Math Forumulas

XXX
Mathematics

217 General Mathematics

Trigonometry Series Differential Calculus Integral Calculus Special Functions

218 Linear Algebra Matrices

George Cain

Basic Denitions Algebra of Matrices Systems of Equations Vector Spaces Rank
and Nullity Orthogonality and Length Determinants Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors

219 Vector Algebra and Calculus

George Cain

Basic Denitions Coordinate Systems Vector Functions Gradient, Curl, and
Divergence Integration Integral Theorems

220 Complex Variables

George Cain

Basic Denitions and Arithmetic Complex Functions Analytic Functions
Integration Series Singularities Conformal Mapping

221 Difference Equations

William F. Ames

First-Order Equations Second-Order Equations Linear Equations with Constant
Coefcients Generating Function (

z

Transform)

222 Differential Equations

William F. Ames

Ordinary Differential Equations Partial Differential Equations

223 Integral Equations

William F. Ames

Classication and Notation Relation to Differential Equations Methods of
Solution

224 Approximation Methods

William F. Ames

Perturbation Iterative Methods

225 Integral Transforms

William F. Ames

Laplace Transform Convolution Integral Fourier Transform Fourier Cosine
Transform

226 Chaos, Fractals, and Julia Sets

Anca Deliu

Chaos Fractals Julia Sets

227 Calculus of Variations

William F. Ames

The Euler Equation The Variation Constraints

1586_SD30.fm Page 1 Tuesday, May 11, 2004 2:57 PM

228 Probability and Statistics

Y. L. Tong

Elementary Probability Random Sample and Sampling Distributions Normal
DistributionRelated Sampling Distributions Condence Intervals Testing
Statistical Hypotheses A Numerical Example

229 Optimization

George Cain

Linear Programming Unconstrained Nonlinear Programming Constrained
Nonlinear Programming

230 Numerical Methods

William F. Ames

Linear Algebra Equations Nonlinear Equations in One Variable General Methods
for Nonlinear Equations in One Variable Numerical Solution of Simultaneous
Nonlinear Equations Interpolation and Finite Differences Numerical
Differentiation Numerical Integration Numerical Solution of Ordinary
Differential Equations Numerical Solution of Integral Equations Numerical
Methods for Partial Differential Equations Discrete and Fast Fourier Transforms
Software

231 Dimensional Analysis

William F. Ames

Units and Variables Method of Dimensions

232 Computer Graphics Visualization

Richard S. Gallagher

3-D Display of Objects Scalar Display Techniques Vector and Tensor Field Display
Continuum Volume Visualization Animation Over Time Summary

1586_SD30.fm Page 2 Tuesday, May 11, 2004 2:57 PM

217

General Mathematics

217.1 Trigonometry

Triangles Trigonometric Functions of an Angle
Trigonometric Identities Inverse Trigonometric Functions

217.2 Series

Bernoulli and Euler Numbers Series of Functions Error
Function Series Expansion

217.3 Differential Calculus

Notation Slope of a Curve Angle of Intersection of Two
Curves Radius of Curvature Relative Maxima and Minima
Points of Inection of a Curve Indeterminant Forms
Numerical Methods Functions of Two Variables Partial
Derivatives

217.4 Integral Calculus

Indenite Integral Denite Integral Properties Common
Applications of the Denite Integral Cylindrical and Spherical
Coordinates Double Integration Surface Area and Volume
by Double Integration Centroid

217.5 Special Functions

Hyperbolic Functions Bessel Functions Legendre
Polynomials Laguerre Polynomials Hermite Polynomials
Orthogonality Functions with

x

2

/

a

2

y

2

/

b

2

Functions with
(

x

2

/

a

2

+

y

2

/

b

2

c

2

)

1/2

217.1 Trigonometry

Triangles

In any triangle (in a plane) with sides

a

,

b

, and

c

and corresponding opposite angles

A

,

B

, and

C

,

sin sin sin
( )
cos ( )
tan ( )
tan ( )
( )
a
A
b
B
c
C
a b c cb A
a b
a b
A B
A B
= =
= + -
+
-
=
+
-
Law of sines
Law of cosines
Law of Tangents
2 2 2
2
1
2
1
2

sin
( )( )
( )
1
2
1
2
A
s b s c
bc
s a b c =
- -
= + + where

1586_book.fm Page 1 Tuesday, May 11, 2004 1:46 PM
2005 by CRC Press LLC

217

-2

The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

If the vertices have coordinates (

x

1

,

y

1

), (

x

2

,

y

2

), (

x

3

,

y

3

), the area is the

absolute value

of the expression

Trigonometric Functions of an Angle

With reference to Figure 217.1,

P

(

x

,

y

) is a point in any one of the four quadrants and

A

is an angle
whose initial side is coincident with the positive

x

axis and whose terminal side contains the point

P

(

x

,

y

). The distance from the origin

P

(

x

,

y

) is denoted by

r

and is positive. The trigonometric functions of
the angle

A

are dened as:
Angles are measured in degrees or radians; 180

=

p

radians; 1 radian

=

180/

p

degrees.
The trigonometric functions of 0, 30, 45, and integer multiples of these are directly computed.

cos
( )

tan
( )( )
( )

sin
( )( )( )
1
2
1
2
1
2
A
s s a
bc
A
s b s c
s s a
bc A
s s a s b s c
=
-
=
- -
-
=
= - - -
Area
1
2
1
1
1
1 1
2 2
3 3
x y
x y
x y

sin /
cos /
tan /
/
sec /
csc /
A A y r
A A x r
A A y x
A A x y
A A r x
A A r y
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
sine
cosine
tangent
ctn cotangent
secant
cosecant

sin
cos
tan
sec
csc
0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180
0
1
2
2
2
3
2
1
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
1
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
1
2
2
2
3
2
1
0
3
3
1 3 3 1
3
3
0
3
3
1 3
1
2 3
3
2 2 2 2
2 3
3
1
2 2

- - - -
- - -
- - -
- - - -
ctn 3 1
3
3
0
22 3
3
1
2 3
3
2 2


General Mathematics

217

-3

Trigonometric Identities

FIGURE 217.1

The trigonometric point. Angle

A

is taken
to be positive when the rotation is counter-clockwise and
negative when the rotation is clockwise. The plane is divided
into quadrants as shown.
(III) (IV)
(II) (I)
r
A
0
X
Y
P(x,y)
sin
csc
cos
sec
tan
sin
cos
csc
sin
sec
cos
tan
cos
sin
sin cos
tan sec
csc
sin( ) sin cos cos sin
cos( ) cos
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A A
A A
A A
A B A B A B
A B A
=
=
= =
=
=
= =
+ =
+ =
+ =
=
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2 2
2 2
2 2
ctn
ctn
ctn
cos cos sin sin
tan( )
tan tan
tan tan
sin sin cos
sin sin sin
sin sin( ) cos sin( )
cos cos sin
B A B
A B
A B
A B
A A A
A A A
nA n A A n A
A A A
m
m
=

=
= -
= - - -
= - = -
1
2 2
3 3 4
2 1 2
2 2 1 1 2
3
2 2


217

-4


cos cos cos
cos cos( ) cos cos( )
A A A
nA n A A n
= -
= - - -
3 4 3
2 1 2
3
AA
A B A B A B
A B A B A B
A B A B A B
A B A B A B
A B
A B
A B
A
sin sin sin ( )cos ( )
sin sin cos ( )sin ( )
cos cos cos ( )cos ( )
cos cos sin ( )sin ( )
tan tan
sin( )
cos cos
+ = + -
- = + -
+ = + -
- = - + -
=

2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
ctn ctn BB
A B
A B
A B A B A B
=

= - - +
sin( )
sin sin
sin sin cos( ) cos( )
1
2
1
2
cos cos cos( ) cos( )
sin cos sin( ) sin( )
sin
cos
cos
cos
tan
cos
sin
sin
cos
cos
cos
sin ( cos )
cos
A B A B A B
A B A B A B
A A
A A
A A
A
A
A
A
A
A A
A
= - + +
= + + -
=
-
=
+
=
-
=
+
=
-
+
= -
=
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1 2
1
2
2
22
1 2
1
4
3 3
1
4
3 3
1
2
1
2
3
3
( cos )
sin ( sin sin )
cos (cos cos )
sin ( ) sinh
cos ( ) cosh
+
= -
= +
= - =
= + =
-
-
A
A A A
A A A
ix i e e i x
ix e e x
x x
x x


General Mathematics

217

-5

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The inverse trigonometric functions are multiple valued, and this should be taken into account in the
use of the following formulas.

217.2 Series

Bernoulli and Euler Numbers

A set of numbers,

B

1

,

B

3

,, (Bernoulli numbers) and

B

2

,

B

4

,,

B

2

n

(Euler numbers) appear in the series
expansions of many functions. A partial listing follows; these are computed from the following equations:

tan
( )
tanh
(cos
=
-
+
=
= +
-
-
+
ix
i e e
e e
i x
e e y
x x
x x
x iy x
ii y
x i x nx i nx
n
sin )
(cos sin ) cos sin =
sin cos
tan
sec csc
sin ( )
- -
- -
- -
-
= -
=
-
=
-
=
-
=
= - -
1 1 2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
ctn

cos sin
tan
sec csc
cos ( )
- -
- -
- -
-
= -
=
-
=
-
= =
-
= - -
1 1 2
1
2
1
2
1 1
2
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
ctn
p

tan
sin cos
sec csc
tan ( )
- -
- -
- -
-
=
=
+
=
+
= + =
+
= - -
1 1
1
2
1
2
1 2 1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
ctn

B
n 2 1 -

B
n n
B
n n n n
B
n n n
n
2 2 2 2 4
2 2 1
2
2 2 1 2 2 2 3
4
1 0 -
-
+
- - -
- + - =
- -
( )
!
( )( )( )
!
( ) L


217

-6


and

Series of Functions

In the following, the interval of convergence is indicated; otherwise it is all

x

. Logarithms are to the base

e

. Bernoulli and Euler numbers (

B

2

n

-

1

and

B

2

n

) appear in certain expressions.

2 2 1
2
2 1
2 1 2 2 2 3
3
1
2 2
2 1 2 2 2 4
1
n n
n n n
n
n
B n B
n n n
B
( )
( )
( )( )( )
!
( )
-
= - -
- - -
+ + -
- - -
-
L
B B
B B
B B
B B
B B
B B
B B
1 2
3 4
5 6
7 8
9 10
11 12
13 14
1 6 1
1 30 5
1 42 61
1 30 1385
5 66 50 521
691 2730 2 702 765
7 6 199 360 981
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
/
/
/
/
/
/
/

M M
( )
( )
!
( )( )
!

!
( )! !
[ ]
( )
a x a na x
n n
a x
n n n
a x
n
n j j
a x x a
a bx
a
bx
a
b x
a
b x
a
n n n n n
n j j
+ = + +
-
+
- -
+
+
-
+ <
- = + + + +
- - -
-
-
1 2 2 3 3
2 2
1
2 2
2
3 3
3
1
2
1 2
3
1
1
L
L
L [ [ ] b x a
x nx
n n
x
n n n x
x
x nx
n n
x
n n n
x x
x x
n
n
2 2 2
2
3
2
2 3 2
1 2
1 1
1
2
1 2
3
1
1 1
1
2
1 2
3
1
1 1
1
2
<
= +
-

- -
+ <
= +
+ + +
+ <
= -
-
( )
( )
!
( )( )
!
[ ]
( )
( )
!
( )( )
!
[ ]
( )
L
m m L
11
2 4
1 3
2 4 6
1 3 5
2 4 6 8
1
1 1
1
2
1 3
2 4
1 3 5
2 4 6
1 3 5 7
2 4 6 8
1
1 1
1
2
2 3 4 2
1 2 2 3 4 2
2 1 2

-

<
= +

+

<
=
-
x x x x
x x x x x x
x x
L
m m L
[ ]
( ) [ ]
( )
22
4
6 8 2
1 2 3 4 5 2
2 2 3 4 2
2 4
1 3
2 4 6
1 3 5
2 4 6 8
1
1 1 1
1 1 2 3 4 5 1
1
-

-

<
= + + + <
= + + <
=
-
-
x
x x x
x x x x x x x
x x x x x x
e
x
L
m m m L
m m mL
[ ]
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]

++ + + + + x
x x x
2 3 4
2 3 4 ! ! !
L


General Mathematics

217

-7

= - + - + -
= + + + +
-
e x
x x x
a x a
x a x a
x
x
2
4 6 8
2 3
1
2 3 4
1
2 3
2
! ! !
log
( log )
!
( log )
!
L
L

log ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
log
log
x x x x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
= - - - + - - < <
=
-
+
-
+
-
+ >
=
-
+
+
-
+
1
1
2
1
1
3
1 0 2
1 1
2
1 1
3
1 1
2
2
1
1
1
3
1
1
2 3
2 3
L
L
33 5
2 3 4 2
3 5 7 2
1
5
1
1
0
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
5
1
7
1
+
-
+
>
+ = - + - + <
+
-
= + + + +
<
+
x
x
x
x x x x x x
x
x
x x x x x
x
L
L
L
[ ]
log( ) [ ]
log [ ]
log
11
1
2
1 1
3
1 1
5
1
1
3 5
2
x x x x
x
-
= +

> L [ ]
sin
! ! !

cos
! ! !

tan

( )
( )!

x x
x x x
x
x x x
x x
x x x
B x
n
x
x
x
x
n n
n
n
= - + - +
= - + - +
= + + +
+ +
-
<
-
-
-
3 5 7
2 4 6
3 5 7
2 2
2 1
2 1
2
2
3 5 7
1
2 4 6
3
2
15
17
315
2 2 1
2 4
1
3
L
L
L
p
ctn = -- - - - - <
= + + + + + + <
+ +
+
-
x x B x
n x
x
x
x x x B x
n
x
x
x
x x x
n
n
n
n
3 5
2 1
2
2 2
2 4 6
2
2
2
2
3 5
45
2
945
2
2
1
2
5
4
61
6 2 4
1
3
7
3 5
31
3 7
L L
L L
( )
( )!
[ ]
sec
! ! ! ( )!

! ! !
p
p
csc = LL
L
L

( )
( )!
[ ]
sin
( )
( )
( )
( )
[ ]
+
-
+
+ <
= + +

+

+ <
+
+
+
-
2 2 1
2 2
6
1 3
2 4 5
1 3 5
2 4 6 7
1
2 1
2 1
2 1 2 2
1
3 5 7
2
n
n
n
n
B x x
x x
x x x
x
p


217

-8


Error Function

The following function, known as the error function, erf

x

, arises frequently in applications:
The integral cannot be represented in terms of a nite number of elementary functions; therefore, values
of erf

x

have been compiled in tables. The following is the series for erf

x

:
tan = - + - +
-
1
3
1
5
1
7
1 3 5 7
x x x x x LL
L
L
L
[ ]
sec
( ) ( )
[ ]
sinh
! ! !
cosh
! ! ! !

tanh (
x
x
x x x x
x
x x
x x x
x
x x x x
x
2
1
3 5 7
2
3 5 7
2 4 6 8
1
2
1 1
6
1 3
2 4 5
1 3 5
2 4 6 7
1
3 5 7
1
2 4 6 8
2
<
= - - -

-

- >
= + + + +
= + + + + +
=
-
p
22 2
1
4 4
3
3
6 6
5
5
2
2
2
1
2 4
3
4 6
5
6
2 2
1 2
2
2 1 2
4
2 1 2
6 4
1
1
2
2
2
4
2
6
1
- - -
+ - - <
= + - + -
<
= -
)
!
( )
!
( )
!

! ! !
[ ]
B
x
B
x
B
x
x
x
x
B x B x B x
x
x
L
L
p
p ctnh
sech
BB x B x B x
x
x
x
B
x
B
x
x
x x
x x x
2
2
4
4
6
6
2
2
1
3
3
3
2 2
1
3 5 7
2 4 6 4
1
2 1 2
2
2 1 2
4
1
2 3
1 3
2 4 5
1 3 5
2 4 6 7
! ! !

( )
!
( )
!
[ ]
sinh
+ - + <
= - - + - - <
= - +

-

+
-
L
L
p
p csch
LL
L
L
[ ]
tanh [ ]
[ ]

x
x x
x x x
x
x
x x x
x
2
1
3 5 7
2
1
3 5
2
1
3 5 7
1
1 1
3
1
5
1
<
= + + + + <
= + + + >
-
-
ctnh

csch
-
-
= -
+

-

+ >
= - +
1
3 5 7
2
0
3
5 7
1 1
2 3
1 3
2 4 5
1 3 5
2 4 6 7
1
1
3 5 2 7 3
2
x
x x x x
x
e dt x x
x x
t
x
L
L
[ ]
! !

erf x e dt
t
x
=
-
2 2
0 p


General Mathematics

217

-9

There is a close relation between this function and the area under the standard normal curve. For
evaluation it is convenient to use

z

instead of

x

; then erf

z

may be evaluated from the area

F

(

z

) by use
of the relation

Example

By interpolation,

F

(0.707)

=

0.260; thus, erf(0.5)

=

0.520.

Series Expansion

The expression in parentheses following certain series indicates the region of convergence. If not otherwise
indicated, it is understood that the series converges for all nite values of

x.

Binomial
Reversion of Series

Let a series be represented by
To nd the coefcients of the series

erf x x
x x x
= - +
2
3 5 2 7 3
3 5 7
p
! !
L
erf z F z = 2 2 ( )

erf ) ( . [( . )( . )] ( . ) 0 5 2 1 414 0 5 2 0 707 = = F F

( )
( )
!
( )( )
!
[ ]
( )
( )
!
( )( )
!
[ ]
( )
x y x nx y
n n
x y
n n n
x y y x
x nx
n n x n n n x
x
x nx
n
n n n n n
n
n
+ = + +
-
+
- -
+ <
= +
-

- -
+ <
= +
- - -
-
1 2 2 3 3 2 2
2 3
2
1
2
1 2
3
1
1
2
1 2
3
1
1 1
L
L
m

1
(( )
!
( )( )
!
[ ]
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
n x n n n x
x
x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x
+ + +
+ <
= + + + <
= + + + <
-
-
1
2
1 2
3
1
1 1 1
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
2 3
2
1 2 3 4 5 2
2 2 3 4 5 2
m L
m m m L
m m m L

y a x a x a x a x a x a x a = + + + + + +
1 2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
1
0 L ( )
x A y A y A y A y
A
a
A
a
a
A
a
a a a
A
a
a a a a a a
= + + + +
= = - = -
= - -
1 2
2
3
3
4
4
1
1
2
2
1
3 3
1
5 2
2
1 3
4
1
7 1 2 3 1
2
4 2
3
1 1
2
1
5 5
L
( )
( )


217

-10


Taylor

1.
(Increment form)
2.
3. If

f

(

x

) is a function possessing derivatives of all orders throughout the interval

a

b

, then
there is a value

X

, with

a

<

X

<

b

, such that
or
where
The above forms are known as Taylors series with the remainder term.

A
a
a a a a a a a = + + -
5
1
9 1
2
2 4 1
2
3
2
2
4
1
3
1
6 3 14 ( aa a a a
A
a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
A
a
a a a a a a a a a
5 1 2
2
3
6
1
11 1
3
2 5 1
3
3 4 1 2
3
3 1
4
6 1
2
2
2
4 1
2
2 3
2
2
5
7
1
13 1
4
2 6 1
4
3 5 1
4
4
2
1
2
21
1
7 7 84 28 28 42
1
8 8 4 120
-
= + + - - - -
= + + +
)
( )
( aa a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a
2
3
4 1
2
2
2
3
2
2
6
1
5
7
1
3
2
2
5 1
3
2 3 4 1
3
3
3
1 2
4
3
180 132
36 72 12 330
+ + -
- - - -

)
f x f a x a f a
x a
f a
x a
f a
x a
n
f a
n
n
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
!
( )
( )
!
( )

( )
!
( ) ( )
( )
= + - +
-
+
-

+ +
-
+
2 3
2 3
L L Taylor s series
f x h f x hf x
h
f x
h
f x
f h xf h
x
f h
x
f h
( ) ( ) ( )
!
( )
!
( )
( ) ( )
!
( )
!
( )
+ = + + + +
= + + + +
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
L
L
f b f a b a f a
b a
f a
b a
n
f a
b a
n
f X
f a h f a hf a
h
f a
h
n
n
n
n
n
n
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
!
( )

( )
( )!
( )
( )
!
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
!
( )
(
( ) ( )
= + - +
-
+
+
-
-
+
-
+ = + + + +
-
-
-
2
1
1
2 1
2
1
2
L
L
--
+ + = + < <
-
1
0 1
1
)!
( )

!
( ), ,
( )
( )
f a
h
n
f a h b a h
n
n
n
q q

f x f a x a f a
x a
f a x a
f a
n
R
n
n
n
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
!
( ) ( )
( )
( )!
( )
= + - +
-
+ + -
-
+
-
- 2
1
1
2 1
L
R
f a x a
n
x a
n
n
n
=
+ -
- < <
( )
[ ( )]
!
( ) , .
q
q 0 1


General Mathematics

217

-11

4. Taylors series for a function of two variables:
etc., and if
where the bar and subscripts mean that after differentiation we are to replace x by a and y by b,
MacLaurin
where
Exponential
If h
x
k
x
f x y h
f x y
x
k
f x y
y
h
x
k
y
f x y h
f x y
x
hk
f x y
x y
k
f x y
y
= +
+
= + +
( , )
( , ) ( , )
;
( , )
( , ) ( , ) ( , )
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
h
x
k
y
f x y
n
x a
y b
=
=
( , )

f a h b k f a b h
x
k
y
f x y
n
h
x
k
y
f x y
x a
y b
n
x a
y b
( , ) ( , ) ( , )

!
( , )
+ + = + +
+
+ +
+
=
=
=
=
L
L
1

f x f xf
x
f
x
f x
f
n
R
n
n
n
( ) ( ) ( )
!
( )
!
( )
( )
( )!
( )
= + + + + +
-
+
-
-
0 0
2
0
3
0
0
1
2 3
1
1
L

R
x f x
n
n
n n
= < <
( )
( )
!
,
q
q 0 1

e
e x
x x x
x
a x a
x a x a
e e x a
x a x a
x
x
e
e e
x a
= + + + + +
= + + + + +
= + + + +
= + - +
-
+
-
+
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2 3 4
1
2 3
1
2 3
2 3 4
2 3
2 3
! ! ! !

! ! !

log
( log )
!
( log )
!
( )
( )
!
( )
!
L
L
L
L
(all real values of )

217-12 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition
Logarithmic
Trigonometric
log ( )
log ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
log
e
e
e
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x x x
x
x
x
x
x
=
-
+
-
+
-
+ >
= - - - + - - >
=
-
+
+
-
+
+
1 1
2
1 1
3
1 1
2
1
1
2
1
1
3
1 2 0
2
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
5
2 3
2 3
3
L
L
xx
x
x
x x x x x x
n n
n n n
a x
e
e e
e
-
+
>
+ = - + - + - <
+ - - = + + +
+ =
1
1
0
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1 1
1 1 2
1 1
3
1
5
5
2 3 4
3 5
L
L
L
( )
log ( ) ( )
log ( ) log ( )
log ( ) log log ( , )

log (
e
e
n
a
x
a x
x
a x
x
a x
a a x
x
x
x
x x x
n
+
+
+
+
+
+
> - < < +

+
-
= + + + +
-
+
- <
-
2
2
1
3 2
1
5 2
0
1
1
2
3 5 2 1
1
3 5
3 5 2 1
L
L L xx
x a
x a
a
x a
a
x a
a
x a
e e
<
= +
-
+
-
+
-
- <
1
2 3
0 2
2
2
3
3
)
log log
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) L

sin
! ! !
(
cos
! ! !
(
tan

( ) ( )
( )!
x x
x x x
x
x
x x x
x
x x
x x x x
B
n
x
n n n
n n
= - + - +
= - + - +
= + + + + +
+
- -
-
-
3 5 7
2 4 6
3 5 7 9
1 2 2
2 2
3 5 7
1
2 6
3
2
15
17
315
62
2835
1 2 2 1
2
L
L
L
all real values of )
all real values of )
4
11
2 2
2 5 7
1 2
2
2 1
2 2
1
3 45
2
945 4725
1 2
2

( ,
cot

( )
( )!

( ,
+
<
= - - - - -
-
-
+
<
+
-
L
L
L
x B n
x
x
x x x x
n
B x
x B n
n
n n
n
n
n
p
p
/ 4 and represents the th Bernoulli number)
and represents the th Bernoulli number)
General Mathematics 217-13
217.3 Differential Calculus
Notation
For the following equations, the symbols f (x), g(x), etc., represent functions of x. The value of a function
f (x) at x = a is denoted f (a). For the function y = f (x) the derivative of y with respect to x is denoted by
one of the following:
Higher derivatives are as follows:
and values of these at x = a are denoted , and so on (see Table of Derivatives in Appendix).
Slope of a Curve
The tangent line at point P(x, y) of the curve y = f (x) has a slope provided that exists at P.
The slope at P is dened to be that of the tangent line at P. The tangent line at P(x
1
, y
1
) is given by
The normal line to the curve at P(x
1
, y
1
) has slope and thus obeys the equation
(The slope of a vertical line is not dened.)
Angle of Intersection of Two Curves
Two curves, y = f
1
(x) and y = f
2
(x), that intersect at a point P(X, Y) where derivatives exist,
have an angle (a) of intersection given by
If tan a > 0, then a is the acute angle; if tan a < 0, then a is the obtuse angle.
Radius of Curvature
The radius of curvature R of the curve y = f (x) at the point P(x, y) is

dy
dx
f x D y y
x
, ( ), ,
d y
dx
d
dx
dy
dx
d
dx
f x f x
d y
dx
d
dx
d y
dx
d
dx
f x f x
2
2
3
3
2
2
=

= =
=

= =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
M

f a ( )

f a ( ),
f x ( ) f x ( )
y y f x x x - = -
1 1 1
( )( )

- 1
1
/ f x ( )

y y f x x x - = - -
1 1 1
1 [ ( )]( ) /

f X f X
1 2
( ), ( )

tan
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
a =
-
+
f X f X
f X f X
2 1
2 1
1
In polar coordinates (q, r) the corresponding formula is
The curvature K is 1/R.
Relative Maxima and Minima
The function f has a relative maximum at x = a if f (a) f (a + c) for all values of c (positive or negative)
that are sufciently near zero. The function f has a relative minimum at x = b if f (b) f(b + c) for all
values of c that are sufciently close to zero. If the function f is dened on the closed interval x
1
x x
2
and has a relative maximum or minimum at x = a, where x
1
< a < x
2
, and if the derivative exists
at x = a, then . It is noteworthy that a relative maximum or minimum may occur at a point
where the derivative does not exist. Further, the derivative may vanish at a point that is neither a maximum
nor a minimum for the function. Values of x for which are called critical values. To determine
whether a critical value of x, say x
c
, is a relative maximum or minimum for the function at x
c
, one may
use the second derivative test:
1. If is positive, f(x
c
) is a minimum.
2. If is negative, f(x
c
) is a maximum.
3. If is zero, no conclusion may be made.
The sign of the derivative as x advances through x
c
may also be used as a test. If changes from
positive to zero to negative, then a maximum occurs at x
c
, whereas a change in from negative to
zero to positive indicates a minimum. If does not change sign as x advances through x
c
, then the
point is neither a maximum nor a minimum.
Points of Inection of a Curve
The sign of the second derivative of f indicates whether the graph of y = f (x) is concave upward or
concave downward:
concave upward
concave downward
A point of the curve at which the direction of concavity changes is called a point of inection (Figure
217.2). Such a point may occur where or where becomes innite. More precisely, if
FIGURE 217.2 Point of inection.

R
f x
f x
=
+
[ ]
{ }
1
2
3 2
( )
( )
/

R
r
dr
d
r
dr
d
r
d r
d
=
+
-
2
2
3 2
2
2
2
2
2
q
q q
/

f x ( )

= f a ( ) 0

= f x ( ) 0

f x
c
( )

f x
c
( )

f x
c
( )

f x ( )

f x ( )

f x ( )

> f x ( ) : 0

> f x ( ) : 0

= f x ( ) 0

f x ( )
P
the function y = f (x) and its rst derivative are continuous in the interval a x b, and if
exists in a < x < b, then the graph of y = f(x) for a < x < b is concave upward if is
positive and concave downward if is negative.
Taylors Formula
If f is a function that is continuous on an interval that contains a and x, and if its rst (n + 1) derivatives
are continuous on this interval, then
where R is called the remainder. There are various common forms of the remainder:
Lagranges Form
Cauchys Form
Integral Form
Indeterminant Forms
If f (x) and g(x) are continuous in an interval that includes x = a, and if f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, the limit
[f (x)/g(x)] takes the form 0/0, called an indeterminant form. LHpitals rule is
Similarly, it may be shown that if f (x) and g(x) as x a, then
(The above holds for x .)

= y f x ( )

= y f x ( )

f x ( )

f x ( )

f x f a f a x a
f a
x a
f a
x a
f a
n
x a R
n
n
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
!
( )
( )
!
( )

( )
!
( )
( )
= + - +

- +

-
+ + - +
2 3
2 3
L
R f
x a
n
n
n
=
-
+
+
+
( )
( )
( )
( )!
,
1
1
1
b b between and a x

R f
x B x a
n
n
n
=
- -
+ ( )
( )
( ) ( )
!
,
1
b b between and a x

R
x t
n
f t dt
n
a
x
n
=
-
+
( )
!
( )
( ) 1
lim
x a
lim
( )
( )
lim
( )
( )
x a x a
f x
g x
f x
g x

=

lim
( )
( )
lim
( )
( )
x a x a
f x
g x
f x
g x

=


Examples
Numerical Methods
1. Newtons method for approximating roots of the equation f (x) = 0; A rst estimate x
1
of the root
is made; then, provided that , a better approximation is x
2
:
The process may be repeated to yield a third approximation, x
3
, to the root:
provided exists. The process may be repeated. (In certain rare cases the process will not
converge.)
2. Trapezoidal rule for areas (Figure 217.3): For the function y = f (x) dened on the interval (a, b)
and positive there, take n equal subintervals of width Dx = (b - a)/n. The area bounded by the
curve between x = a and x = b [or denite integral of f (x)] is approximately the sum of trapezoidal
areas, or
Estimation of the error (E) is possible if the second derivative can be obtained:
FIGURE 217.3 Trapezoidal rule for area.
y
x
0
a b
y
n
y
0
x

lim
sin
lim
cos
lim lim lim
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
e
x
e e

= =
= = =
0 0
2
1
1
2 2
0

f x ( )
1
0
x x
f x
f x
2 1
1
= -
( )
( )

x x
f x
f x
3 2
2
2
= -
( )
( )

f x ( )
2

A y y y y y x
n n
~ ( )
1
2
1
2
0 1 2 1
+ + + + +
-
L D
where c is some number between a and b.
Functions of Two Variables
For the function of two variables, denoted z = f (x, y), if y is held constant, say at y = y
1
, then the resulting
function is a function of x only. Similarly, x may be held constant at x
1
, to give the resulting function of y.
The Gas Laws
A familiar example is afforded by the ideal gas law relating the pressure p, the volume V, and the absolute
temperature T of an ideal gas:
pV = nRT
where n is the number of moles and R is the gas constant per mole, 8.31 (J K
-1
mole
-1
). By rearrange-
ment, any one of the three variables may be expressed as a function of the other two. Further, either one
of these two may be held constant. If T is held constant, then we get the form known as Boyles law:
p = kV
-1
(Boyles law)
where we have denoted nRT by the constant k and, of course, V > 0. If the pressure remains constant,
we have Charles law:
V = bT (Charles law)
where the constant b denotes nR/p. Similarly, volume may be kept constant:
p = aT
where now the constant, denoted a, is nR/V.
Partial Derivatives
The physical example afforded by the ideal gas law permits clear interpretations of processes in which
one of the variables is held constant. More generally, we may consider a function z = f (x, y) dened over
some region of the xy plane in which we hold one of the two coordinates, say y, constant. If the resulting
function of x is differentiable at a point (x, y), we denote this derivative by one of the notations

called the partial derivative with respect to x. Similarly, if x is held constant and the resulting function of
y is differentiable, we get the partial derivative with respect to y, denoted by one of the following:
Example. Given z = x
4
y
3
- y sin x + 4y, then

E
b a
f c x =
-

12
2
( )( ) D
f f dx z dx
x
, / , / d d
f f dy z dy
y
, / , / d d
/ ( ) cos
/ sin
d
d
z dx xy y x
z dy x y x
= -
= - +
4
3 4
3
4 2
217.4 Integral Calculus
Indenite Integral
If F(x) is differentiable for all values of x in the interval (a, b) and satises the equation dy/dx = f(x),
then F(x) is an integral of f (x) with respect to x. The notation is F(x) = f(x) dx or, in differential form,
dF(x) = f (x) dx.
For any function F(x) that is an integral of f(x), it follows that F(x) + C is also an integral. We thus write
Denite Integral
Let f(x) be dened on the interval [a, b] which is partitioned by points x
1
, x
2
,, x
j
,, x
n1
between a =
x
0
and b = x
n
. The jth interval has length Dx
j
= x
j
- x
j1
, which may vary with j. The sum
where u
j
is arbitrarily chosen in the jth subinterval, depends on the numbers x
0
,, x
n
and the choice of
the v as well as f; but if such sums approach a common value as all Dx approach zero, then this value is
the denite integral of f over the interval (a, b) and is denoted . The fundamental theorem of
integral calculus states that
where F is any continuous indenite integral of f in the interval (a, b).
Properties
Common Applications of the Denite Integral
Area (Rectangular Coordinates)
Given the function y = f (x) such that y > 0 for all x between a and b, the area bounded by the curve y =
f (x), the x axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b is

f x dx F x C ( ) ( ) = +

f x
j j
j
n
( ) , u D
=
1

( ) f x dx
a
b

f x dx F b F a
a
b
( ) ( ) ( ),
= -

[ ( ) ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
f x f x f x dx f x dx f x dx f x dx
cf x dx c f x dx c
f x dx f x dx
f x dx f x dx
a
b
j
a
b
a
b
j
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
b
a
a
b
a
c
1 2 1 2

+ + + = + + +
=
= -
= +
L L
if is a constant
ff x dx
c
b
( )

Length of Arc (Rectangular Coordinates)
Given the smooth curve f (x, y) = 0 from point (x
1
, y
1
) to point (x
2
, y
2
), the length between these points is
Mean Value of a Function
The mean value of a function f(x) continuous on [a, b] is
Area (Polar Coordinates)
Given the curve r = f (q), continuous and nonnegative for q
1
q q
2
, the area enclosed by this curve
and the radial lines q = q
1
and q = q
2
is given by
Length of Arc (Polar Coordinates)
Given the curve r = f (q) with continuous derivative on q
1
q q
2
, the length of arc from q = q
1
to q = q
2
is
Volume of Revolution
Given a function y = f(x) continuous and nonnegative on the interval (a, b), when the region bounded
by f(x) between a and b is revolved about the x axis, the volume of revolution is
Surface Area of Revolution (Revolution about the x axis, between a and b)
If the portion of the curve y = f (x) between x = a and x = b is revolved about the x axis, the area A of
the surface generated is given by the following:

A f x dx
a
b
=
( )

L dy dx dx
L dx dy dy
x
x
y
y
= +
= +
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
( / )
( / )

1
( )
( )
b a
f x dx
a
b
-

A f d =
1
2
2
1
2
[ ( )] q q
q
q

f ( ) q

L f f d = +
[ ( )] [ ( )] q q q
q
q
2 2
1
2
V f x dx
a
b
=

p [ ( )]
2
A f x f x dx
a
b
= +
2 1
2 1 2
p ( ){ [ ( )] }
Work
If a variable force f (x) is applied to an object in the direction of motion along the x axis between x = a
and x = b, the work done is
Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates
1. Cylindrical coordinates (Figure 217.4):
Element of volume dV = r dr dq dz.
2. Spherical coordinates (Figure 217.5):
Element of volume dV = r
2
sin f dr df dq.
Double Integration
The evaluation of a double integral of f (x, y) over a plane region R,
is practically accomplished by iterated (repeated) integration. For example, suppose that a vertical straight
line meets the boundary of R in at most two points so that there is an upper boundary, y = y
2
(x), and a
FIGURE 217.4 Cylindrical coordinates. FIGURE 217.5 Spherical coordinates.
z
x
P
y
z
r
P
y
x

W f x dx
a
b
=
( )
x r
y r
=
=
cos
sin
q
q

x
y
z
=
=
=
r f q
r f q
r f
sin cos
sin sin
cos
f x y dA
R
( , )

lower boundary, y = y
1
(x). Also, it is assumed that these functions are continuous from a to b (see Figure
217.6). Then
If R has left-hand boundary, x = x
1
(y), and a right-hand boundary, x = x
2
(y), which are continuous from
c to d (the extreme values of y in R), then
Such integrations are sometimes more convenient in polar coordinates, x = r cos q, y = r sin q, dA = r dr dq.
Surface Area and Volume by Double Integration
For the surface given by z = f(x, y), which projects onto the closed region R of the xy plane, one may
calculate the volume V bounded above by the surface and below by R, and the surface area S by the following:
[In polar coordinates, (r, q), we replace d A by r dr dq.]
Centroid
The centroid of a region R of the xy plane is a point (x, y) where
and A is the area of the region.
Example. For the circular sector of angle 2a and radius R, the area A is aR
2
; the integral needed
for x, expressed in polar coordinates, is
FIGURE 217.6 Region R bounded by y
2
(x) and y
1
(x).
y
x
b a
y
1
(x)
y
2
(x)
f x y dA f x y dy dx
R
y x
y y
a
b
( , ) ( , )
( )
( )

=

1
2

f x y dA f x y dx dy
R
x y
x y
c
d
( , ) ( , )
( )
( )

=

1
2

V zdA f x y dx dy
S z x z y dx dy
R R
R
= =
= + +
[ ]

( , )
( / ) ( / )
/
1
2 2
1 2
d d d d

= =

x
A
xdA y
A
ydA
R R
1 1
,
and thus,
Centroids of some common regions are shown in Table 217.1.
TABLE 217.1 Centroids
Area
b/2 h/2
bh/2 b/2 h/3
R
R
2
A 0
* for any triangle of altitude h.

xdA r rdrd
R
R
R

=
=

=
-
-
+
( cos )
sin sin
q q
q q
a
a
a
a
0
3
3
3
2
3
= = x
R
R
R
2
3
2
3
3
2
sin
sin
a
a
a
a
x

y
y
h
x
b
(rectangle)
bh
(isos. triangle)
y
x
b
h
y
x
(semicircle)
R

pR
2
2 /

4 3 R/ p
y
x
R
(quarter circle)

pR
2
4 / 4 3 R/ p 4 3 R/ p
A
R
(circular sector) y
x
2 3 R A A sin /

= y h/3
217.5 Special Functions
Hyperbolic Functions
Bessel Functions
Bessel functions, also called cylindrical functions, arise in many physical problems as solutions of the
differential equation
which is known as Bessels equation. Certain solutions, known as Bessel functions of the rst kind of order
n, are given by
sinh
sinh
cosh
cosh
tanh
tanh
sinh( ) sinh ( )
cosh( ) cosh ( )
tanh( ) tanh (
x
e e
x
x
x
e e
x
x
x
e e
e e
x
x
x x x x
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
=
-
=
=
+
=
=
-
+
=
- = - - = -
- = - =
- = - -
-
-
-
-
2
1
2
1
1
csch
sech
ctnh
ctnh ctnh
sech sech
csch xx x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x
x y x y x y
)
tanh
sinh
cosh

cosh
sinh

cosh sinh cosh (cosh )
sinh (cosh )
tanh
sinh( ) sinh cosh cosh sinh
= -
= =
- = = +
= - - =
- = + =
+ = +
csch
ctnh
ctnh csch
csch sech csch sech sech
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
1
2
2 1
1
2
2 1 1
1
cosh( ) cosh cosh sinh sinh
sinh( ) sinh cosh cosh sinh
cosh( ) cosh cosh sinh sinh
tanh( )
tanh tanh
tanh tanh
tanh( )
tanh tanh
tanh tanh
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
x y x y x y
x y
x y
x y
x y
x y
x y
+ = +
- = -
- = -
+ =
+
+
- =
-
-
1
1
x y xy x n y
2 2 2
0 + + - = ( )
In the above it is noteworthy that the gamma function must be dened for the negative argument q : G(q)
= G(q + 1)/q, provided that q is not a negative integer. When q is a negative integer, 1/G(q) is dened to
be zero. The functions J
-n
(x) and J
n
(x) are solutions of Bessels equation for all real n. It is seen, for n =
1, 2, 3,, that
and, therefore, these are not independent; hence, a linear combination of these is not a general solution.
When, however, n is not a positive integer, a negative integer, or zero, the linear combination with arbitrary
constants c
1
and c
2
,
is the general solution of the Bessel differential equation.
The zero-order function is especially important as it arises in the solution of the heat equation (for a
long cylinder):
while the following relations show a connection to the trigonometric functions:
The following recursion formula gives (x) for any order in terms of lower-order functions:
Legendre Polynomials
If Laplaces equation,
2
V = 0, is expressed in spherical coordinates, it is
and any of its solutions, V(r, q, f), are known as spherical harmonics. The solution as a product

J x
k n k
x
J x
k n k
x
n
k
n k
k
n
k
n k
k
( )
( )
! ( )
( )
( )
! ( )
=
-
+ +

=
-
- + +

+
=
-
- +
=
1
1 2
1
1 2
2
0
2
0
G
G

J x J x
n
n
n -
= - ( ) ( ) ( ) 1
y c J x c J x
n n
= +
- 1 2
( ) ( )

J x
x x x
0
2
2
4
2 2
6
2 2 2
1
2 2 4 2 4 6
( ) = - + - +L
J x
x
x
J x
x
x
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
2
2
/
/
/
/
( ) sin
( ) cos
=

-
p
p

J
n+1

2
1 1
n
x
J x J x J x
n n n
( ) ( ) ( ) = +
- +

r
V
r
r
V
r
V V V
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
0 sin sin sin cos
sin
q
d
d
q
d
d
q
d
dq
q
d
dq q
d
df
+ + + + =
which is independent of f, leads to
Rearrangement and substitution of x = cos q leads to
known as Legendres equation. Important special cases are those in which n is zero or a positive integer,
and, for such cases, Legendres equation is satised by polynomials called Legendre polynomials, P
n
(x).
A short list of Legendre polynomials, expressed in terms of x and cos q, is given below. These are given
by the following general formula:
where L = n/2 if n is even and L = (n - 1)/2 if n is odd.
Additional Legendre polynomials may be determined from the recursion formula

V r R r ( , , ) ( ) ( ) q f q = Q
sin sin cos [ ( )sin ]
2 2
1 0 q q q q + + + = Q Q Q n n

( ) ( ) 1 2 1 0
2
2
2
- - + + = x
d
dx
x
d
dx
n n
Q Q
Q

P x
n j
j n j n j
x
n
j
n
n j
j
L
( )
( ) ( )!
!( )!( )!
=
- -
- -
-
=
1 2 2
2 2
2
0

P x
P x x
P x x
P x x x
P x x x
P x x x x
0
1
2
2
3
3
4
4 2
5
5 3
1
1
2
3 1
1
2
5 3
1
8
35 30 3
1
8
63 70 15
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
=
=
= -
= -
= - +
= - +

P
P
P
P
P
0
1
2
3
4
1
1
4
3 2 1
1
8
5 3 3
1
64
35 4 20 2 9
(cos )
(cos ) cos
(cos ) ( cos )
(cos ) ( cos cos )
(cos ) ( cos cos )
q
q q
q q
q q q
q q q
=
=
= +
= +
= + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( , , ) n P x n xP x nP x n
n n n
+ - + + = =
+ -
1 2 1 0 1 2
1 1
K
or the Rodrigues formula
Laguerre Polynomials
Laguerre polynomials, denoted L
n
(x), are solutions of the differential equation
and are given by
Thus,
Additional Laguerre polynomials may be obtained from the recursion formula
Hermite Polynomials
The Hermite polynomials, denoted H
n
(x), are given by
and are solutions of the differential equation
The rst few Hermite polynomials are
Additional Hermite polynomials may be obtained from the relation
P x
n
d
dx
x
n n
n
n
n
( )
!
( ) = -
1
2
1
2

xy x y ny + - + = ( ) 1 0

L x
j
C x n
n
j
n j
j
j
n
( )
( )
!
( , , , )
( , )
=
-
=
=
1
0 1 2
0
K

L x
L x x
L x x x
L x x x x
0
1
2
2
3
2 3
1
1
1 2
1
2
1 3
3
2
1
6
( )
( )
( )
( )
=
= -
= - +
= - + -
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) n L x n x L x nL x
n n n
+ - + - + =
+ -
1 2 1 0
1 1

H H x e
d e
dx
n
n
n x
n x
n 0
1 1 1 2
2
2
= = - =
-
, ( ) ( ) , ( , , ) K
- + = = y xy ny n 2 2 0 0 1 2 ( , , ) K
H H x x
H x x H x x x
H x x x
0 1
2
2
3
3
4
4 2
1 2
4 2 8 12
16 48 12
= =
= - = -
= - +
( )
( ) ( )
( )
where prime denotes differentiation with respect to x.
Orthogonality
A set of functions {f
n
(x)} (n = 1, 2,) is orthogonal in an interval (a, b) with respect to a given weight
function w(x) if
The following polynomials are orthogonal on the given interval for the given w(x):
The Bessel functions of order n, J
n
(l
1
x), J
n
(l
2
x),, are orthogonal with respect to w(x) = x over the
interval (0, c) provided that the l
i
are the positive roots of J
n
(lc) = 0:
where n is xed and n 0.
Functions with x
2
/a
2
y
2
/b
2
Elliptic Paraboloid (Figure 217.7)
FIGURE 217.7 Elliptic paraboloid. (a) a = 0.5, b = 1.0, c = -1.0; viewpoint = (5, -6, 4). (b) a = 1.0, b = 1.0, c =
2.0; viewpoint = (5, -6, 4).

H x xH x H x
n n n +
= -
1
2 ( ) ( ) ( )

w x f x f x dx m n
m n
( ) ( ) ( )
a
b
when
= 0
Legendre polynomials:
Laguerre polynomials:
Hermite polynomials:
P x w x
a b
L x w x x
a b
H x w x x
a b
n
n
n
( ) ( )
,
( ) ( ) exp( )
,
( ) ( ) exp( )
,
=
= - =
= -
= =
= -
= - =
1
1 1
0
2

xJ x J x dx j k
n
c
j n k
( ) ( ) ( )
0
0
= l l
(a) (b)
Hyperbolic Paraboloid (Commonly Called Saddle) (Figure 217.8)
Elliptic Cylinder (Figure 217.9)
Hyperbolic Cylinder (Figure 217.10)
FIGURE 217.8 Hyperbolic paraboloid. (a) a = 0.50, b = 0.5, c = 1.0; viewpoint = (4, -6, 4). (b) a = 1.00, b = 0.5, c
= 1.0; viewpoint = (4, -6, 4).
FIGURE 217.9 Elliptic cylinder. a = 1.0, b = 1.0; viewpoint = (4, -5, 2).

( ) z c x a y b
x a y b z c
= +
+ - =
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
0
/ /
/ / /

( ) z c x a y b
x a y b z c
= -
- - =
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
0
/ /
/ / /
(a) (b)

1
1 0
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
= +
+ - =
x a y b
x a y b
/ /
/ /

1
1 0
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
= -
- - =
x a y b
x a y b
/ /
/ /
Functions with (x
2
/a
2
+++ + y
2
/b
2
c
2
)
1/2
Sphere (Figure 217.11)
Ellipsoid (Figure 217.12)
FIGURE 217.10 Hyperbolic cylinder. a = 1.0, b = 1.0; viewpoint = (4, -6, 3).
FIGURE 217.11 Sphere. Viewpoint = (4, -5, 2).
FIGURE 217.12 Ellipsoid. (a) a = 1.00, b = 1.00, c = 0.5; viewpoint = (4, -5, 2). (b) a = 0.50, b = 0.50, c = 1.0;
viewpoint = (4, -5, 2).

z x y
x y z
= - -
+ + - =
( ) 1
1 0
2 2 1 2
2 2 2
/
(a) (b)
Special cases:
Cone (Figure 217.13)
Elliptic Cone (Circular Cone if a === = b) (Figure 217.14)
FIGURE 217.13 Cone. Viewpoint = (4, -5, 2).
FIGURE 217.14 Elliptic cone. (a) a = 0.5, b = 0.5, c = 1.00; viewpoint = (4, -5, 2). (b) a = 1.0, b = 1.0, c = 0.50;
viewpoint = (4, -5, 2).

( ) z c x a y b
x a y b z c
= - -
+ + - =
1
1 0
2 2 2 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
/ /
/ / /
/

a b c
a b c
= >
= <
gives oblate spheroid
gives prolate spheroid

( ) z x y
x y z
= +
+ - =
2 2 1 2
2 2 2
0
/
( ) z c x a y b
x a y b z c
= +
+ - =
2 2 2 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
0
/ /
/ / /
/
(a) (b)
Hyperboloid of One Sheet (Figure 217.15)
Hyperboloid of Two Sheets (Figure 217.16)
FIGURE 217.15 Hyperboloid of one sheet. (a) a = 0.1, b = 0.1, c = 0.2; ; viewpoint = (4, -5, 2). (b) a
= 0.2, b = 0.2, c = 0.2; ; viewpoint = (4, -5, 2).
FIGURE 217.16 Hyperboloid of two sheets. (a) a = 0.125, b = 0.125, c = 0.2; ; viewpoint = (4, -5, 2). (b)
a = 0.25, b = 0.25, c = 0.2; ; viewpoint = (4, -5, 2).
( ) z c x a y b
x a y b z c
= + -
+ - - =
2 2 2 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
1 0
/ /
/ / /
/
(a) (b)
= z c 15
= z c 15
( ) z c x a y b
x a y b z c
= + +
+ - + =
2 2 2 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
1 0
/ /
/ / /
/
(a) (b)

= z c 17

= z c 17

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