Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
= dt K
e p
+ = + = + =
dt
T
1
k dt
T
k
k dt K k
e
i
e p e
i
p
e p
p
e e p p
The term T
i
is called the integral time and this is the constant that must be adjusted on the PCU. We
can see that so long as there is a positive error present
p
will increase with time and so long as there
is a negative error present
p
will decrease with time. In this way
p
will change until
e
is zero. The
overall gain is still k
p
and this will affect the rate of change of the output.
DIFFERENTIAL
For differential control on its own we have the mathematical relationship
dt
d
T k
e
d p p
=
This tells us that the output of the PCU is directly proportional to the rate of change of the error. T
d
is the differential time constant and this is the third item to be set on the PCU. The affect of this
control action is to speed up the rate of response. When a step change occurs d
e
/dt is large at the
start and
p
is greater. Near the end of the correction d
e
/dt is small and
p
is smaller. This means
the error is corrected more quickly.
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 13
PID CONTROL
Normally all three control terms are available in the PCU and the technician must adjust k
p
, T
i
and
T
d
to get optimal response. In this case the output of the PCU is given by:
+ + = + + =
dt
d
T dt
T
1
k
dt
d
T k dt
T
k
k
e
d e
i
e p
e
d p e
i
p
e p p
If the settings are incorrect, especially for the differential term and the gain, the output may
overshoot and undershoot causing the output to cycle above and below the set value. This must be
avoided by TUNING the PCU. The following describes the affects of tuning the PID constants.
ADJUSTING THE PROPORTIONAL BAND
This produces the affects shown when a step change is
made. If the P-band is too wide we have a small gain and
a large offset may occur (Graph A) but the output does
not cycle. Narrowing the P-band will increase the gain
and reduce the offset (Graph C). This is the optimal
condition with proportional control only. Reducing P
further produces too much gain and the output will cycle
about the set value (Graph B).
ADJUSTING THE INTEGRAL ACTION
If the integral time is small (too short) the output will
overshoot and cycle about the set point (Graph A). If the
integral time is too long, the output will cycle but in a
decaying manner and settle after a long time period.
(Graph B). When the adjustment is optimal, the output
will overshoot slightly just once and then settle at the set
point. (curve C)
ADJUSTING THE DERIVATIVE ACTION
If the derivative time is too big then overshoot will occur
and the output will cycle (curve B). If the derivative time
is too small the output will take too long to reach the set
value (curve A). When the time is optimal, the output will
settle in the shortest time with no overshoot (curve C).
SUMMARY
Action Stability Response
Increase P Increased Slower
Increase T
i
Increased Slower
Increase T
d
Decreased Faster
SETTING UP A PCU
Each PCU has to be adjusted to match the characteristics of a particular system. The idea is to
produce the fastest correction without offset error or cycling. There are several techniques for doing
this. In order to optimise the performance of a system, the controller parameters need to be set. The
late Zeigler and Nichols produced a practical guide for setting up three term controllers for plant
systems dating back to the 1940s. The following is still useful for that purpose.
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 14
ZEIGLER NICHOLS METHODS OF TUNING
CLOSED LOOP METHOD
In this method only proportional gain is used and k
p
or
P is adjusted until instability just occurs and the
controlled variable (plant output) cycles. The system is
then at the limit of instability. The gain and periodic
time (time to complete one cycle) T
p
are noted. k
p
is
then reduced to 0.6 (equivalent to increasing the
proportional band by 1.7) of its value and the other two
parameters are set so that:
T
i
= T
p
/2 T
d
= T
p
/8
This will produce a response to a step change in the form of a decaying oscillation and the
amplitude of the second cycle will be of the initial amplitude as shown. This is accepted as a
reasonable setting for most process plant systems.
These figures are different when there is no differential control (P + I) and when only P is used. The
figures are given in the table below.
PROCEDURE LIST
1. Remove integral action on the controller by increasing the integral time (T
i
) to its maximum.
2. Remove the derivative action by setting the derivation time (T
d
) to 0.
3. Wait until the process reaches a stable condition.
4. Reduce the proportional band (increase gain) until the instability point is reached.
5. Measure the time for one period (T
p
) and register the proportional band setting at this point.
6. Using this setting as the start point, calculate the appropriate controller settings according to the
table below.
Type of control used. Prop. Band Setting Integral Time T
i
Derivative Time T
d
P + I + D x 1.7 T
p
/2 T
p
/8
P + I x 2.2 T
p
/1.2
P x 2
OPEN LOOP METHOD
In this method the feedback path is disconnected
usually by switching to manual in the PCU. A step
change is made to the set point and the output is
monitored. A typical plant process produces an
open loop response as shown.
is the EFFECTIVE DEAD TIME or time delay
due to the transfer lags. T is the time constant of
the system. H
1
is the input step and H
2
the
resultant output step in the steady state.
The steady state gain is H
1
/ H
2
The settings for the controller are then adjusted as follows.
2
1
p
H
H T
1.2 k = T
i
= 2 T
d
= 0.5
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 15
BUMPLESS TRANSFER
Sometimes it is necessary to remove the automatic control and most PCUs have a switch for manual
control. When this is done the feedback
o
becomes zero and the error would suddenly change. The
system would try to respond to this step change. To avoid this, the value of
o
is locked when
switching to manual control. In a digital system this would involve storing and holding the digital
value of
o
in a register and performing the numerical comparison with this value instead of the live
value.
SELF-TUNING CONTROLLERS
Modern systems and sub-systems especially digital systems, provide the ability for automatic or self
tuning of the PID parameters. The self-tune controller switches to on/off control for a certain period
of time. During this period it analyses the results of its responses, and calculates and sets its own P I
D parameters. The modern controller can now operate what is termed an adaptive function, which
not only sets the required initial P I D terms, but monitors and re-sets these terms if necessary,
according to changes in the process during normal running conditions.
Such controllers are readily available and relatively inexpensive. Their use is becoming increasingly
widespread, even for relatively unsophisticated control tasks.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3
1. A plant process is controlled by a PID controller. In a closed loop test using only
proportional gain, the limit of stability was found to occur with a gain 4.5. Calculate the
proportional, integral and differential constants required so that a decay is obtained in
response to a step change.
(k
p
= 2.7, T
i
= 40 s and T
d
= 5 s)
2. The three term controller in a plant process is to be adjusted for optimal performance using
the Zeigler Nichols open loop method. The proportional gain was set to give a steady state step
change equal to the input change. The time delay was 24 seconds and the time constant was 50
seconds. Calculate the proportional, integral and differential constants required.
(k
p
= 2.5, T
i
= 48 s and T
d
= 12 s)
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 16