cm). Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace
Gift, I968 (68.I39.I)
The artist who shaped thisbronze
gazelle wasa master of carefully ob-
served details. The neck stretches
from itshumped base in a natural,
anatomically correct manner. The
muscles of the hindquarters are tensed,
reflecting the weight restingon the leg
joints. Heavy, droopinglidshalf cover
the eyes, and the animal's nostrils are
flared asif scentingthe air. The artist
hascaptured the qualities of the hard
knobbyhornsand the soft furryears.
Three incisionson the back of the
animal indicate that the figure was
supposed to weigh three deben (273
grams), which isslightlymore than its
actual weight of 26I.8 grams, a differ-
ence caused bycorrosion. Bronze
weightsin animal form were com-
mon duringthe New Kingdom. They
were mainlyused to weigh gold that
served aspayment and tribute or was
used byjewelers or other craftsmen in
their work.
1,,s,'7 o',
i- e t,vt tt
.'w'' t
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4- +t ) S v
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shrs
S Antelope Head
Dynasty27, 525-404 B.C. Graywacke, inlaid
Egyptian alabaster and agate eyes; h. 3/2 in.
(9 cm). Purchase, Rogersand Fletcher
Fundsand Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, I992
(I992. 55)
The sculptor hasshaped thishead of
an antelope so skillfullythat a distinct
impression of itsdelicate, thin bone
structure isconveyed. The skin is
stretched over tense sinewsand lean
flesh. The soft, sensitive muzzle seems
well adapted to sample desert herbs
and grass. The eyes, almond shaped
with luminousalabaster inlaysfor
the eyeballs, are especially striking.
The remaining agate inlayof the right
pupil bluish purple with a gray
outer circle lendsa hypnotic quality
to the antelope's gaze. Originally
hornsof ivoryor gilded wood were
attached to the head bytenons.
Onlyrecentlyhave gazelles, ante-
lope, and ibex become scarce to the
* ,^ * * *
polnt or extlnctlon ln egypt. even at
the time thishead wasmade, how-
ever, it wasprobably rare for the ordi-
narynonhuntingEgyptian of the
alluvial land to encounter one of these
elegant creatures. The sculptor cer-
tainlyreflected in hiswork an expres-
sion of awe at the quasi-miraculous
appearance of the animal.
The head a masterpiece of Late
Period animal sculpture-wasmost
likelynot part of an entire figure but
rather crowned the prow of a ceremo-
nial boat dedicated to the god Sokar,
who wasin charge of the desert and
the pyramid cemeteries near Egypt's
capital, Memphis.
ibex frequently served asthe hiero-
glyphic emblem for the word "year."
These two representations of re-
cumbent ibex are markedly different
from each other in posture and ex-
pression. The faience animal on its
little base might be crouching behind
a bush duringa hunt. Eyeswide open
and head onlyslightlyraised from the
forelegs, the animal seemsto be lis-
teningand sniffingfor the dreaded
hunter and hisdogs. In contrast, the
quartz ibex liftsitS head proudlyon
an upright neck. In a posture recalling
the bronze gazelle (no. 4), both
forelegs are bent backward and the
bodyrestsgracefully on the left
haunch. Despite the small size of
the figure, the artist hasconveyed the
uneven weight distribution with
remarkable accuracy. The animal's body
iscurved, and the left hind leghasdis-
appeared under the haunch. Thispose
wasused for the large ram sculptures
that KingAmenhotepIII dedicated to
the god Amun-Re at histemple of
Soleb, Upper Nubia. The strongin-
fluence such large sculptures exerted
on the minor artsisreflected in the
small figuresof thisibex and the
bronze gazelle.
The two ibex figuresserved as
adornment. The faience one ispierced
horizontally to fit into a ring. The
quartz ibex mayhave decorated an
elaborate perfume vessel, in which
case it would have been attached by
pegsor tubesprotruding from the un-
derside and bypiecesof wire securing
it front and back.
6. Ibex
Dynasty I8, ca. I55O-I300 B.C. Faience
(figures of a crocodile and a fish engraved
on underside); h. /2 in. (I.2 cm). Purchase,
Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.So)
7. Ibex
Late Dynasty I8, probably reign of
Amenhotep III, ca. I390-I353 B.C. Mottled
semitranslucent cryptocrystalline quartz
closelyresembling jasper (horn damaged;
two holesdrilled on underside, one each,
front and back); h. I in. (2.5 cm). Purchase,
Vaughn Foundation Gift, I980 (I980.2)
The ancient Egyptians considered the
ibex to be a good-luck charm and
symbol of renewal. Ibex figuresoften
decorated New Year's gifts, and in
"HappyNew Year" inscriptions an
13
8. Statuette of the God Anubisas
Embalmer
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Wood with
gesso and paint; h. I6/2 in. (42 cm). Gift of
Mrs. Myron C. Taylor, I938 (38.5)
Thiswooden figure represents the
god Anubiswith a canid head on a
human body, wearingthe feather
costume of Egyptian deities. In this
pose handsraised, palmsdown-
ward the god performed purifi-
cation and transfiguration ritesover
a mummy. Duringthe actual mum-
* , . * o
mltlcatlon process, a prlest wearlnga
canid mask played the role of Anubis.
era. The specieswasrare even during
pharaonic timesand lived not in the
steppe proper but in the brush at the
border of the agricultural lands. It is
likelythat few Egyptians actuallysaw
thisshyanimal, although from the
Old through the New Kingdom rep-
resentations of the magnificent stags
appear in imagesof the hunt in the
desert.
The artist who hammered thiscen-
ter protome from sheet gold for the
crown of a Hyksosladyof high rank
created such a detailed image that he
must either have seen the actual crea-
ture or based hiswork upon another
artist's close observation. The head
showsall the essential characteristics
of the species: the majestic dimen-
sions, triangular furrowed brow, puffy
cheeks, rectangular nose, and large
funnel-shaped ears. Even minor details
are well represented, from the knobby
cirdesaround the base of the antlers
indicated bytwisted gold wire and
repeated around the earsto the pores
in the flesh of the nose. These natural-
istic features, aswell asthe technique of
manufacturing three-dimensional ob-
jectsbyjoiningtwo hammered halves,
isso essentially Egyptian that the
piece must undoubtedly be attributed
. * k
to an qgyptlan artlst.
The diadem isalso adorned with
headsof gazelles and lotusblossoms.
Beginningin the Old Kingdom,
headbands with papyrus and lotus
ornaments were frequently worn
byEgyptian women. The combina-
tion of marsh flowers and horned
desert-animal headshasa foreign
character, however, that maybest be
attributed to the taste of a Hyksos
client with strongtiesto the Canaanite
Middle Bronze Age culture.
to. Head of a Canid, Possiblya
Jackal
Late Period, 664-332 B.C. Gypsum plaster;
1. 2M2 in. (6.4 cm). RogersFund, I974
(I974 264)
The classification of wild canids
for instance the Egyptian jackal, Cvnis
lupaster, and the wild doglivingat
the margins of the Egyptian desert
causesproblems even for zoologists. It
isnot surprising, therefore, that the
ancient Egyptians did not distinguish
particular canid speciesin their repre-
sentations of gods, such asthe necrop-
olisgod Anubis(see no. 8); Duamutef,
one of the four sonsof Horus; or
Wepwawet, the god of Asyut, a town
in Middle Egypt. Thissensitively
modeled plaster head could have
served to depict anyof these deities.
The use of plaster and the rough, un-
modeled area around the earsindicate
that the head wascast in a mold.
Recent research hasshown that
Egyptian artists used a varietyof finely
graded plaster materials for trial
piecesand finished worksof art. This
small head isin a classwith Old King-
dom "reserve" headsand the famous
New Kingdom plaster portraits from
an artist's studio at Amarna. In the
latter workshop, mold castingwas
also practiced.
9. StagProtome from a Diadem
Hyksos Period, Dynasty I5-I6, ca. I640-
IS5O B.C. Gold; h. of protome 37/6 in.
(8.8 cm). Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace
Gift, I968 (68.I36.I)
The Persian fallow deer, Damv
mesopotamica, came to Egypt byway
of the Suez isthmusin the Pleistocene
15
power. A lionessdeity, for example,
wasaddressed in a Middle Kingdom
text as"the Great, whose eyesare
keen and whose clawsare sharp, the
lionesswho seesand catchesby
night." The huntingof lionswasa
royal prerogative, asshown in this
masterly and detailed sketch byan
Egyptian draftsman, who added
praise to pharaoh in floweryscript on
the back of the piece. Flakesof the
dense Theban limestone were the tra-
ditional "notepaper" of scribesand
artistsin the New Kingdom. The
handsare often those of master
draftsmen (see also nos. 3S and 63).
Scholars have stressed that thislion
doesnot stand on the same level as
pharaoh and hiswell-trained dog. As
the lion embodiesthe forcesof chaos,
it belongsto a world beyond the
ordered realm of the Egyptian king.
Lionswere part of the Egyptian
fauna until about two centuries ago,
and in the pharaonic periodsthey
must have been fairlycommon. They
were certainly well known to herds-
men and huntersasthe most danger-
ousanimal of the steppe. Recentlythe
II. AnubisRecumbent
Saqqara, Dynasty26-27, 664-404 B.C.
Limestone, originally painted black (neck,
nose, left ear, right leg, and part of base
restored); 1. 25X4 in. (64 cm). Adelaide Milton
de Groot Fund, in memory of the de Groot
and Hawleyfamilies, I969 (6g.Io5)
Egyptian artists often depicted Anubis
entirelyin animal form and in a pose
indicatingwatchful guardianship. To
thisday, in cemeteries in the Egyptian
desert, wild dogsguardingtheir terri-
toriesstretch out in the same alert pose
asthispowerfill limestone sculpture.
The near-lifesize figure wasexcavated
byBritish archaeologist Walter B.
Emeryin a temple deposit at Saqqara,
the vast necropolis near ancient Egypt's
capital, Memphis. Temple objectswere
gathered and hidden duringthe vari-
ousforeign raidson Memphis. It isnot
known from which temple the Anubis
statue came. A Late Period sanctuary
of Anubis, called the Anubieion,
wassurrounded byone of the numer-
ouscemeteries at Saqqara that were
specifically dedicated to the burial of
sacred animals.
t2. Pharaoh Spearsa Lion
Thebes, Valley of the Kings, late Dynasty 20-
Third Intermediate Period, ca. II00-
700 B.C. Painted limestone; h. (of stone)
5/2 in. (I4 cm). Purchase, Edward S.
Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.I453)
The ancient Egyptians lived in awe of
the great felines, and lionsespecially
were regarded asthe embodiment of
.-:
. . . , , ; . i
16
skeletal remains of adult aswell as
younglionswere discovered near the
tomb of the First Dynasty kingHor
Aha (ca. 2960-2926 B.C.) at Abydos,
Middle Egypt clear evidence that
from the beginning Egyptians kept
captive lionsat the royal court. The re-
mains of a New Kingdom zoo were
found in the Delta palace of King
Ramesses II (ca. I279-I2I3 B.C.) at
Qantir. Lions, elephants, and horned
desert beasts had been kept in this
menagerie.
The artist's sketch of a royal lion
hunt wasreportedly found near the
entrance to the tomb of Tutankh-
amun, where it wasdiscarded byan
artist, probably working in one of the
late New Kingdom tombsnearby.
I3. Recumbent Lion
Said tO be from Gebelein, EarlyDynastic,
ca. 3000-2700 B.C. Quartz; h. 43/4 in.
(I2 cm). Purchase, Fletcher Fund and Guide
Foundation Inc. Gift, I966 (66.99.2)
mouth, and general furriness of ears,
paws, and body. These features, de-
cidedlythose of a younglion, must be
read asintentionally reproduced char-
acteristics of the animal represented.
It isdiSlcult to explain the meaning
of a lion-cub sculpture in the context
of Egyptian religion and art, espe-
ciallyin thisearlyperiod. In ancient
Egypt lionsusuallyrepresented the
king. There wasa famoustemple of
the goddessHathor at Gebelein,
where the quartz lion wasreportedly
found. Beginningin earlytimes,
Hathor wasnot onlythe goddessof
love but also a celestial mother deity
who appeared asa cow sucklingthe
kingand asa wild lioness. Isthe quartz
lion her son, the king?
The abstract form, lack of a base, and
the waythe tail curlsupacrossthe
back of thisglowingfigure of a lion
datesit to EarlyDynastic times. It isa
somewhat enigmatic masterpiece, and
scholars have proposed variousinter-
pretations. The animal hasbeen iden-
tified asa maneless male lion, a
lioness, and a cub. Thislast ismost
likely. None of the hardstone sculp-
turesof powerful adult lionsthat were
made around the same date matches
the short head, over-large nose, soft
17
I4. Amulet in the Form of a Seated
Goddesswith Lion Head
Third Intermediate Period, ca. I070-
7I2 B.C. Faience; h. 2/2 in. (6.scm). Purchase,
Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.868)
In Egyptian religion lion godswere
lessprominent than lionessdeities.
The femalesembodied the essence
of supernatural power and were much
revered. However, it wasthe general
concept of the lionessdeitythat was
important, not the manynamesunder
which she appeared. Thisoften makes
it difflcult to distinguish iconographic-
allybetween the variouslionessdeities
* Tn -
n egyptlan art.
The enthroned goddessof this
intricate amulet closelyresembles
18
New Kingdom statuesof Sakhmet,
goddessof war and pestilence. On the
beautiful, slender bodyof a woman
sitsthe menacinghead of a lionessen-
circled bythe mane of the male, which
had become a symbol of power used
regardless of gender. In her right hand
the goddessholdsa sistrum, a musical
instrument like a rattle. The sistrum
wasused in performances that were
believed to transform the dangerous
Sakhmet into Bastet, the cat goddess,
her benign counterpart.
If Egyptians in the New Kingdom
would call thisgoddessSakhmet,
those livingin the Third Intermediate
and Late Periods often understood
seated figures of the lionessdeityto be
Wadjet, the goddessof Lower Egypt,
who also appeared in the shape of a
cobra (see nos. 48 and 49). Believed
to be endowed with magic powers,
thisWadjet in her amuletic role is
supported bya demon named
Nehebkaw. He appears in the lattice-
work on the side of the goddess's
throne asa serpent with human arms
and legs. Before him another lioness
deityisseen, thisone standing.
Since all lionessdeitieswere closely
related to the sun god, Re, thisamu-
let'shead wasonce crowned bya sun
disk, possiblyof gilded bronze or gold.
It wasattached bymeansof a peg
inserted into a hole drilled between
the animal's ears.
IS. Large Feline asHandle of a
Cosmetic Spoon
Malqata, DynastyI8, reign of Amenhotep
III, ca. I390-I3S3 B.C. Egyptian alabaster;
1. sAs in. (I3 cm). RogersFund, I9II (II.2IS.7IS)
The ancient Egyptians understood the
leopard, Panthera pardus, and the
cheetah, Acinonyxjubatus, respectively,
asthe Upper and Lower Egyptian ver-
sionsof the same animal. It isthere-
fore understandable that not all
representations distinguished clearly
between the two large felines. In this
handle of a cosmetic spoon the long
neck of the animal probably indicates
that the cheetahis leapisbeingcele-
brated. The spoon, clearlya luxury
item, wasfound in the palace of
KingAmenhotepIII, one of the great
huntersamongEgypt's pharaohs.
Both leopards and cheetahs were
common in Egypt, astheywere in the
rest of Africa duringancient times.
Todaytheyare largely extinct in Egypt,
the last leopards havingbeen seen at
the beginning of the twentieth century,
whereas rare cheetahs are still living
near the Libyan border.
I6. Double Leopard-Head Amulet
from a Girdle
Lahun, pyramid of Senwosret II, Dyn-
astyI2, ca. I900-I840 B.C. Gold and
amethyst; 1. IX4 in. (4 S cm). Purchase, Rogers
Fund and HenryWalters Gift, I9I6 (I6.I.6)
Leopard headsand skins and, less
often, those of cheetahsserved as
priestlygarments and were believed to
guarantee rejuvenation and fertility.
In the Middle Kingdom thisbelief led
to the custom of includingimagesof
leopard headsin girdlesworn by
women. The large headsof thispiece
were made in two halveshammered
from sheet gold and soldered together.
The interior spaceswere filled with
pebblesso that a rhythmic sound was
created when the owner a princess
named Sithathoryunet walked or
danced. The girdle wasfound with the
rest of the princess's rich jewelryin an
undisturbed niche of her plundered
tomb at Lahun. The thread that held
the elementstogether had disinte-
grated, but each piece waspainstaking-
lyrecovered from the sediment byone
of the expedition's archaeologists, Guy
Brunton. After the Museum acquired
most of the jewelryin I9I6, the girdle
wasrestrung from Brunton's sketches.
19
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I7. Wildcat
EarlyDynastyI2, ca. I990-I900 B.C.
Egyptian alabaster; h. S :/2 in. (I4 cm).
Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, I990
(I990. S9 . I)
Domesticated catsdid not appear in
Egyptian art before the Middle King-
dom, and then onlyin rare instances,
but the African wildcat, Felissilvestris
libyca, wasalreadyrepresented by
artistsduringthe Old Kingdom, or
at least from about 2250 B.C. onward.
The habitat of thissolitarypredator
with yellow fur and striped markings
wasthe steppe and brush at the mar-
ginsof the desert, from which it may
have made foraysinto the wetlands
in search of prey, such asmice, birds,
and fish. In the marshes lived another
wildcat species, the swampcat, E
chaus, which had a heavier body, solid-
colored fur, and a short tail.
The Egyptians were greatlyim-
pressed bythe wildcat's prowess, espe-
ciallyitsferocityin fightingpoisonous
snakes. Thisspecial talent made it an
appropriate helper of the sun god, Re,
in hisstruggle against the Apophis
snake, the embodiment of all evil.
Sometimes the sun god himself could
even appear in the shape of the "great
tomcat." The cat'srole ashelper of
the deceased isexpressed in a papyrus
of the Third Intermediate Period
(ca. I070-7I2 B.C.): "Oh cat of lapis
lazuli, great of forms. . . mistress of
the embalming house, grant the beau-
teousWest [Land of the Dead]:in
peace [a benediction]."
Thisexquisite alabaster wildcat
vividlycaptures the fierce and agile
nature of an alert predator. The artist
hascombined the broad musculature
and short tail of the swampcat with
the striped fur of E silvestris. The cat
sitslightlyon itshaunches, forelegs
r . .
ln a torwarc W posltlon, reac Wy to sprlng.
There isnothingdomestic in the small
head with itserect ears, wide-open
eyes, and well-defined muzzle. Thisis
a dangerous beast, well able to assist
the sun god against the evil Apophis.
To serve asa container for cosmetic or
medicinal ointment, the alabaster
form washollowed out until, in places,
it became eggshell thin. A stone stop-
per (now missing) originally fit into
the openingbetween the cat'sears. A
container of such exquisite ferocity
would surelyhave lent potencyto its
contents, a perfumed oil.
I8. Jerboas
Middle Kingdom, late DynastyI2 or
DynastyI3) ca. I8SO-I6sO B.C. Faience;
h. I%6 in. (3.I cm); I /6 in. (4.2 cm).
Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926
(26.7.900, .90I)
The Egyptian jerboa (from the Arabic
yarbu meaning"flesh of lions"), Jacu-
lusjaculus, iswell equipped for jump-
ingand, given itssmall size, can leap
. . . r -
a surprlslng c Wlstance or S1X or seven
feet. Faience jerboas such asthese have
been found in a number of Middle
Kingdom tombs. A groupof three, of
which two are depicted here, was
allegedlyfound at Heliopolis, in the
southeastern Delta, together with a
faience figure of a wildcat and the
magic rod (no. 38). If thisiscorrect,
the tomb owner had especially strong
beliefsin the potencyof animals.
The jerboa isusuallyrepresented
sittingupright on itshind legs, its
pawsraised to itsmuzzle, which ishow
manyrodentssit when eating. It is
also possible that the ancient Egyptians
interpreted the gesture aspraying
to the solar deity. Used asfunerary vo-
tives, the jerboas mayhave served to
strengthen the deceased's hope that he
or she would reach a new dayin com-
panionship with the sun god.
21
the illustration, and Hemiechinus
auritus, which had larger earsand is
shown in the center. The first of these
speciesisnearlyextinct in Egypt today
but must have been common in phara-
onic times. Duringthe Old Kingdom
short-eared Parvechinus hedgehogs
lived on the steppe and at the desert
edge in burrows from which they
emerged at dawn or dusk to search
for mealsof insects, small mice, and
carrion. Even todaythe large-eared
Hemiechinus dwellsin the alluvial
land of the Nile Delta.
In Egyptian art desert hedgehogs
are part of representations of the hunt
in the desert. Theyare depicted either
in cage baskets amongthe bootyor in
the steppe environment in front of
the entrances to their dens. The latter
could be a reference to the hedge-
hogs'habit of sleepingunderground
I9. Genet
Dynasty26-29, 664-380 B.C. Faience;
1. Ysin. (2.2 cm). Theodore M. Davis
Collection, Bequest of Theodore M. Davis,
I9IS (30-8-8S9)
The genet, Genetta genetta, isa small
carnivore related to the civet, Viverra
civetta, but with lesswell-developed
scent glands. Egyptians used artistic
license to show the small spotted
genet, like the wildcat and ichneu-
mon (or mongoose), stalkingbirds
and other preyin papyrus thickets.
The genet'sproper habitat, however,
wasthe tall grassand shrubsof the
steppe and at the desert margins,
which it would leave to hunt in the
marshes, asdid the wildcat and the
ichneumon. The genet wassometimes
tamed and kept asa mouser. Today
genetsare extinct in Egypt, but they
were frequently depicted in the Old
and earlyMiddle Kingdoms. This
tinyfigure atteststo their presence in
the first millennium B.C.
20. Seal Amuletsin the Shape of
Hedgehogs
Left tO right: New Kingdom, ca. ISS-
I070 B.C. Glazed steatite (scroll design on
base); 1. 1/6 in. (I.8 cm). Dynasty26,
664-S2S B.C. Faience (animal with longlegs
[gazelle?] on base); 1. %16 in. (I.4 cm). Late
Period, probably Dynasty26, 664-S2s B.C.
Egyptian blue (inscribed on base "the
beloved of Bastet Si-mer-diw"); 1. 13%6 in.
(2.I cm). Giftsof Helen Miller Gould, I9I0
(I0. I30. 87I, . 884, . 882)
Two kindsof hedgehogs were known
to the ancient Egyptians: the desert
hedgehog, Paraechinus aethiopicus,
represented on the left and right in
when food isscarce. Their reappear-
ance after longabsences maybe the
basisfor the Egyptians' belief that
hedgehogs heralded the renewal of life,
an explanation for their use in amulets.
Hedgehogamulets were also thought
to protect against poisonous snakebites.
Amulets showingthe long-eared Hem-
iechinus are lessfrequent than those in
the shape of the desert hedgehog.
2I. Hare Amulet
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Faience;
1. I%8 in. (3.5 cm). RogersFund, I944 (44.4.z5)
Amongthe small animals of the
Egyptian desert isthe desert hare,
Lepuscapensis. In ancient timesit was
not considered worthypreyfor
princelyhunters, and in representa-
tionsit appears onlyoccasionally
amongthe spoilsof the hunt. In
manyhuntingscenes, however, it can
be found in the background aspart
of the landscape. The tomb relief of
Ra-m-kaj (see no. 2), for example,
includesa desert hare in much the
same position asthe one that forms
thisamulet. It crouches low to the
ground, earsflattened, intent on elud-
ingthe hunter's notice. The desert
hare's sand-colored fur (here trans-
formed to an amuletic blue) servesit
well ascamouflage. If detected, how-
ever, the hare usesitsgreat speed to
helpit to escape.
The hare's amuletic role isnot
known for certain. Ancient Greek and
Roman authors believed that hares
could sleepwith their eyesopen and
reproduce without copulation. If
these were also Egyptian beliefs, the
hare might have represented extreme
vigilance or the primeval deity'sself-
creatingpower.
22. Hare asa Hieroglyph
Deir el-Bahri, temple of Mentuhotep II,
DynastyII, late reign of Mentuhotep II,
ca. 2040-tOIO B.C. Painted limestone; 1. of
hieroglyph I1X6 in. (5 cm). Gift of Egypt
Exploration Fund, I907 (07.230.z)
Thisdetail of a relief from KingMen-
tuhotepII'smortuary temple at Deir
el-Bahri isa good example of the care
with which Egyptian artistsrendered
hieroglyphic signsin monumental in-
scriptions. In the pictographic writing
system of ancient Egypt, the hare rep-
resents the combination of consonants
wn and wasthusused in the important
word meaning"to be."
23
At the beginning of phara-
onic history considerable
portions of the Nile
Delta, modern Egypt's
most densely populated area, con-
sisted of swamps and marshes. Other
wetlands occurred asoccasional pock-
etsfarther south alongthe Nile and in
the geological formation known as
the Fayum depression. In ancient times
the lake at Fayum drained into the
Nile and must have been considerably
larger and lesssaltythan it istoday.
Typical marsh vegetation grew in these
waterlogged areas. The famous Egyptian
papyrus grew higher than a man's head,
providing an ideal environment for a
multitude of birds(both indigenous
and migratory) and aquatic mammals.
There wasalso an abundance of fish
and other aquatic life in the Nile it-
self and in the irrigation canals, aswell
asin the salt waters of both the
Mediterranean and the Red Sea.
An Old Kingdom tomb inscription
describes the hunt in the marsh as
a "delight of the heart." Paddling on
light reed boatsthrough the papyrus
thickets, fishingand fowling, wasfor
the Egyptians a most desirable wayto
experience the richness and beautyof
divine creation. Here men could prove
24
their strength in encounters with dan-
gerousanimals such ascrocodiles or
hippos; theycould spear fish or catch
ducksand geese bydeftlyhurlingtheir
throw sticks. Women could gather
flowersand papyrus for adornment or
helphandle the captured birds.
In religion, art, and literature, the
marshlands, even more than the desert
and steppe, came to be endowed with
the character of a paradise. Lovers
likened their amorous pursuits to those
of bird catchers in papyrus thickets, a
theme expressed in a New Kingdom
love song:
The wild goose soarsand swoops,
It alightson the net;
Manybirdsswarm about,
I have work to do.
I am held fast bymylove,
Alone, myheart meetsyour heart,
From your beautyI'll not part!
In temple ritualsgodsand the king
were seen in the role of marshland
huntersdefeatingthe forcesof evil
embodied in the hippo, asexpressed
in linesof ritual text such asthese
concerning the god Horus:
A happyday! I have cast myharpoon
lustily!
A happyday! Myhands have the mas-
teryof his[the hippo's] head!
I have cast at the cowsof the
hippopotami in water of eight
cubits . . .
I have hurled with myright hand,
I swungwith myleft,
Asa bold fen-man does.
Asa child, Horus, the skygod of
kingship, wasbelieved to have been
raised in the marshes, where his
mother, Isis, hid him against the evil
Seth, who had killed Horus's father,
Osiris. Such ritualsand mythsexplain
whyimagesof the hunt in the marshes
were favorite themesof tomb reliefs
and paintings throughout pharaonic
history. In essence such scenesserved
assymbolsfor the power of nature to
renew itself constantly, a cycle in
which each Egyptian wished to par-
ticipate. Present-day viewersof marsh
scenesin ancient Egyptian art should
realize that theydo not see naturalis-
tic landscape depictions but idealized
images. However, through their keen
sense for realistic detail, Egyptian
artistsmanaged tO capture much of
the country's beautiful flora and fauna
in the mythical landscapes.
Wetlandsand Waterways
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23. Otter
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Bronze;
h. I73/8 in. (44 cm). Gift of LilyS. Place,
I9 23 (23 . 6. 2)
Old Kingdom artistsdepicted the
otter catchingfish in the papyrus
thicket. Duringthe Late Period and
Ptolemaic timesottersin bronze stat-
uettessuch asthisone were repre-
sented standing, forepaws raised, atop
small bronze boxes. Asin the case of
baboons, the raised pawsof the otter
isa pose of adoration before the sun
god when he risesin the morning.
The great hymn to Aten beautifully
expresses thisdailyoccasion for prayer
* *
anc b reJolclng:
Earth brightens when you dawn in
light land
When you shine asAten of daytime;
Asyou dispel the dark,
Asyou cast your rays,
The Two Landsare in festivity.
Awake theystand on their feet,
You have roused them;
Bodiescleansed, clothed,
Their armsadore your appearance.
In myth otterswere attached to the
goddess of Lower Egypt, Wadjet,
whose cult wascentered in Buto, in
the northern Delta. The animal may
have been common on the shoresof
nearbyLake Burullus.
marshland scenes, rich with plant and
bird life. Our fragment waspart of
thisborder from room E. The marsh-
land hunter wasomitted in thispaint-
ing; it wasenough that the king
himself wasable to stride acrossthe
pavement asmaster of the marshland
paradise.
In thisfragment of the Malqata
floor painting, a duck isseen among
the branches of an unidentified marsh
plant beside archingstemsof papyrus.
Manytypesof waterfowl breed in
Europe, Asia, and northern Africa and
winter in Egypt. Thisone issketched
in profile, itshead, body, and legs
outlined in black and red. Black lines
of varyingthicknesses define the
feathering on itsneck and flanks; the
curvinglinesgive the bird a fullness
that isfurther enhanced bythe pecu-
liar patchydistribution of blue and
ocher paint. Through thiscombina-
tion of draftsmanship and painting,
the artist hascaptured the essence of
the duck:itshead pulled gracefully
back from the full crop, itsheavy
bodyiscaught in motion, walkingon
widelyspaced legswith the ducEs
typicallyawkward gait.
On closer studyit becomesappar-
ent that the heavybird could never
rest on the flimsyleavesand branches
of the marsh plant that surrounds it.
Both the shrub and neighboring
papyrus, created entirelywith bold
strokesof the paintbrush, seem to
serve onlyasbackground for the bird.
24. Stucco Pavement Fragment
Malqata, DynastyI8, reign of Amenhotep
III, ca. I390-I353 B.C. Stucco with blue,
green, yellow, and brown pigments (upper-
most edge, including topof ducEshead,
restored); 20/2 X I6X4 in. (S2 x 42.scm).
Rogers Fund, I920 (20.2.2)
On the west bank of the Nile oppo-
site Thebes(Luxor), KingAmenhotep
III and Queen Tiye resided in a vast
palace in the desert, near the present-
dayvillage called Malqata. The floor
of a large "audience hall" in thispalace
wascovered with stucco, and on it
Egyptian artistspainted a large pool
with fish, plants, and swimming
birds. At the borders surrounding the
pool were painted brightlycolored
26
2s. Fragment from a Temple Relief
Deir el-Bahri, DynastyII, late reign of
MentuhotepII, ca. 2040-20I0 B.C. Painted
limestone; IS X I3 in. (38 X 33 cm). Gift of
Egypt Exploration Fund, I906 (06.I23I.I)
The birdson thisfragment are caught
in a clapnet set bythe fowlersof King
MentuhotepII. The mesh of the net
appears in yellow-white paint against
the birds' bodies. Some of the en-
trapped waterfowl sit quietly, perhaps
not yet realizing their plight, while
othersflyup, attempting to escape.
The left uppermost bird could be a
European coot. The other birdscould
be curlews and gullsor shovelers.
Manysuch waterfowl are common
winter guestsin Egypt, although
theybreed in Europe, Asia, and other
partsof northern Africa. In nature
shovelers have greenish necksand are
otherwise white, black, and blue-gray.
Cootsare black, and curlews are most-
lybrownish. Gullscan be a number
of colors, from white to brown to gray,
dependingon the species. The brown
and yellow paint in the Mentuhotep
relief wasmost probably added
duringa restoration of the temple in
DynastyI9. The original paint may
well have been closer to the birds' real
colors. The background wasoriginally
blue water.
The fragment came from one of
the manyreliefsthat once decorated
the columned porticoes and hallsof
MentuhotepII'smortuary temple.
Thiskingreunited Egypt after the
period of disunitycalled the First
Intermediate Period. Histemple's
innovative terrace architecture influ-
enced Egyptian architecture for cen-
turiesto come, while the vast wall
reliefsreflected the in-depth studies
of Old Kingdom reliefsmade bythe
king'sartists.
27
26. Cosmetic Containers in the
Shape of Mallards
DynastyI8, ca. I400-I300 B.C. Tinted
ivory; h. 3%6 in. (9 cm); 3X4 in. (9-5 cm).
Rogers Fund, I940 (40.2.2, .3)
These delicate ivoryboxesare in the
shape of mallards, Anasplatryrhynchos,
that have been prepared asofferings,
with the feathers plucked from their
wingsand bodies. Onlythe birds' ele-
gant headsand gracefully curving
necksretain the black feathering and
white neck ringtypical of thisspecies.
The artist hascarefully carved webbed
feet on the underside of each con-
tainer. Some of the waterfowl caught
in netswere kept in enclosures and
fattened, although no duck species
wastotallydomesticated in ancient
Egypt.
28
27. Perfume Vessel in the Shape of
Two Trussed Ducks
Middle Kingdom, probably late Dynasty I2-
I3, ca. I800-I65O B.C. Anhydrite; h. 6X4 in.
(I7 cm). Gift of Edward S. Harkness, I927
(27.9 .I)
Skilled craftsmen, probably working
somewhere in Middle Egypt, used
anhydrite to sculpt vesselsfor cos-
metic ingredients. Of those that sur-
vive, the Museum's trussed-duck
vessel isundoubtedly the most beau-
tiful. The two ducksare prepared to
be offered to a deityin a waysimilar
to the ivorymallards (no. 26), but here
the artist hasused the two bodies
most ingeniously to form a single
lenticular flask, translating the jointsof
the bird's legsinto four little knuckles
for the vessel to stand on. The necks
of the birds, too slender to support
their heavyheads, are arched over to
form handles. With a rare touch of
sentiment, the artist hasmade the
birds' necksseem to give wayto the
neck of the vessel between them in
what can onlybe called a gesture of
*o * 1 1 * >
sacrltlclal suDmlsslon.
Anhydrite isa rare, semitranslucent
stone, light mauve or faintlyblue, and
ischaracterized bythe wayit takesa
high polish. In the earlyMiddle King-
dom Egyptian quarrymen discovered a
source of anhydrite in the mountains
of the eastern Egyptian desert, which
wasprobably the source for the stone
used here.
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29. Hieroglyphic Sign Showingan
Ibis
El-Ashmunein (Hermopolis Magna),
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Polychrome
faience; h. 6X8 in. (IS*S cm). Purchase,
Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.992)
This exquisite relief inlayshows a
sacred ibis, Threskiornisaethiopica,
walkingatopthe crossbar of a standard
that identifies it asa deity. Itsbeak
issupported bya feather, signifying
supreme order (maat). The ibiswas
associated with Thoth, the god of wis-
dom, whose primarysanctuarywas
located in Hermopolis Magna, Middle
Egypt, where the inlaywasfound. It
wasone of several that belonged to
elaborate wooden shrineserected to
house statuesof deities. Thisexample
waspart of a large inscription. It rep-
resentsa hieroglyphic sign that could
be used at the end of the word hb
(Egyptian for "ibis") or to write the
name Djehuty("Thoth").
The sacred ibis, which hasnot
been seen in Egypt since about I876,
waslarger than related speciesnow
livingin central and southern Africa.
Huge flocksonce came to Egypt from
Ethiopia to breed in the wetlands
duringthe annual Nile flood. The
sacred ibishasa white bodyand a
black head and neck. The inlayuses
green to represent the white areas
because green isthe color of vegeta-
tion and fertility.
28. Statuette of Thoth
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Faience;
h. SS2 in. (I4 cm). Purchase, Edward S.
Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.860)
Thisturquoise-colored faience statuette
isa beautiful example of the skill with
which Egyptian artistscombined ani-
mal headsand human bodiesto create
totallyconvincing creatures, in thiscase
the ibis-headed god, Thoth.
30
blythe titular kingof Upper Egypt,
Painedjem I, who, ashigh priest of
Amun, had been responsible for the
reburial of several royal mummies.
On Nany'spapyrus, which wasfound
rolled upat the side of her mummy,
the heron appears flanked byher name
and with a groupof solar deities.
3I. Butterflies
Lisht, northern cemetery, DynastyI2-I3,
ca. I970-I640 B.C. Faience. Left:1. Y6 in.
(I-S cm). RogersFund and Edward S.
Harkness Gift, I922 (zZ.I.I394). Upper
right:1. 1M6 in. (I.8 cm). RogersFund, I9Is
(IS.3.sI3). Bottom:1. I)l6 in. (2.4 cm). Rogers
Fund, I9IS (IS 3 SI2)
Butterflies are amongthe most
charming of the small winged crea-
turesdepicted in Egyptian marsh
scenes. These amuletstypifythe
Egyptian artists' approach to butterfly
representations. The artistsalmost
invariably chose to show them from
above, the colorful wingsspread open.
Butterflies were frequently used to
decorate jewelryin ancient Egypt.
Amongthe most beautifill examples
are the detailed inlaysin the Cairo
Museum in the armlets of Queen
Hetepheres, mother of KingKhufu
(ca. 255I-2528 B.C.). The amuletic
meaning of these insects isnot
known.
30. Heron
Western Thebes, tomb 6s(burial of Nany),
Dynasty2I, reign of Psusennes I, I040-
992 B.C. Drawingon papyrus; h. of papyrus
(overall) I4%8 in. (37 cm). RogersFund, I930
(30.3.32)
In Egypt heronsare year-round resi-
dentsin the Nile Delta and alongthe
Red Sea coast and annual winter
guestsin the whole country. The
birdsmigrate from Europe, Asia, and
other partsof Africa. Judgingbythe
frequency with which these magnifi-
cent birds, with their ornamental
crests, are depicted, Egyptians must
have loved them. It isnot surprising,
therefore, to find one amongthe crea-
turesdepicted on a funerarypapyrus
such asthis, found bythe Museum's
excavators in Thebesin the springof
I929. The ancient Egyptians believed
that their kingascended to heaven
in the form of the crested bird, and
artistsalso often depicted the leg-
endaryphoenix asa heron. In every-
daylife these avian experts in fishing
were used byfowlersasdecoysto lure
other birdsinto the nets.
The papyrus belonged to the king's
daughter Nany, the chantress of Amun,
at her death an elderlywoman of con-
siderable girth. Her father wasproba-
32. Dragonflies and Damselflies
Lisht, northern cemetery, DynastyI2-I3,
ca. I970-I640 B.C. Faience. Upper left
(pierced transversely under wings):1. 4 in.
(I.9 cm). RogersFund and Edward S.
Harkness Gift, I922 (22.I.285). Right
(pierced transversely under wings):
. 4 in. (I.9 cm). RogersFund, I9IS
(Is.3.sI9). Bottom (pierced vertically):
1. 1M6 in. (I.8 cm). RogersFund, I9IS
(IS-3 * SI4)
Although representations of four-
winged insectsin marsh scenesand
amulets have been identified as
both dragonflies and grasshoppers in
flight, the first interpretation ismore
convincing. Dragonflies and dam-
selfliesfeed on the much-dreaded
mosquito and itslarvae, a service the
ancient Egyptians must have appreci-
ated. Thismayaccount in part for their
appeal asamulets. The finest amulets
clearlydefine the insect's four wings,
asdo two of these.
31
33. Crocodile
Late ISt centurys.c.-earlyISt centuryA.D.
Granite (tail missing); 1. 42/2 in. (I08 cm).
Purchase, The Bernard and AudreyAronson
Charitable Trust Gift, in memoryof her
beloved husband, Bernard Aronson, I992
(I992.I3)
Thisgranite crocodile, Crocodylus
niloticus, sculpted in a relatively late
period of Egyptian art, isa fine blend
of naturalism and expressive styliza-
tion. Crocodiles once swam and fed
in the river and basked on itsbanks in
great numbers, but today, like the
hippo, theyhave disappeared from
Egypt north of Aswan, while in the
new Lake Nasser theyseem to be
thrivingagain. Although the ancient
Egyptians somewhat whimsically
called the crocodile "wrinkle face,"
without doubt these reptiles were the
most dangerous creatures of their
countryand a constant threat to the
people and their livestock. Traveling
byboat, crossingthe waterways
with herds, or bathingin the river put
the livesof men, women, and animals
at risk. Beingsuch a strongadversary,
the crocodile not surprisingly played
* * . .
a promlnent ro e ln egyptlan maglc.
An earlyMiddle Kingdom storytells
of a magician who formed a small
crocodile of wax and threw it into the
water. The wax figure wastransformed
into a lifesize reptile, which devoured
the lover of the magician's adulterous
wife. The deityrelated to the croco-
dile wasthe god Sobek, who wasven-
erated primarily in the Fayum region.
32
34 Hippo
Middle Kingdom, ca. I900-I650 B.C.
Aragonite; 1. of base, 33X6 in. (8 cm).
RogersFund, I920 (20.2.25)
3S Hippo
Deir el-Bahri, area of causeways, Dyn-
astyI8, ca. I473-I425 B.C. Paintingon
limestone; stone 41M6 x 4 in. (I2 X
I0.5 cm). RogersFund, I923 (23.3.6)
The hippopotamus, Hippopotamus
amphibius, must have been verycom-
mon in Egypt duringthe earlier peri-
ods, but man'shuntingpursuits and
ever-increasing encroachment on the
hippo's wetland environment gradu-
allyreduced the number of these
magnificent beasts. The last wild hip-
poswere seen in Egypt in the first
half of the nineteenth century.
The ancient Egyptians were well
aware of the phenomenal strength of
the hippopotamus, which artistscap-
tured byemphasizing the huge unseg-
mented body, asin thisfigure from
the Middle Kingdom. Bold strokesof
thicklyapplied brown and black paint
and a dangerous red on the bellyand
eye achieve a similar effect in the
artist's sketch from DynastyI8. The
awe inspired byan animal that could
devastate a farmer's fieldsovernight
wastempered bythe Egyptians' belief
in the animal's revitalizing power. Asa
creature from the fertile mud, the
hippo embodied divine powersguar-
anteeingrebirth. One might recognize
thisbenevolent aspect of the beast
in the friendlyfacesof manyhippo
figures.
' *v.S ' !.
F F . is.
. . , o
. , ,
t-., \
sW''.
s.w
33
36. Turtle
DynastyI2, ca. I99I-I783 B.C. Rock crystal
inlaid with amethyst, turquoise, red jasper,
and lapislazuli; 1. IlA6 in. (4.7 cm). Purchase,
Edward S. HarknessGift, I926 (26 7tI359)
To the ancient Egyptians, the African
water turtle, Trionyx triunguis, like
manyother animals, mayhave seemed
to possess a dual character. Beingan
animal of the shadowy deep, the turtle
embodied cosmic danger and thus
wasritually annihilated, but itspower
could also be made to work to the ad-
vantage of people bywarding off evil.
Thispower made turtles potent amu-
lets, three of which are shown here (at
right and opposite). The large, wide-
eyed alabaster turtle (opposite) served
asa cover for a cosmetic dish, protect-
* * * * 2
lngt ze contents ln a slml ar amu etlc
function.
37. Frogsand Toads
Back row from left tO right:Frogon a lotus
pad:DynastyI8, ca. I55O-I300 B.C. Bronze
(possiblya weight); h. I3M6 in. (2 cm). Rogers
Fund, I970 (I970.I97). Toad(?): Dynasty26-
29, 664-380 B.C. Lapis lazuli(horizontal sus-
pension tube and vertical pierce from below,
to accommodate peg[?])i h. I in. (2.scm).
Gift of DariusOgden Mills, I904 (o4.2.378).
M. Davis, I9IS (30.8.86I). Frog:New
Kingdom, ca. ISSO-IO79/69 B.C. Faience
(pierced); 1. /16 in. (I.I cm). Gift of Helen
Miller Gould, I9I0 (IO.I30.I9I8)
In the marshes, aswell asin the allu-
vial land when the annual flood
watershad receded, thousands of
frogsappeared, their deep-throated
chorusfillingthe night air, asthey
continue to do todayon the banksof
the Nile. The ancient Egyptians asso-
ciated these musical amphibians of
the fertile mud with creation, birth,
and regeneration. Amuletsin the
image of frogsand toads, such as
these, were popular. "I am the resur-
rection" can be found written on the
underside of such frogfigureseven
from earlyChristian times.
In the small amuletic figuresit
isnot alwayseasyto distinguish
between the Egyptian frog, Rana
mascareniensis, and the toad, Bufo
regularis or B. viridis, which hasa
shorter face and knobbyskin on its
back. The tree frog, Hyla savignyi,
possiblyrepresented in one of the
amuletsin the front row, israre in
Egypt.
Frog:Dynasty26-29, 664-380 B.C. Chlorite
(pierced horizontally); h. I3M6 in. (2 cm). Gift
of Helen Miller Gould, I9I0 (IO.I30.I928).
Toad(?): Dynasty26-29, 664-380 B.C.
Faience (pierced horizontally); h. IM6 in.
(I.8 cm). Gift of Helen Miller Gould, I9I0
(IO.I30.I92I)
Front row, left tO right:Frog:DynastyI9,
ca. I295-II86 B.C. Red porphyry(pierced
horizontally); 1. IS6 in. (2 cm). Purchase,
Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.II43).
Tree frog(?): New Kingdom, ca. ISS-
I079/69 B.C. Faience (small loopin front);
1. Y6 in. (IS cm). Purchase, Edward S.
Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.I028). Frog:
DynastyI9-20, ca. I295-I079/69 B.C.
Serpentinite (pierced horizontally; lotusand
bird on base); 1. Y6 in. (I S cm). Theodore
M. DavisCollection, Bequest of Theodore
34
W: L pF
38. Toads, Frogs, and other Animals
on a Magic Rod
Late t)ynasty I2-I3, ca. I850-I650 B.C.
Glazed steatite; 1. II in. (28 cm). Purchase,
Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926
(26.7.I27S)
Thiscomplex object consistsof a
tripartite stafflike base and seven indi-
vidual figuresof animals. The seg-
mentsof the base are hollow; originally
theywere probably joined bypegs.
The beautifully crafted little animals
are attached bymeansof pinsthat
fit holeson the undersides of the
animals and in the base. Previous
publications have shown thisrod, the
best-preserved example of itskind,
with the animalsfacingtoward the
center. A recent examination, how-
ever, revealed that the outlinesof each
animal, clearlypreserved on the base,
face outward.
Thisremarkable piece epitomizes
Egyptian beliefsabout the universe
and the symbolic role of certain ani-
mals. Outward-facing lionssymbolize
the two moundsof the Egyptian
horizon between which the sun rises
in itsdailyrenewed act of creation.
According to Egyptian beliefsthe
sun hasenemiesand helpersin the
struggle against the nightlychaos.
The turtle often appears asan enemy
but here mayrepresent the re-creative
powersof the deep, while felines, croc-
odiles, and frogor toad deitiesare
known helpersof the sun. Baboons
tendinglampsand beneficial eye em-
blems(wedjat) protect the corners of
the world. The face of a leopard (not
visible here) iscarved at each end of
the rod.
The rectangular base takesthe
form of a reed mat with crossbind-
ings. Such matswere commonlyused
in ancient Egypt asblankets on which
offerings were presented or asrugson
which kingsknelt in prayer. The mat
here definesa consecrated zone in
which the cosmic event of the solar
triumph over evil isbeingmagically
enacted. The object formed part of a
burial asa guarantee of rebirth. It
mayhave been found at Heliopolis,
the center of Egypt's solar worship.
39. Turtles
From left to right:New Kingdom,
ca. I55O-I300 B.C. Carnelian; 1. Ysin.
(2.2 cm). Gift of Helen Miller Gould, I9I0
(IO.I30.2397). Second Intermediate Period,
ca. I65O-I55O B.C. Quartz and hematite;
1. 1M6 in. (2 cm). Gift of Helen Miller
Gould, I9I0 (IO.I30.2398). Dynastyo,
ca. 3I00-2900 B.C. Alabaster; 1. 2lS6 in.
(6.8 cm). Purchase, Nina Walker
Wainwright and Beatrice Appel Gifts, I980
(I980. 3I0)
35
, .k- . r.4$ {ar9,
5
t . we,
40. Fish in a Canal
El-Qantir, DynastyI9, reign of Ramesses II,
ca. I279-I2I3 B.C. Detail of polychrome
faience tile; h. 7X8 in. (20 cm). Purchase,
Rogers Fund, Edward S. Harkness Gift,
and byexchange, I922, I929, I93S (35.I.IO4)
While the Egyptians caused the pop-
ulationsof some water creatures to
diminish byhuntingand encroaching
on their environments, other species
flourished in man-made canalsand
irrigation ditches. In the scene de-
picted on thistile, what could be an
elephant-snout fish (Mormyridve fam-
ily) swimsbetween the lotusesin a
canal bordered byother water plants.
Fish of thisfamilylive near the bottom
of muddy, slow-moving waterways
and would have been right at home in
an ancient canal. In typical Egyptian
manner, the representation combines
a plan of the canal between itstwo
banksand profile viewsof the plants
and fish.
Thistile isone of a groupof deco-
rative architectural elementsthought
to have adorned Ramesses II'sprivate
apartments in hiseastern Delta
residence, Piramesse.
4I. Mollusk Shells
Left:Cowrie. Lisht, northern cemetery,
near tomb endosure 758, DynastyI2-I3,
ca. I990-I65O B.C. Gold; 1. %8 in. (I-S cm).
RogersFund, I909 (O9.I80.I200). Right:
Bivalve shell. Lisht North, tomb 754, late
DynastyI2, ca. I85O-I800 B.C. Gold; 1. I in.
(2vS cm). RogersFund, I907 (07.227.I8)
_r _w
Since prehistoric times, actual mol-
lusk shellswere used byEgyptians as
objectsof adornment and were fash-
ioned into cosmetic containers and
painters' palettes. Shell formswere
also reproduced in gold and silver.
Thistype of jewelrywasespecially
prevalent duringthe Middle King-
dom, when the two shellsshown here
were made. The smaller one isa cow-
rie shell, while the larger isan uniden-
tified bivalve. Cowriesare thought to
have been fertilitysymbolsand were
often part of women's girdles(but see
no. I6, where leopard headsare used
instead of cowries), whereas bivalves
were worn byboth sexes, either asa
single pendant on a chain or thread or
strungwith other shellsto form a
necklace.
36
- ,l
hofER
42.
Dish in
the
Shape of a
Bolti
(Fish)
Dynasty I8,
reign of
Tuthmosis III,
ca.
I479-I425
B.C.
Glazed
steatite; 1. 7S8 in.
(I8.I
cm).
Gift of
James
Douglas,
I890
(90.6.24)
Fish of the
genus
Tilapiv
(boltiin
Egypt
today) is
the
most
common
fish
of
Egypt,
easily
recognized byits
long
dorsal
fin. Its
manner of
reproduction,
hatching its
eggsin its
mouth,
was
interpreted by
the
ancient
Egyptians
asa
kind of
spontaneous
generation.
In
Egyptian
art,
the
Tibpiv
thus
sym-
bolized
the
renewal of
life.
The
fish
was
also
thought to be a
companion
of the
sun
god.
This
fish-shaped
dish
has
the
kind
of
shallow
depression on its
reverse
(below)
that
was
generally
used for
the
pharaoh.
preparation
and
presentation of
cos-
metic
substances.
The
piece is
too
large,
however, to
have
been
used as
an
ordinary
cosmetic
palette
and
was
probably
made for
temple
use
for ex-
ample, to
anoint a
cult
statue
or for
a
royal
burial.
The
cartouche of
Tuth-
mosis III
below
the
lateral fin
suggests
that
the
dish
wasa
gift to or
from
this
37
In the agricultural societyof phara-
onic Egypt a low flood meant famine,
and too much water brought the dan-
ger of overflooding, with the fields
too wet to work duringthe planting
season. A "perfect" flood wasgreeted
with great joy. "The meadows[are]
laughingwhen the river banksare
flooded," saysa text in one of the Old
Kingdom pyramid chambers, and a
popular hymn to the Nile god (Hapy)
praises him asthe one
Who floodsthe fieldsthat Re has
made
To nourish all who thirst . . .
Lawful, timely, he comesforth
FillingEgypt, South and North,
Asone drinks, all eyesare on him,
Who makeshisbountyoverflow.
In pharaonic times, however, agri-
cultural activities were considerably
lessextensive than theyare today.
Large tractsof the alluvial land were
left unplowed, used onlyfor seasonal
grazing. In the southern region of
Middle Egypt duringthe earlyMiddle
Kingdom, there wassufficient wood-
land to provide timber for shipbuild-
ing. The high ground at the desert
In ancient times, asnow, the
Egyptians relied on the Nile for
most of life'snecessities. The
river provided a continuous sup-
plyof water in a land of little rain. It
also deposited nutrient-rich sedi-
mentsalongitslength each year for
thousands of years. It washere, on
the alluvial land, that the Egyptians
planted crops; raised livestock; and
built their houses, villages, and cities.
Until the erection of the Aswan
dams, culminating with the famous
High Dam built in the I960S, the
nature of the alluvial landscape was
primarily determined bythe annual
inundation. The floodsoriginated
in the Ethiopian highlands and south-
ern Sudan with the summer mon-
soons; in Julythe river in Egypt started
to rise quickly, and the flood waters
covered most of the alluvial land from
mid-August to late September. By
October and November, when the
waters had receded, cropscould be
sown for harvesting from January to
April. Basin irrigation, a system of
canals and damsenclosing fields,
increased the availability and produc-
. . r r r r
tlvltyor water tor tarmlng.
margins and here and there in the
Delta supported evergreen and decid-
uoustreesand shrubs that were
watered sporadically byrains and the
river. These "islands" of high ground
were ideal for human settlements.
Because of the amount of human
activity, much of the animal life on the
alluvial land wasdomesticated, but
wild creatures, especially small mam-
mals, amphibians, birds, and insects,
found room to coexist happily with
humans and their domesticated ani-
mals. The wild animals of the alluvial
land made their nestsand densin the
areas above the high-water line and
foraged for food in the floodplain,
marshes, and occasionally the desert.
Because of these movements, the en-
vironments of some animals described
here asbelonging to the alluvial land
overlapped with those of the marsh or
steppe-desert. Thisisespecially true
for birdsand insects. The Egyptians
themselves, whether tendingtheir
herds or working their fields, followed
the rise and fall of the river, moving
their animals to high areas duringthe
flood and spreading out over the low
ground duringthe rest of the year.
38
The Alluvial Land
of shrew, Crociduraflavescensdeltae
and C. nana, but it isdiffilcult to deter-
mine which isrepresented in thissmall
bronze figure.
44. Ichneumon
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Bronze
(inscribed on base:"Wadjet givinglife to
Pedineith, son of Isemkhebi"); 1. 41/6 in.
(I2 cm). Gift of DariusOgden Mills, I904
(o4O2-6S4)
Like the African wildcat and the
genet, the Egyptian mongoose, Hewpes-
tesichneumon, also called pharaohXs rat,
43. Shrew
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Bronze;
1. 3S8 in. (8 cm). Gift of DariusOgden
Mills, I904 (o4.2.465)
"The voracious" wasthe ancient
Egyptians' name for the shrew, an
epithet that aptlydescribes the feed-
inghabits of thistinyanimal. In
ancient Egyptian popular mythology
the shrew wascloselyassociated with
the ichneumon. The shrew repre-
sented the blind aspect of a solar deity
whose complement, endowed with
keen eyesight, wasunderstood to be
the ichneumon. Egypt hastwo species
isoften depicted in the papyrus thicket
pursuing birds. The animal's true habi-
tats, however, are shrubby terrain,
rockyhills, and the open areas at the
edgesof Egypt's cultivated land.
Ichneumon kill snakes and mice and
are sometimes tamed and kept for
thispurpose. Thisbronze ichneumon
strides between tWO small seated cats,
. . . .
suggestlng a rellglous connectlon
to deities residing in the "cat city,"
Bubastis. The goddess of Bubastis,
Bastet, wassometimes identified with
Wadjet, goddess of Lower Egypt, to
whom the inscription on the base of
the ichneumon figure isaddressed.
/jj
4Se Cat
Saqqara, Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C.
Bronze (hollow, cast in two parts); h. II in.
(28 cm). HarrisBrisbane Dick Fund, I956
(56.I6.I)
The earliest Egyptian catswere wild
predators that roamed the steppesand
marshes (no. I7). In the refined urban
culture of the New Kingdom catsbe-
came increasingly attached to humans,
who probably first appreciated their
mouse-hunting skillsbut soon came to
enjoythese creatures aspleasant com-
panionsaround the house. Egyptian
house catswere considerably larger
than modern domesticated cats, which
zoologists believe originated in the
ancient Near East.
Of these three cat figures, the two
from the Late Period conveythe cat's
companionable, attractive personality.
The large dignified Ptolemaic figure-
a masterpiece of bronze casting- once
served asa container for a cat mummy.
Burials of mummified catswere part
of ritualsperformed in honor of the
goddessBastet. All three animals are
characterized assacred bythe jewelry
incised or carved around their necks.
The large bronze cat and the small
faience one wear elaborate collars with
pendants in the shape of a beneficial
eye emblem, wedjat, while the small
bronze cat'swedjat pendant hangs
from a simple chain. The large cat's
right ear ispierced to hold a gold
ring, now lost.
46. Cat
Late Period, Dynasty26-29, 664-380 B.C.
Bronze (solid cast); 1. Il3M6 in. (4.7 cm). Gift
of J. Lionberger Davis, I966 (66.I23.2)
47 Cat
Late Period, Dynasty26-29, 664-380 B.C.
Faience; h. IM6 in. (2.3 cm). Bequest of Mary
Anna Palmer Draper, I9IS (I5.43.26)
41
48. Cobra Heads
Left:Late DynastyI8, ca. I400-I300 B.C.
Faience; 1. 4g4 in. (I0.8 cm). Gift of Helen
Miller Gould, I9I0 (IO.I30.2S84). Right:
Thebes, Valleyof the Kings, tomb of
Amenhotep III, Dynasty I8, ca. I3S3 B.C.
Faience; 1. 2S6 in. (S 3 cm). Purchase,
Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.II22)
In the tomb of Tutankhamun a gilded
wooden shrine shielded the canopic
chest containing the king'sorgans. The
shrine stood under a protective can-
opy, also of gilded wood, guarded by
four figuresof goddesses. Both canopy
and shrine were surmounted bycav-
etto cornicesdecorated with continu-
ousfriezes of cobra figures. The cobras
were of gilded wood inlaid with richly
colored glassand faience. Solid dark
blue snake headswere fastened to the
tongue-shaped upper endsof the cobra
bodies(see drawingbelow). The
monument struck Howard Carter,
excavator of Tutankhamun's tomb, as
"so lovelythat it made one gaspwith
wonder and admiration."
These two cobra headsof shinyblue
faience were originally part of similar
tomb furniture. The smaller of the two
headswasfound in the tomb of Tut-
ankhamun's ancestor AmenhotepIII.
It indicates that Amenhotep's burial
once boasted an equallystunning
monument.
Detail from a cobra frieze crowningthe
canopic shrine of KingTutankhamun
(ca. I327 B.C.). DrawingbyBarryGirsh
42
49. Cobra on PharaohXs Forehead
Deir el-Bahri, temple of Mentuhotep II,
Dynasty II, late reign of Mentuhotep II,
ca. 2040-20I0 B.C. Painted limestone;
stone h. 9%2 in. (24 cm). Gift of Egypt
Exploration Fund, I906 (06.I23I.37)
Cobras, the best known of Egypt's
manysnakes, are also amongthe most
impressive. Their raised threat posture
and the waysome of the speciesspit
venom are thoroughly intimidating.
The ancient Egyptians were so fasci-
nated bythese behaviors that they
adopted the cobra asa mythical snake.
The uraeus, asit wascalled in Greek,
sat on the foreheads of pharaohs and
guarded the roofsof holyshrines with
. . . .
awe-lnsplrlng aggresslveness.
Thisfragment from the mortuary
temple of KingMentuhotepII shows
the uraeus above the pharaoWs fore-
head twistingitsbodyaround the
diadem asif it were living. Although
onlyone Egyptian cobra species, Naja
nigricollis, rather than the more com-
mon N. haje, actuallyspits, both this
behavior and the threat posture were
ascribed to the mythical uraeus.
A Middle Kingdom tale conveys
the terror Egyptians felt when con-
fronted bydangerous snakes. Accord-
ingto the story, a sailor wasstranded
on a deserted island. After eatinghis
fill of fish and vegetables, which were
plentiful there, he made an offeringof
thanksto the godsfor hissurvival.
Just then, ashe narrates, he heard a
"thundering noise and thought, 'It is
the sea.'Treessplintered, the ground
trembled. Uncovering myface, I found
it wasa snake that wascoming. He
wasof thirtycubits[about S feet];
hisbeard wasover two cubits[3M2 feet]
long. Hisbodywasoverlaid with
gold; hiseyebrows were of real lapis
lazuli. He wasbent upin front.... I
wason mybellybefore him." The
storyendshappily, however, with the
snake helpingthe sailor tO get home.
s ''--
50. Falcon
Probably from Heliopolis, Dynasty 30,
reign of Nectanebo II, 360-343 B.C.
Graywacke (inscribed on the base with the
king's names); h. 28%8 in. (72 cm). Rogers
Fund, I934 (34-2-I)
The ancient Egyptians believed their
kingwasan incarnation of the sky
god, Horus, who appeared asa falcon.
One of the most potent images
expressing thisbelief isthisfalcon
statue of KingNectanebo II, with its
intense facial expression and vicious
claws. In their representations of
HorusEgyptian artists depicted a gen-
eralized falcon, rather than anyone
particular species, even though Egypt
ishome to several. The Lanner falcon,
Falco biarmicus, and the peregrine,
E peregrinus, for example, still nest
and breed in the limestone cliffsat the
desert margin and in the ruinsand
pyramids. The birdscan be seen ris-
ingon updrafts of hot desert air
and performing amazingaerobatics.
The sculpture followsthe Late
Period tradition of animal imagesin
hardstone (see no. 5) with remarkably
naturalistic detailsin head and feet,
while the bodyand wingsare simpli-
fied renderings of the bird'snatural
features. The image of a bird and
royal figure together can be read asa
rebusfor Nakhthorheb, the Egyptian
form of one of the king's names: NakAt
from the scimitar the kingholds; hor,
the bird; and heb (the feast), the sign
in the king'sright hand.
SI. Swallow
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Limestone;
h. 3 1/G in. (9.4 cm). RogersFund, I907
(07.228.g)
The linear oasisalongthe Nile that is
Egypt hasalways had a rich varietyof
small birds, includingswallows. Mi-
gratoryswallows from northern climes
passthrough Egypt duringthe spring
and fall, whereas other speciesare
year-round residents. The swallow's
migratory habitswere carefully
observed bythe ancient Egyptians
and interpreted asa sign of regenera-
tion. In an ancient love poem the
swallow, who heralds the morning, is
encountered bya youngwoman re-
turningfrom a tryst with her lover:
The voice of the swallow isspeaking.
It says:
Daybreaks, what isyour path?
[The girl answers:] Don't, little bird!
Are you scoldingme?
I found mylover on hisbed,
And myheart wassweet to excess.
In Egyptian art the individual
members of the swallow familywere
not differentiated. Thislimestone
relief presents a trulylovable image of
the bird, standingon well-articulated
legswith an expression that isboth
comical and dignified. The piece be-
longsto a groupof reliefsand sculp-
turesthat have often been identified
assculptors' modelsbecause many
of them include grid linesand other
tracesof the artist's technique. The
raised angle plate in the upper left
corner, for example, might be an item
of thiskind.
In recent times, however, most
scholars prefer to interpret these ob-
jectsasex-votos, or votive objects, and
in thiscase, the image of the swallow
might have been dedicated to the sun
god or the goddessIsis. The bird is
closelyconnected with both deities.
45
52. Vulture and Cobra
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Lime-
stone relief; h. 6Ysin. (I7vS cm). Gift of
J. Pierpont Morgan, I9II (II.Ii5.I2)
Like the falcon, the vulture, Egypt's
largest bird, liveshigh in the lime-
stone cliffsand soarsover the desert
and alluvial land in search of food.
Ancient artistsdepicted both the grif-
fin vulture, Gypsfillaus, and, lessoften,
the lappet- faced vulture , Aegypius trv-
cheliotus, asincarnations of Mut, god-
dessand consort of Amun, and
Nekhbet, goddessof the royal crown
of Upper Egypt. The vulture's head
and wingsserved asinspiration for the
headdress of Egyptian queens, and
imagesof the majestic bird adorned
the ceilingsof templesand palaces.
In thisrelief Nekhbet asa griff^ln
vulture isthe heraldic figure of Upper
Egypt, leadingthe cobra, which rep-
resentsLower Egypt. The vulture and
the serpent both appear to stand on
46
wicker baskets, but thisshould not be
taken literally. The baskets are hiero-
glyphic signsfor "lord" or "lady," and
the whole configuration identifies the
two creatures asneby, the "two ladies."
The ladiesin question are the titular
goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt,
whose namesare part of everypha-
raolfsname. Thisisanother example
of Ptolemaic relief plaquesthat served
either assculptors' modelsor asvotives
(see no. SI). Thisplaque isalso carved
on the reverse, where the image of a
falcon appears.
53 Hoopoe
DynastyI9, ca. I295-II86 B.C. Drawing on
papyrus; h. of papyrus I4S8 in. (36 cm). Gift
of Edward S. Harkness, I93s(35.9.I9)
The Egyptian hoopoe, Upupv epops,
with itscolorful feathering and beau-
tiful head crest, isstill common in
Egypt. In the Old Kingdom hoopoes
were caught to be petsfor children. In
the papyrus drawingthe bird sitsatop
a stylized papyrus(?) plant and isiden-
tified in the accompanying text as"he
whose magic ishidden." Thisisan
apt description if Nineteenth Dynasty
Egypt followed the practice reported
from much later times, when partsof
the bird'sbodythe heart, head, and
blood played a role in magic prac-
tices(third to eighth centuryA.D.).
54. Bee
Lisht South, pyramid temple of Senwosret I,
DynastyI2, reign of Senwosret I, ca. I97I-
I926 B.C. Detail from a painted limestone
relief; h. of bee 6S4 in. (I6 cm). Rogers
Fund, I909 (09.I80.64)
Thisbeautiful carved image of a bee
functioned asa hieroglyphic ideogram
for "the kingof Lower Egypt." Origi-
nally, it waspart of a monumental in-
scription adorning the pyramid temple
of KingSenwosret I. The Egyptian
honeybee, Apismellifica fasciatv, was
domesticated in EarlyDynastic times,
if not before. Beeswere usuallykept
in terracotta pipesthat served asbee-
hives, which were stacked in rowsone
above the other. After drivingout the
beeswith smoke, much asbeekeepers
do today, the farmers removed the
honeycombs and extracted the honey,
which, alongwith date mash, wasthe
. . . .
maln sweetener ln anclent tlmes.
Beeswax wasalso an important sub-
in thisrelief plaque, isa resident of
Egypt. It nestsin trees, buildings, and
ruinsand huntsbynight. The bird's
. * * r
most cnaracterlstlc teature, ltS lmpres-
sive facial disk, invariably prompted
Egyptian artiststo choose a frontal
view when representing it. The relief
belongsto the same groupof objects
asthe swallow relief and the vulture
and cobra piece (nos. St and 52). Asis
the case for the rest of the group, its
interpretation isstill under discussion.
Isit a votive object or a sculptor's
model? Asan ex-voto, the image of an
owl might appropriately have been
dedicated to a solar deity. Owls, called
"keen-sighted hunters," were also
believed to be birdsof mourningand
death. Asa model, thisrelief demon-
stratesthe most intricate part of the
letter m (a complete owl), and in fact
owlsare rarelydepicted in Egyptian
art except asthishieroglyphic sign.
stance, widelyused in adhesives,
metal casting, and other processes.
55. Barn Owl
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Limestone
relief; h. 4/6 in. (I0.4 cm). RogersFund,
I907 (07.228tII)
The barn owl, Tyto vIba, whose head
isdepicted with unforgettable clarity
47
56. Fly
Dynasty26-29, 664-380 B.C. Faience(?);
. 7/6 in. (I.2 cm). Bequest of MaryAnna
Palmer Draper, I9I5 (I5.43.47)
s7 Flies
Left:DynastyI3-I7, ca. I783-I550 B.C.
Ivory; 1. 27/6 in. (6.3 cm). Purchase, Edward
S. Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.I285). Right:
EarlyDynastyI8, ca. I550-I525 B.C. Glazed
steatite (inscribed on underside for Queen
Ahhotep); 1. /2 in. (I.3 cm). Gift of Helen
Miller Gould, I9I0 (IO.I30.I68)
58. Mosquito Deity
Dynasty26-29, 664-380 B.C. Green-and-
white banded jasper; 1. I%6 in. (3 cm). Gift
of Cyril Aldred, I9 5 5 (55.I72)
The flywhisksthat Egyptian artists
depicted in the handsof pharaohs and
noblesare potent reminders of how
irksome the hostsof flieswere in an-
. . .
clent Egypt. The anclent Egyptlans,
however, seemed to have held fliesin
high esteem, presumably because of
thisinsect's powersof fast reaction
and indomitable, insistent presence.
Beginning in Dynasty I8 (ca. I550-
I295 B.C.), flypendants, often made of
gold, were given bythe kingasmili-
taryawards for valor, and the amulets
shown maywell be reminders of the
official gold "medals." The glazed
steatite flyisinscribed on the under-
side with the name of Queen Ahhotep,
mother of kingsKamose and Ahmose,
who finallydefeated the Hyksos.
Earlier flyamulets mayalso have served
to ward off these annoyinginsects.
The actual fliesrepresented in these
amuletsare difficult, if not impos-
sible, to identifybyspecies. Among
the insectsshown here, the steatite
and faience piecesare unmistakably
flies, and the somewhat larger ivory
piece seemsto be a stylized fly, proba-
blya replica of the golden award
pieces. The green-and-white jasper
insect looksmore like a mosquito
than a fly. Whatever itsidentity, this
jasper amulet hasa falcon head and
wearsthe double crown of Upper
and Lower Egypt. In thisguise the in-
sect hasbecome a deitywith royal
attributes.
Evidence of mosquito netsbeing
used stronglysuggests that mosquitoes
were asmuch a nuisance in the ancient
world astheycan be today. The Greek
writer Herodotus, who traveled in
Egypt in about 445-440 B.C., reported
that people used fishingnetsagainst
mosquitoes, while in Upper Egypt
theyslept on high towers(perhaps
meaningthe roofsof multistory
houses). An actual frame to support a
fine linen nettingover a bed, made
longbefore the time of Herodotus,
wasfound with the burial equipment
of Queen Hetepheres, mother of
Khufu (ca. 255I-2528 B.C.).
48
59. Scarabs
Left: Late Dynasty I2-earlyDynasty I3,
ca. I800-I750 B.C. Glazed steatite (scroll
motif on underside); 1. Y8 in. (2.2 cm).
Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926
(26.7.7I3). Right: Dynasty I9, ca. I295-
II86 B.C. Glazed steatite (enigmatic inscrip-
tion on underside); 1. t3/l6in. (I.7 cm).
Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926
(26.7.352)
The importance of the scarab, Scara-
Z * * TN * .
baeussacer, ln anclent egyptlan re .1-
gion wasbased on careful observation
and interpretation of itsbehavior. The
scarab beetle rollsanimal dungto
form ballsthat are often manytimes
itssize. The scarab both feedsfrom
these ballsand layseggsin them. For
the Egyptians the image of the dung
ball moved bythe scarab's stronghind
legsbecame a metaphor for the rising
sun, and the beetle wasadopted as
one of the most potent symbolsof
resurrectlon.
Startingin the earlyMiddle King-
dom and continuingthroughout the
rest of pharaonic history, imageswere
engraved into the undersides of scarab
amulets, which could thusbe used as
seals. To be readilyand quite literally
at hand, scarabs such asthese were per-
forated horizontally and fitted asbezels
into ringsof gold or other precious
metals.
60. Beetle
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Bronze;
h. 23/8 in. (6 cm). Purchase, Edward S.
Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.855)
Thisrather sinister horned creature
seemsto represent the rhinoceros
beetle, Orystes nascicarnis, which is
native to the Mediterranean region.
The small bronze sarcophagus that
it guards once held a beetle mummy,
though not necessarily of the same
species. In embalming beetles, as
in all animal mummification, the
Egyptians of the Late Period and
Ptolemaic and Roman timesgave
tangible form to their belief that all
animals, large and small, were incar-
nationsof the divine. Religious texts
from Egypt and parallels from other
African cultures, moreover, indicate
that insectscould be understood asin-
corporating an "external soul," mean-
ingthose inner forcesof humansand
deitiesthat are capable of leavingthe
body. In an Old Kingdom text, for
example, the kingwassaid to ascend
to heaven in the form of a grasshopper.
49
v r: u
. .- , . #, ^ .
;
a i 5 r * . 0 ;<;:
i
k
50
6I. Stable with Fattened Longhorns
Western Thebes, tomb of Meketra, early
DynastyI2, ca. I990-I980 B.C. Gessoed and
painted wood; 1. 2852 in. (72.scm). Rogers
Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, I920
(20.3.9)
* .
The anclent Egyptlans were verysuc-
cessful cattle breeders. In their society
and economycattle played an impor-
tant role, and numerous varieties were
raised. Some were longhorned and
longlegged; theygrazed in the open
countryin herdscomprising many
hundreds of animalsand, under the
care of attentive herdsmen, were
moved from place to place according
to a seasonal schedule. Othershad
longhornsand short legs; often cas-
trated, theywere raised and fattened
in stables. There were also varieties
with short horns, no horns, or artifi-
ciallydeformed horns, aswell aszebu,
an Asiatic ox imported from the Levant
duringDynastyI8 (ca. I55O-I295 B.C.).
In thisminiature representation of
a stable, two compartments are con-
nected bya door. In the back room,
which in real life probably had a roof,
three cattle and a calf (or hornless
cow) are feedingfrom a longtrough,
while in the other compartment,
most likelyan open courtyard, two
cattle are fed from a heapof fodder. A
guard, armed with a spear, sitsbythe
entrance to the courtyard. The black,
brown, and spotted cattle are very
sturdilybuilt and clearlyfattened.
The stable wasone of twenty-two
miniatures found with two large stat-
uesof women in a small chamber cut
into the rock in the tomb of the chan-
cellor Meketra at Thebes(Luxor).
Theyhad been untouched since the
dayof their burial. "The beam of light
shot into a little world of four thou-
sand yearsago," wrote Museum curator
Herbert E. Winlock, who discovered
thiscache in one of archaeology's most
memorable moments.
62. Farmer Plowing
EarlyDynasty I2, ca. I990-I900 B.C.
Painted wood; 1. I952 in. (49-S cm). Gift of
Valdemar Hammer Jr., in memory of his
father, I936 (36.S)
which ispulled bytwo veryfriendly
lookingoxen. The farmer's feet have
sunk into the muddyearth, which is
probably still waterlogged from the
annual inundation, but the animals
seem to be on dryer ground. To own
cattle wasa sign of high standingfor a
peasant in ancient Egypt; plow oxen
usuallyhad to be rented from a large
state or temple institution. Even if the
oxen were not actuallyowned bythe
plowman, however, an exceptionally
strongbond could exist between man
and animals. A tale of the New King-
dom tellsof a youngman who worked
on hisolder brother's farm and lived
so closelywith the cattle that he could
understand their language. When
the older brother set out to kill the
younger, because the elder's wife-
asthe wife of Potiphar had accused
the younger brother of tryingto seduce
her, the cattle warned him in time for
him to escape.
The peasant trudges behind the tradi-
tional hook-shaped plow of Egypt,
51
63. FightingBulls
DynastyI9-20, ca. I295-I070 B.C. Painting
on limestone; stone 7g4 X 49%6 in. (I8.5 X
II.5 cm). Rogers Fund, I924 (24.2.27)
Byallowingbullsto fight, Egyptian
herdsmen could determine which was
the stronger and consequently more
suitable for breeding. Bullsfighting,
therefore, wasa frequent occurrence
amongthe herds. For Egyptian artists
the fightswere interesting subjects. In
thistrial sketch, the draftsman cap-
tured a moment of high drama. One
of the powerful beastshasthrown the
other onto itsfront legsto attack its
abdomen with pointed horns. Both
bullsare highlyagitated; their tailsare
tenselycurved, theyare defecating,
and the visible eye of the attacking
bull isturned upward.
Wild bullsstill roamed the margins
of the Delta in the New Kingdom,
and KingRamesses III (ca. II84-
II53 B.C.) felled some enormous indi-
viduals in a reed thicket, according to
a depiction on the pylon of hismortu-
arytemple at Medinet Habu, Thebes.
64. RestingCattle
Dynasty26-29, 664-380 B.C. Gold;
1. (each) /2 in. (I.25 cm). Theodore M. Davis
Collection, Bequest of Theodore M. Davis,
I9I5 (30.8.405, .406)
These small short-horned bovines
seem to be resting, chewingtheir cud.
The hollow figures were made byham-
meringsheetsof gold to form the ani-
mals'bodies, addingthe hornsand
feet, and fusingthe whole onto small
oval baseswith notched edges. As
two of seven celestial cowswho pro-
vided nourishment for the deceased in
the beyond, the little animalsmay
have been part of a rich person's burial
equipment, adorning a piece of jewelry
or an elaborate vessel.
52
66. ApisBllll
Dynasty26-29, 664-380 B.C. Ivory(base
modern); h. 2X6 in. (6.I cm). Gift of
J. Pierpont Morgan, I9I7 (I7.I90.62)
One of the most important animal
deitiesof ancient Egypt wasthe
sacred Apisbull, whose worshipis
attested from DynastyI. Near the
Ptah temple at Memphis, Egypt's old
capital, a livingrepresentative of the
Apisbull wasstabled. He wasparaded
r . . ..
out at testlve occaslons to partlclpate
in ceremonies of fertilityand regener-
ation. The bull that played thisim-
portant role wasselected for displaying
color patterns, such asa white triangle
on the forehead and black patches
resembling winged birdson the body.
In the ivoryfigure the white triangle is
indicated bya sunken area on the
head, while engravings of a vulture
with wingsspread and a winged scarab
flank an elaborate blanket on the back.
When Apisbullsdied, theywere
embalmed and buried with all honors.
Beginning with the reign of King
AmenhotepIII in DynastyI8, the
place of Apisburials wasa huge and
growingunderground system of
chambers called the Serapeum in the
Memphite necropolis, Saqqara. The
mothersof Apisbullshad their own
cult and burial place.
65. Bllll'sLeg
Abydos, DynastyI-2, ca. 2960-2649 B.C.
Ivory; h. 6/2 in. (I6.S cm); RogersFund,
I906 (06.II62.I)
In EarlyDynastic Egypt low bedsand
stools, like other furniture of high
quality, included ivorypartssuch as
bulls'legs. Usingan animal's legfor
the legof a piece of furniture had reli-
. . * n * *
glOUS slgnltlcance relatlngto the great
strength and generative power of the
animal. The bull wasalso a symbol
for the Egyptian king, especially in
the EarlyDynastic period, and royal
furniture maywell have been the first
to be fitted out with such legs.
In makingsetsof legs, Egyptian
artistsalwaysdistinguished hind and
forelegs, often also the right and left,
and positioned them on the piece of
furniture accordingly. Asseen here,
the legshad tenonson topthat fit
into the horizontal frame of the bed or
stool. Leather thongswere threaded
through the two holesbelow the tenon
to secure the legto the frame. All fur-
niture legsin bull's-leg shape termi-
nated in beaded cylinders that kept
the tender hoovesoffthe dirtyfloor.
ThisleR front legfrom a bed or
stool isthe work of a master joiner
who wasalso an accomplished sculp-
tor. The animal's musculature and
skin are delicately differentiated from
the smooth hoof, and the taut veins
are expressive enough to evoke through
thisbodypart the image of the entire
strong, highlytensed animal. The leg
maywell have been part of a king's
bed or chair because it wasfound at
Abydosin one of the tombsof the
first kingsof Egypt.
67. Donkey
Deir el-Bahri, area of causeways, DynastyI8,
ca. I473-I425 B.C. Drawingon limestone;
drawing2X6 X 2%8 in. (6.3 X 6.7 cm). Rogers
Fund, I923 (23.3.8)
Since at least the fourth millennium
B.C., ever-patient donkeyshave car-
ried heavyloadsand helped farmers
bytreadingseedsinto the ground and
threshinggrain. The artist who cre-
ated thissmall character studyover a
proportional grid on a limestone chip
hascaptured the expression of a typi-
callyobstinate donkey. Around the
donkey's neck isa red striped band. An
animal with black striped fur (a cat or
leopard?) wasdrawn below the don-
key'shead to the right, but the main
portion of thiscreature isnow broken
oS. It appears that the sketch comes
from a larger image illustrating a fable
involvingan assand a feline. One such
storyfrom the second centuryA.D. tells
of a lion who wantsto find out the
nature of man. Amongother animals,
the lion encounters a horse and don-
keythat are tethered to a chariot. The
lion asks, "Who did thisto you?" They
answer, "Our lord, man, hasdone
it.... There isnothingmore cunning
54
than man." Wild donkeys were still
livingin the Egyptian desert during
the first part of the nineteenth century.
68. Head of a Camel
Thebes, Lower Asasif cemeteryarea,
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. or later.
Terracotta with white slip; h. IlS6 in. (S cm).
RogersFund, I932 (32.3.343)
The ancient Egyptians knew about
the existence of the dromedary (or
one-humped) camel, Camelus drome-
darius, at least since EarlyDynastic
* 9 , . . * 9
tlmes. .n varlous^ gyptlan sltesrare
instances of camel boneshave been
recorded, although some are doubtful
asto date and identification, and
there are a few figurines and figure
vesselsof camelspreserved from
pharaonic times. Byand large, how-
ever, the camel remained an oddityin
Egyptian eyes. It wasonlywith the
invasion of the Assyrian armyin the
seventh centuryB.C. that people in the
Nile valleymet the camel asa domes-
ticated beast of burden. It took another
four centuries to introduce the domes-
ticated camel to Egypt, where it was
destined to become one of the coun-
try'smost familiar sights. Onlyrecently
have automobiles and farm machines
begun to supersede the animal.
Thissmall terracotta head isun-
pretentious but skillfullymodeled. It
isthe livingimage of a camel, head
held disdainfully upright, the pro-
trudingeyesgazinginto the far dis-
tance, while the soft muzzle seemstO
be caught in a chewingmotion. It
might be a portrait of one of the
camelsof today, which can be seen
liftingtheir headsover farmhouse
wallsnear the exact spot where this
little terracotta piece wasfound by
the Museum's excavators in I9IS-I6.
horse formed the top of a comb, its
teeth now mostlymissing. Thishorse
issomewhat nervously feedingfrom a
trough. In the drawing, a few mas-
terlybrush linescapture an elegant,
well-groomed horse wearinga bridle,
rubbingitsleft forelegplayfully with
itsgraceful muzzle. The motif is
known from a late DynastyI8 relief
from Amarna. It ispossible that this
sketch isa copyof a New Kingdom
representation that interested thispar-
ticular artist at a time when many
Old and New Kingdom worksof art
were copied for reuse in Dynasty26
tombs.
The larger ivoryhorse, which once
adorned a whiphandle, isshown in
what scholars call the flyinggallop. Its
shinycoat isbeautifully rendered with
a light brown tint; the mane, tail,
muzzle, and lower legs, aswell asa
stripe on the back, are in dark brown.
The left eye still retains itsglassy
inlay, which beautifully captures its
shiningeagerness. The animal's head
presses against itscurved neck, a pose
often used in depictions of horsesin
the mid-Eighteenth Dynasty.
69. Horse
DynastyI9, possiblyreign of Ramesses II,
ca. I279-I2I3 B.C. Ivory; w. I%8 in. (3-5 cm).
Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926
(26.7.I290)
70. Horse
Thebes, tomb of Nespekashuty, Dynasty26,
664-6I0 B.C. Drawingon limestone; drawing
4 X 3 in. (I0.2 X 7.6 cm). RogersFund, I923
(23.3.33)
7I. Horse
Thebes, DynastyI8, ca. I400 B.C. Tinted
ivory, glass(?) inlayin left eye; 1. SYg in.
(IS cm). Purchase, Edward S. Harkness
Gift, I926 (26-7-I293)
The horse isa relative latecomer to the
Egyptian menagerie. The earliest skele-
ton found in the Nile valleymaydate
to the seventeenth centuryB.C. In
ancient literature and relief art, horses
first appeared in connection with the
expulsion of the Asiatic rulers, the
Hyksos, which occurred from the late
Seventeenth to the earlyEighteenth
Dynasty(ca. ISSo B.C.). After the de-
feat of the Hyksosthe horse-drawn
chariot became the predominant
fightingmachine of Egypt's military,
the official conveyance of her kings,
and an efflcient vehicle for hunting.
Horseback riding, however, remained
a rarityuntil Ptolemaic times.
These three representations capture
the traitsthe ancient Egyptians most
valued in a horse:speed, elegance,
and good manners. The small ivory
55
Thismagnificent ram, with itsbril-
liant blue-and-green glaze, wasmade
late in the historyof Egyptian art. It is
said to have been found in the capi-
tal of the Fayum oasis, Crocodilopolis
(Medinet el-Fayum), together with
two beautiful faience masksin Roman
style. All three objects were most prob-
ablyvotivesto a sanctuary.
The ram can be identified asOvis
platyura aegyptiaca, based on the for-
ward-bending hornsand thick fleece.
The specieswasfirst introduced into
Egypt from western Asia around 2000
B.C. Duringthe Old Kingdom and
earlier, another sheepspecies, O.
Iongipes palaeoaegyptiaca, waslivingin
the Nile valley. Thisspecieshad long,
horizontally spiraling horns(see fig. 2)
and lent itspowerful shape to a num-
ber of Egyptian gods, the creator god,
Khnum, beingperhaps the most im-
portant of them. Probably because 0.
platyura had longer fleece, it quickly
superseded 0. Iongipes after the begin-
ningof the Middle Kingdom.
The platyura ram became one of
the most sacred animalsin Egypt
through itsassociation with the god
Amun, who, asAmun-Re, wasthe
country's supreme deityduringthe
New Kingdom and afterward. This
faience ram isbendingitS head over
what at first glance seemsto be a
manger, but on closer inspection is
actuallya lotusblossom. Vessels in
flower form were frequently used to
present offerings to gods. Amun
receiving an offiering isthusthe true
subject of thisfaience masterpiece.
skygoddessNut wasdescribed asa
sow whose children were the stars. The
fact that sowsare known to eat their
pigletswasunderstood asa parallel
to the rise and disappearance of stars.
Amuletslike the one illustrated here
were representations of the great
mother goddessand guaranteed
fertility.
The little wooden figure of a young
pigissimplybut carefully made. Its
round head, snub nose, and the black
stripesalongitsback are the unmis-
takable characteristics of the suckling
pig, object of the herdsman's care.
The figure wasfound at the mouth of
the plundered tomb shaft of Yuy, a
great man and vizier, who lived at the
end of the Middle Kingdom. It is
diffilcult to explain the pig'spresence
amongburial equipment at a time
when wooden modelsof peasants,
stables, granaries, and the like were no
longer in fashion. Yuy's tomb wassit-
uated where Queen Hatshepsut later
erected the causeway to her temple of
Deir el-Bahri. It ispossible, therefore,
that the little pigfigure did not belong
to Yuyat all but wasa poor man'sgift
to Hathor of Deir el-Bahri, whose
shrine beside Hatshepsut's temple was
much visited throughout the New
Kingdom.
74. Ram
Medinet el-Fayum, Roman Imperial Period,
probably 2nd centuryA.D. Faience; h. 41M6 in.
(I2 cm). Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift,
I9 26 (26 .7. IOI9)
72. Sow Amulet
Dynasty26-29, 664-380 B.C. Faience;
h. I%6 in. (3 cm). Gift of J. Pierpont
Morgan, I9I7 (I7-I94-2243)
73. YoungPig
Western Thebes, found near the tomb of
the vizier Yuy, Late Dynasty I3(?), ca. I700-
I650 B.C. or later. Wood with reddish brown
and black paint (left legmissing); 1. I%6 in.
(4 cm). Rogers Fund, I926 (26.3.352)
Pigswere domesticated in Egypt from
a wild species, Susscrofa, before the
fifth millennium B.C. Duringphara-
onic times, pork wasone of the staple
foods, and pigswere kept in herdson
everylarge farm, often grazingin the
open steppe. Pigswere not highlyre-
garded, however, and those who
tended them were reviled asdirty, al-
though an Old Kingdom tomb relief
showsa herdsman lovinglyfeeding
a small pigfrom hisown mouth. The
taboo on pigmeat evolved slowly, and
associations with the evil Seth not-
withstanding, pigsalso had a favorable
role to playin Egyptian myths. The
56
and watchdogs, statussymbols, and
companions. About seventydognames
are known from textsand inscriptions.
Theybear strikingresemblance to the
namesgiven modern pets from
Ebony, Blacky, and TrustytO Son-of-
the-Moon, North-wind, Good-for-
Nothing, and, more simply, The Fifth
or The Sixth. The earliest breed (see
no. 2) had upright earsand a curled
tail. A later breed had lopearsand a
straight tail. There were other kinds,
includinga type of dachshund.
Thissmall, crouching dogisa fine
example of the Egyptian artist's ability
tO conveyan animal through a few fea-
tures. Itsheavyhead restslightlyon
pawsfolded over each other: the pic-
ture of a faithful dogawaitingitsmas-
ter. Manydogburials have been found
in Egypt, some with stele bearingthe
animal's name or with a sarcophagus,
and at least one Eighteenth Dynasty
leather dogcollar hassurvived.
7S Pharaohis HuntingDog
Late Dynasty I8, I400-I350 B.C. Ivory,
tinted red inside mouth and black around
eyesand on undersides of paws(tail missing);
. 73/8 in. (I8.6 cm). Rogers Fund, I940
(40.2.I)
Thisleapingdogisa masterpiece of
Egyptian animal sculpture. It is
shown in a sort of grand jete', itsfull
bodyweight thrown forward, every
muscle straining. Because the lower
jaw can be opened and closed by
meansof the lever under the belly,
the piece hasbeen called a mechanical
toy. There are, however, seriousreli-
giousimplications to the image of a
leapingdog. The artist's sketch (no. I2),
for example, showsa dogin an almost
identical pose beside the pharaoh as
he fightsa lion, which, in thiscontext,
embodies evil forces. Associations of a
leapingdogwith the pharaoWs mythi-
cal role asthe foe of chaosand evil
suggest that the ivorypiece waspart of
royal burial equipment and functioned
asa magical object. If thisisthe case,
judgingfrom itsstrikingly naturalistic
style, it most likelybelonged to the
burial of Amenhotep III.
The exceptional piece showsun-
mistakable signsof an alteration that
took place in antiquity, probably
shortlyafter the work wasfinished.
Based on the nonalignment of the
linesof the dog'sincised collar, an ad-
ditional drill hole under the throat, and
the presence of two setsof cavities in-
side the upper jaw to accommodate
the protruding lower front teeth, it ap-
pearsthat the jaw lever wasoriginally
fixed lower down on the chest. The
artist or hisclient did not like the orig-
inal shape of the mouth and reposi-
tioned it, after which he had to drill a
new hole in the neck and a new cavity
in the upper jaw. The drill holesprob-
ablyserved aschannels for a stringthat
controlled the angle of the moveable
* * * * * .
aw w nen lt wasln ltS open posltlon.
76. CrouchingDog
DynastyI8, ca. I550-I295 B.C. Ivory;
. 3 1%6 in. (9.7 cm). Gift of Helen Miller
Gould, I9I0 (IO.I30.2520)
Egyptians were closelyattached to
their dogs, which served ashunting
57
77. Mouse
DynastyI8, ca. I550-I295 B.C. Ivory;
. 2%6 in. (6.5 cm). RogersFund, I9
(44M4M55)
78. Rat or SpinyMouse
Western Thebes, DynastyI8, ca. I473-
I458 B.C. Drawingon limestone; stone 6X4 x
31%6 in. (I7 X IO cm). AnonymousGift, I93I
(3I *4 2)
It isnot clear which mouse or rat
speciesthe artistshad in mind when
theycreated these tsvo representa-
tions. The rat of pharaonic Egypt was
the grassrat, Arvicanthis niloticus nilo-
ticus. The house rat arrived from Asia
after the pharaonic period. Two
speciesof mice datingto pharaonic
timeshave been identified from ani-
mal bones:the Egyptian spinymouse,
Acomys cahirinus, and the house
mouse, Musmusculus. The spiny
mouse isa scrubby-looking creature
known to have lived on the rocky
island of Elephantine in great num-
bers, while the house mouse, which
hasa smooth coat, preferred the Delta
margins. The small exquisite ivory
piece, which ishollowed on one side
to serve asa cosmetic dish, mayrepre-
79. (Opposite top) Vessel in the
Shape of a Monkey
DynastyI8, ca. I550-I295 B.C. Faience;
h. 2 7/6 in. (6.5 cm). RogersFund, I974
(I974-97)
At least one speciesof monkey, Cer-
copithecus aethiops, survived in the
wild in ancient Egypt until the Middle
Kingdom, but monkeys have also
alwaysbeen imported from Ethiopia
and Somalia and kept asentertaining
companions, especially bythe ladies
of the house. In wall paintings and
elsewhere monkeys are depicted in the
lady's boudoir, playingasshe put
on her makeup. Theyare also shown
busily"helping" to harvest datesand
figs. The naughtymonkeyseen here
maywell have stolen the fruit he is
eatingduringsuch a harvest.
Not surprisingly, manycosmetic
vesselswere adorned with monkey
figures. Not onlydid these amusing
creatures cavort around the dress-
ingroom, but theyalso came from the
same exotic countries to the south
that produced manycosmetic ingredi-
ents. Interestingly, monkeys were also
employed aspolice "dogs" in ancient
Egypt. Old Kingdom reliefsshow
vivid scenesof thievesbeingcaught
bythe clever animals.
sent a house mouse, whereas the
masterly drawingon limestone could
be a spinymouse or a grassrat. The
drawingison the reverse of a sketch
showingtwo profiles of Senenmut,
the renowned steward of Queen
Hatshepsut, makingthisan early
example of the art of political
caricature.
58
8I. Vessel in the Shape of a Mother
Monkeywith Her Young
Dynasty6, reign of PepiI, ca. 2289-2255 B.C.
Egyptian alabaster (inscribed "Ny-Khaswt-
Meryre [female] tenant landholder" [of the
pyramid endowment of PepiI] and "first
occurrence ofthe jubilee"); h. 5X8 in. (I3.7 cm).
Purchase, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, Fletcher
Fund, and Lila Acheson Wallace, Russell
and JudyCarson, William KellySimpson,
and Vaughn Foundation Gifts, in honor of
HenryGeorge Fischer, I992 (I992.338)
The two monkeyvasesbelow are in-
spired bykeen observation of animal
behavior, in thiscase the close relation-
shipbetween mothers and their young
amongprimates. Both vesselswere
made duringthe Sixth Dynasty, most
likelyasgiftsfor dignitaries and foreign
rulers at the king's thirty-year festival
(Heb Sed). The monkeys are identified
aspetsbytheir bracelets and armlets.
The vessels are almost identical in
subject and composition but remark-
ablydifferent otherwise. The piece
below left ishighlystylized, itS overall
shape iscylindrical, and all details are
reduced to nearly flat relie The other
piece (no. 8I) iS more organically con-
ceived, eggshaped overall, with the
details sculpted in the round. It cap-
turesan almost human intimacy in
the pose of the mother and baby. In
ancient Egyptian art, it israre to be
able to distinguish individual artists'
hands asclearly asin these two objects.
79
80
80. Vessel in the Shape of a Mother
Monkeywith Her Young
Dynasty6, reign of Merenre, ca. 2255-
2246 B.C. Egyptian alabaster (inscribed with
the name Merenre); h. 7S4 in. (I8.5 cm).
Theodore M. OavisCollection, Bequest of
Theodore M. Oavis, I9I5 (30.8.I34)
82. Baboon-Shaped Game Pieces
Ptolemaic Period, 304-30 B.C. Ivory. Left:
h. I%8 in. (3-S cm). Ludlow Bull Fund, I968
(68.3). Right:h. I%6 in. (3.3 cm). Purchase,
Fletcher Fund and The Guide Foundation
Inc. Gift, I966 (66 99X7S)
These two little baboonsrepresent an
imported species, Papio anubis, that
lacksthe magnificent mane of 1? hamv-
dryas. The figures are masterful animal
. .
depictions, comblningprecise ana-
tomical rendering with expressive,
almost satirical characterization. Since
the back of the figure on the right
isshaped like a knuckle bone, the tra-
ditional form of dice in the ancient
world, it islikelythat both animals
were piecesfrom a game. Stylistically
theyare so close to one another that
theymust belongto the same set, al-
though theycame to the Museum
at different times.
Bythe Ptolemaic era, many
Egyptians were livingin cities, some
of which were quite large and cosmo-
politan, aswasAlexandria, that ancient
equivalent of New York. The minor
artsof the time often reflect an urban
lifestyle and a somewhat sentimental
and condescending attitude toward
nature. The two baboons, near carica-
turesof two little beggars, are good
examples of thisoutlook. The artist
who sculpted the figureshad a dis-
cerningeye that wassurelyinfluenced
bythe Hellenistic tradition, which is
reflected in the intricate postures of
the thin animal bodies.
83. Baboon
Memphis(?), Dynasty26, 664-S2S B.C.
Faience; h. 3X6 in. (8.8 cm). Purchase,
Edward S. Harkness Gift, I926 (26.7.874)
Egypt's resident speciesof baboon,
Papio hamadryas, vanished from the
wild duringthe Middle Kingdom,
about the same time that the monkey
also disappeared. Thereafter baboons
continued to be imported from the
south. Theywere consistently depicted
aslessplayful and more seriousthan
the whimsical monkey. Asfar back as
EarlyDynastic timesthe ancient
Egyptians venerated the baboon asthe
"great white one," which hasbeen
called a royal ancestor animal. Based
on observations of the actual behavior
of baboons, the Egyptians believed
that these primates worshiped the sun
god at sunrise with upraised armsor
handson their knees, postures that
have been explained byprimatologists
asthe animal's need to warm itsbody
in the morning. The hands-on-knees
posture found itsmost impressive
artistic realization in large baboon
sculptures created duringthe reign of
AmenhotepIII (ca. I390-I353 B.C.).
The baboon's intelligence and
enigmatic gaze linked it to Thoth,
the god of wisdom, responsible for
measuring, writing, and generally all
thingsintellectual. Thisfaience stat-
uette isa representation of the deity.
Manyartists studied and revived older
artistic traditions duringDynasty26.
It isentirelypossible, therefore, that
the Arnenhotep III baboon sculptures
were the ultimate source of this
small but impressively statuesque
masterpiece.
60
Late Predynastic Period,
ca. 3200-2960 B.C.
DynastiesI and 2,
ca. 2960-2649 B.C.
Dynasty3,
ca. 2649-2575 B.C.
- _ The art of Egyptian animal representation
developed in six main phases. During the
_- late Predynastic Period and the first two
_ x dynasties, animal representations were
_ widelyused to express theoretical concepts
_ such askingshipor the powersof the uni-
verse. At thistime, the Egyptians formu-
_ lated their hieroglyphic script, a good part
of which iscomposed of animal images.
Animals were rendered more abstractly than theywould be later and
can usuallybe identified bygenusbut not byspecies. Manyimportant
imagesof deitiesin animal shapesbegan to receive definitive form, a
process completed byDynasty3. The iconography of typesthuscreated
would continue to be used in much later periods.
Nos. I, I3, 39
Nos. 49, 50, 52, 54
Dynasty4,
ca. 2575-2465 B.C.
Dynasties 5 and 6,
ca. 2465-2I50 B.C.
The second phase of animal representation
began in Dynasty4 and reached an unsur-
passed peak in Dynasty5. Egyptian artists
revealed their outstanding abilities to
observe nature closelyand depict it pre-
cisely. Today's zoologists can identify
almost everyspeciesof fish, fowl, or
horned steppe animal seen in paintings
and reliefsfrom the period. The incentive
for thisnaturalism came from the belief
that the sun god, assupreme creator, cared for everylivingthing, each
in itsparticular form and size. In art, the solar creed found itsmost
potent expression in the Fifth Dynastysun templesat Abusir, just south
of present-day Cairo. Preserved onlyin fragments, reliefsfrom these
templesrevealed in minute detail the livingworld under the solar
deity's tutelage. Each animal wasshown in activities appropriate to the
three seasons of the Egyptian year. The influence of these sun-temple
reliefsisapparent in all animal representations of the Old Kingdom
and in manylater worksof art.
No. 2
61
A Brief Historyof Anilnal Representation in Egyptian Art
First Intermediate
Period, ca. 2I40-
2040 B.C.
Middle Kingdom,
ca. 2040-I640 B.C., to
earlyNew Kingdom,
ca. ISSO-I400 B.C.
_ As the Old Kingdom waned, the
_ = _ importance of Memphis(modern Mit
_ Rahina, south of Cairo) and itsroyal res-
_ idence gave wayto the provlnces, and a
markedly pessimistic philosophy devel-
oped. Early in the third phase of animal
_i representation, which coincides with
the Middle Kingdom and earlyNew
Kingdom, provincialism inspired a nascent folk art, and the prevailing
pessimism gave rise to a multitude of magical practices for which many
new typesof objectswere created. Often folk art and iconography with
magical significance mingled in Middle Kingdom animal figures, while
high-quality luxuryarticles sublimated these characteristics into fine
worksof art. Royal temple and tomb reliefs, however, were largely
influenced byOld Kingdom prototypes. Asthe third phase lapped over
into the earlypart of the New Kingdom, manycharming animal images,
often more intimate and elegant than those of the Middle Kingdom,
were created.
Nos. 6I, 62, 73
Nos. 38, 39, 4I, 59
No. 34
Nos. I6, I7, 27
Nos. 25, 49
Nos. 3, 9, 20, 35, 37, 39,
42, 57, 7I, 76, 77, 78, 79
AmenhotepIII,
ca. I390-I353 B.C.
Akhenaten,
ca. I353-I336 B.C.
_ A revival of solar worshipushered in
_ the fourth phase of the art of animal
representation. The new intensityin
the worshipof the sun god started dur-
ingthe reign of AmenhotepIII and
reached a peak while hisson
Akhenaten wasking. Artistically thisphase indudesmanyparallels to
the accomplishments of Old Kingdom artists. Anatomical details,
doselyobserved and precisely rendered, were again primary concerns.
There wasrenewed interest in the concept of time, expressed not only
in representations of seasonal life but in the artists' attemptsto cap-
ture a passingmoment byshowingthe effectsof gentle windsblowing
over plantsor byfreezing animals in motion. Stylistic tendencies such as
these lent themselves most readilyto painting, and even before the third
phase had ended, there were examples of thiskind. Manyfine drawings
made in the earlyEighteenth Dynastyanticipate the achievements of
artistsduringAkhenaten's reign.
Small sculptures in the round were another specialtyof the late third
and fourth phases, echoingan urban, luxury-oriented lifestyle that re-
sulted in a more sentimental relationship between humans and animals.
Manyof the small-scale animal figures were influenced bylarge hard-
stone animal sculptures created for royal monuments such asthe mor-
tuarytemple of AmenhotepIII at Thebesor, in Nubia, the temple at
Soleb. Literary works, such asa text on a large scarab describing royal
huntingfeatsor the famoushymnsto the god Aten, underlined the im-
portance of animals in the state ideologyof the time. The immense hunt-
ingbootygenerated bythe famed court huntsof the New Kingdom,
incidentally, mayhave given artiststhe chance to studyanimal bodies
directly.
Nos. 4, 6, IS, 24, 26, 48,
75
No. 7s
No. 24
Nos. 35, 67, 78
Nos. 3, 4, 75
62
Dynasties I9 and 20,
ca. I295-I070 B.C.
Third Intermediate
Period, ca. I070-7I2
B.C.
Just asechoesof Fifth Dynastyart reverberated in succeeding dynas-
ties, the animal representations of the reignsof AmenhotepIII and
Akhenaten greatlyinfluenced the art of later times. Thisinfluence is
reflected in the manyfine animal imagesof Dynasties I9 and 20 and
the Third Intermediate Period. The strikingliveliness of certain amulets
from that period reveals the renewed vitalityof that tradition aswell.
Nos. I2, 40, 53, 63, 69
No. 37
Late Period, 7th to 4th
centuryB.C.
; Sometime during the Late Period,
_ artistsbegan to discover the anatomi-
cal structure of animal bodies. They
_ had always observed and captured
_i essential characteristics of each species,
i especially during the Old and New
a Kingdoms, but now, in the fifth phase,
theysought to understand how bones,
muscles, sinews, and skin made an animal function. The results could
. .
be lmpresslve.
The best animal representations of thisfifth phase are sculptures in
the round, created in dark green or black hardstone. Innumerable small
animal amulets and figurines of high qualitymade duringthisperiod
also show artistsreevaluating and reinterpreting earlier achievements in
miniature art, with a new emphasis on organic detail. The beautiful
light turquoise color of thisperiod's faience enhanced the effect of these
* . .
sometlmes tlny masterpleces.
Nos. Sx I0, II, S
Nos. S, S
Nos. I9, 20, 37, 46, s6,
S8, 64, 83
Ptolemaic and Roman
periods304 s.c.-4th
centuryA.D.
_ The sixth phase of animal representa-
_ _ tion covered the Ptolemaic and
- _ Roman periods. In the light blue,
_ impeccably finlshed faience of the
_ j_ period, amuletlclmagesassumeda
_ cool aloofness that reflected the in-
_ tellectualism typical of thisphase of
Egyptian culture. Bronze waswidely
used for animal figures. Manyof these bronzes were also containers for
bodyrelicsof real animals. Such objects remind usof the period's almost
frenzied search for tangible manifestations of the divine. Beginning
with the preceding Late Period phase, actual animals, rather than images,
had been included in ever-increasing numbers in the worshipof deities.
A special achievement of Ptolemaic art wasthe creation of manystrik-
ingrelief imagesof animals in limestone. Whether votivesor sculptors'
models, these reliefsclearlystrive to represent animals in an exemplary
and direct manner. Capturing thousands of yearsof artistic tradition
in definitive pictograms, theyevince the same substance and attention
to detail that had inspired animal imageryin Egypt since the Old
Kingdom.
Nos. 28, 29, 33, 74, 82
Nos. 2I, 28
Nos. 23, 43, 44, 4S, 60
Nos. SI, S2, SS
63
In-depth studies on the subject of animals in
Ancient Egypt cannot be undertaken without
consulting the archive byLudwig Keimer-
largely unpublished now housed in the
German Archaeological Institute, Cairo. The
numerous articles byKeimer are listed in
Joachim Boessneck, Die Tierwelt desalten
Agypten (Munich, I988), pp. I9I-92.
Anderson, John. Zoologyof Egypt. Vol. I, Reptilia
and Batrachia. London, I898; repr. I965.
Anderson, John, and William E. de Winton.
Zoologyof Egypt: Mammalia. London, I902.
Andrews, Carol. Amulets of Ancient Egypt. Texas,
I994-
Assmann, Jan. Agyptische Hymnen und Gebete.
Die Bibliothek der Alten Welt. Zurich and
Munich, I975.
Beaux, Nathalie. Le Cabinet du curiosite's de
Thoutmosis III:Planteset animausdu 'CJardin
botanique"de Karnak. Orientalia Lovaniensia
Analecta 36. Leuven, Belgium, I990.
Boessneck, Joachim. Die Tierwelt desAlten
Agypten untersucht anhand kulturgeschicht-
licher und zoologisher Quellen. Munich, I988.
Brewer, Douglas J., and Rene F. Friedman. Fish
and Fishingin Ancient Egypt. Cairo, I989.
Fairman, H. W. The Triumphant Horus: An
Ancient Egyptian Sacred Drama. Berkeley and
LosAngeles, I974.
Faulkner, Raymond O. The Ancient Egyptian
Cog7in Texts. 2 vols. Warminster, England,
I977-
. TheAncient Egyptian Pyramid Texts.
Oxford, I969.
Gamer-Wallert, Ingrid. Fische und Fischkulte im
alten Agypten. Vol. 2I. Agyptologische
Abhandlungen. Ed. WolEgang Helck and
Eberhard Otto. Wiesbaden, I970.
Hery, Franc,ois-Xavier, and Thierry Enel.
Animaux du Nil Animaux de Dieu.
L'Univers de l'Egypte pharaonique. Aix-en-
Provence, I993.
Hornung, Erik, and Elisabeth Staehelin. "Tiere."
In Skarabden und andere Siegelamulette aus
Basler Sammlungen: Agyptische Denkmdler in
der Schweiz. Vol. I, pp. I06-63. Mainz, I976.
Houlihan, Patrick F. The Birdsof Egypt.
Warminster, England, I986.
zu HulshoK, Vera von Droste. Der Igel im alten
Agypten. Hildesheimer Agyptologische
Beitrage II. Hildesheim, I980.
Janssen, Rosalind, and Jack Janssen. Egyptian
Household Animals. Shire Egyptology.
Aylesbury, England, I989.
Lexikon derAgyptologie. 7 vols. Wiesbaden,
Germany, I975-92.
Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature:
A Book of Readings. 3 vols. Berkeley, Los
Angeles, and London, I973-80.
Malek, Jaromir. The Cat in Ancient Egypt.
London, I993.
Meinertzhagen, Richard. NicollsBirdsof Egypt. 2
vols. London, I930.
Page 6, "Beetles in all kindsof wood":after Jan
Assmann, Agyptische Hymnen und Gebete,
p. 203.
Page 7, "'Thisisthe taste of death"': Lichtheim,
Literature, vol. I, The Old and Middle
Kingdoms, p. 224.
Page II, "A hunter pursuesit with hishounds":
I ichtheim, Literature, vol. 2, noted above,
p. I87.
Page I6, "who seesand catchesbynight":
Raymond O. Faulkner, The Ancient Egyptian
Cofin Texts, vol. 2, Spells3Sy-787) p- I05,
spell 470.
Page 2I, "grant the beauteous West:in peace":
Jaromir Malek, The Cat in Ancient Egypt,
p. 86, fig. 53; translation byJamesAllen.
Page 24, "From your beautyI'll not part!":
Lichtheim, Literature, vol. 2, noted above,
p. I90.
Page 24, "Asa bold fen-man does":H. W.
Fairman, The Triumphant Horus, p. 82, verses
8I-83 and 90-92.
Page 25, "Their armsadore your appearance":
Lichtheim, Literature, vol. 2, noted above,
P- 97-
Page 38, "when the river banksare flooded":
Faulkner, TheAncient Egyptian Pyramid Texts,
p. 235, utterance 58I; translation byJames
Allen.
Page 38, "Who makeshisbountyoverflow":
Lichtheim, Literature, vol. I, noted above,
pp. 205 and 207.
Page 43, "I wason mybellybefore him":
Lichtheim, Literature, vol. I, noted above,
p. 2I2.
Page 45, "And myheart wassweet to excess":
Translation byJamesAllen from Papyrus
Harris500.
Page SI, "little world of four thousand yearsago":
Herbert E. Winlock, Modelsof DailyLife in
Ancient Egypt, p. 3.
Page SI, "so that he could escape": Lichtheim,
Literature, vol. 2, noted above, pp. 204-6.
Page 54, "There isnothingmore cunningthan
man": Gunther Roeder, Alt2gyptische
Erzahlungen und Marchen, p. 308.
Page 58, Rat or spinymouse:The animal on the
reverse of the Senenmut ostracon (acc. no.
3I.4.2) hasbeen identified byJacques J.
Janssen asa fox ("On the Scent of a Fox"in
Discussions in Egyptology I6 [I990], pp.
43-SI), but the longand dense whiskers,
elongated muzzle, and thin tail are not those
of a fox. Dale J. Osborn identifiesthe animal
asa rodent, quite possiblya spinymouse
(Warminster, England, forthcoming).
Phillips, DorothyW., Ancient Egyptian Animals:
A Picture Book. New York (The Metropolitan
Museum of Art), I942.
Roeder, Gunther. Altagyptische Erzahlungen und
M2rchen. Jena, Germany, I927.
Rommelaere, Catherine. LesChevaux du nouvel
empire Egyptien: Origines, races, harnache-
ment. Conaissance de l'Egypte ancienne
Etude 3. Brussels, I99I.
Schoske, Sylvia, and Dietrich Wildung. Gott und
Gotter im alten Agypten. Mainz, I992.
Winlock, Herbert E. Modelsof DailyLife in
Ancient Egypt from the Tomb of Meket-Re at
Thebes. Publications of The Metropolitan
Museum of Art Egyptian Expedition. Vol. I8.
Cambridge, Mass., I955.
Notes:
Page 2, "no scene in the tomb contained any
such figure": Herbert E. Winlock, "The
Egyptian Expedition, I922-I923," The
Bulletin of The Metropolitan Museum of Art I8
(old series, December I923), part 2, p. 2I.
Page 2, "indicated with a few swift strokesof
black": Winlock, "The Egyptian Expedition,"
noted above, p. 34.
Page 4, "Beetle who raised himself": Miriam
Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol. 2,
The New Kingdom, p. 87.
64
Selected General Bibliography
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