Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
V
O
L
U
M
E
9
1
N
U
M
B
E
R
6
J
U
N
E
2
0
1
2
June 2012 Cover_4/06 Cover 5/11/12 1:01 PM Page C1
...Select-Arc.
Setting the Gold
Standard in Nickel Alloy
Electrodes
...Sele
Select-Arc, Inc. has intr
emium class of SelectAlloy
elect-Arc.
c, Inc. has introduced a
emium class of SelectAlloy
plants, piping systems, fur
equipment and petr
power generation plants.
plants, piping systems, furnace
equipment and petrochemical and
power generation plants.
such as heat exchangers, and in
ff offshore and marine applications.
Whatever your demanding application,
such as heat exchangers, and in
e and marine applications.
Whatever your demanding application,
premium class of SelectAlloy
nickel-based, all position, ux cor
electrodes developed for a wide range
of critical welding applications. These
outstanding nickel alloy wir
excellent mechanical pr
broad range of temperatur
exceptional corr
deliver signicantly higher out-of-
position deposition rates than stick
electrodes or solid wir
emium class of SelectAlloy
nickel-based, all position, ux cored
odes developed for a wide range
of critical welding applications. These
outstanding nickel alloy wires provide
excellent mechanical properties over a
oad range of temperatures, feature
exceptional corrosion resistance and
deliver signicantly higher out-of-
position deposition rates than stick
odes or solid wires. They include:
SelectAlloy C276-AP
exceptional r
corr
welding performance in pipelines,
pressur
processing plants, of
facilities and marine envir
SelectAlloy 622-AP
designed
marine envir
SelectAlloy C276-AP delivers
exceptional resistance to crevice
corrosion and pitting for outstanding
welding performance in pipelines,
essure vessels, chemical
ff ocessing plants, offshore and gas
facilities and marine environments.
SelectAlloy 622-AP specially
designed for welding in ff offshore and
marine environments, chemical and
osion and pitting for outstanding
and
onments, chemical and
Whatever your demanding application,
Select-Ar ff c offers just the ri
SelectAlloy nickel alloy electr
meet your exacting requirements.
So discover for yourself why SelectAlloy
nickel alloy electrodes from Select-Ar
the standard for welding excellence. Call
us today at 1-800-341-5215
website at w. www.select-arc.com
Whatever your demanding application,
fers just the right
SelectAlloy nickel alloy electrode to
ements.
So discover for yourself why SelectAlloy
om Select-Arc set
d for welding excellence. Call
1-800-341-5215 or visit our
c.com.
electrodes or solid wir
SelectAlloy 82-AP
excellent resistance to pitting and
stress-corrosion cracking making it
ideal for welding in desalination
odes or solid wires. They include:
SelectAlloy 82-AP ff offers
esistance to pitting and
osion cracking making it
ideal for welding in desalination
power generation equipment and
petr
SelectAlloy 625-AP
weld deposit pr
resistance in harsh envir
power generation equipment and
petroleum rening.
SelectAlloy 625-AP the NiCrMo
weld deposit provides corrosion
esistance in harsh environments,
the NiCrMo
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
SELECT ARC 1 (COVER 2)_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 10:05 AM Page C2
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
MATHEY DEARMAN_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 9:56 AM Page 1
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
camfil farr_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 10:31 AM Page 2
3 WELDING JOURNAL
CONTENTS
51 Using On-Site Orbital Welding for Power Plant Construction
A company evaluates the implementation of automation to
welding heavy-walled pipe
T. E. Gittens et al.
55 Hybrid Process Welds Thick-Walled Tubes
Cylinders used for hydraulic systems are constructed with a
combination of laser and gas metal arc welding
M. O. Gebhardt et al.
62 Welding Supports Prudhoe Bay Oilfield Operations
An overview is taken of the pivotal role welding technology
has on the oilfields of Alaska
W. C. LaPlante
68 New Processes and Metal Cored Wire Combine to Improve
Pipe Fabrication
A family-owned business cuts production time in fabricating oil-
and water-critical piping sytems
J. Cuhel and K. Packard
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published
monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-
sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 550 NW LeJeune Rd.,
Miami, FL 33126-5671; telephone (305) 443-9353.
Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and addi-
tional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address
changes to Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd.,
Miami, FL 33126-5671. Canada Post: Publications
Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be
sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box 25542,
London, ON N6C 6B2
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
Departments
Editorial ............................4
Washington Watchword ..........6
Press Time News ..................8
News of the Industry ............10
Aluminum Q&A ..................16
Letters to the Editor ............20
Brazing Q&A ......................24
Product & Print Spotlight ......26
AWS Financial Report ..........32
Coming Events....................74
Certification Schedule ..........82
Society News ....................85
Tech Topics ......................86
Errata D1.1/D1.1M:2010 ......86
Errata D14.3/D14.3M:2010 ..86
Guide to AWS Services ......105
Personnel ........................106
American Welder
Learning Track ................124
Fact Sheet......................128
Classifieds ......................130
Advertiser Index ................133
163-s Strain-Age Cracking Susceptibility of Ni-Based
Superalloys as a Function of Strain Rate, Temperature,
and Alloy Composition
Variables in welding three gamma-prime-strengthened superalloys
were examined for their influence on cracking susceptibility
D. A. Metzler
169-s Improvement of Formation Quality for Friction Stir
Welded Joints
Ambient temperature and the direction of stirring tool were studied
for their relationship to weld quality
R.-D. Fu et al.
174-s Artificial Neural Network Prediction of Weld Geometry
Performed Using GMAW with Alternating Shielding
Gases
A model was developed to predict weld geometry under different
shielding gases
S. W. Campbell et al.
182-s Effects of Welding Direction and Position on Susceptibility
to Weld Metal Transverse Cracking in Welding High-
Strength Pipeline Steel with Cellulosic Electrodes
Research was conducted to find whether factors other than preheat
and weld strength had a role in transverse cracking
S. Sarafan et al.
Features
Welding Research Supplement
51
115
62
June 2012 Volume 91 Number 6
AWS Web site www.aws.org
On the cover: Various welding processes are taught at the Rochester Arc &
Flame Center, Rochester, N.Y., including gas tungsten arc welding, as shown.
(Photo courtesy of the Rochester Arc & Flame Center.)
The American Welder
111 Tips for Preparing and Selecting Tungsten Electrodes
Learn how to make the best weld possible by selecting the
right electrode and preparing it properly
J. Sprinkle
115 Unleash Your Inner Creativity: Explore Industrial Arts
An upstate New York distributor expands his artistic interests
with a new facility that teaches welding, glass arts, and
blacksmithing
K. Campbell
121 Scouts Move from the Campground to the Welding Lab
Two Boy Scout troops become the first to earn the new
welding merit badge
June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 4:14 PM Page 3
EDITORIAL
Extraordinary is not a word I use often, but thats truly the kind of year it has been
for the American Welding Society. Our financial performance in 2011 was remarkably
strong, as noted in the Financial Report that begins on page 32 of this issue, providing
the healthiest numbers for the Society since it was formed in 1919. In addition to record-
high revenues in 2011, we also had the highest-ever surplus of revenues over expendi-
tures, and we were able to transfer $5 million to the Reserve Fund during 2011 because
of our positive financial results.
Beyond this, over the past year AWS has launched the American Welding Online
series of Web-based educational courses, we introduced the AWS/Lincoln Electric
Careers in Welding Trailer that will promote welding careers all over the country, and we
welcomed the International Thermal Spray Association into the fold as an AWS
Standing Committee. Further, we created a new Portuguese-language edition of the
Welding Journal for the important Brazilian market, and our dedicated volunteer net-
work worked in cooperation with the Boy Scouts of America to create the new BSA
Welding Merit Badge (see story on page 121.)
This year, we are nearing completion of the new AWS Headquarters in Doral, Fla.,
and we will be moving into the facility over the next few months. We were also able to
sell our old headquarters building this year, which helps fund the transition. With near-
ly three times the amount of floor space of our old headquarters, the new state-of-the-
art facility will support the Society effectively as we continue to expand our membership
base and our position in the global marketplace. It will allow AWS to represent itself well
as the worlds premier welding society, and it will strengthen our position and influence
both domestically and internationally. In the latter area, we have hired our first-ever out-
side international salesperson, and we developed a strong global strategy to increase our
presence overseas.
Our annual FABTECH exhibition held last November in Chicago was a tremendous
success, with a record number of attendees topping 35,400. Exhibits totaled more than
half a million square feet, with 1300 individual exhibitors showing everything imaginable
for welding, metal forming/fabrication, tube and pipe, finishing and stamping, and
coating.
Total AWS membership during 2011 was 69,566, representing a 4.1% increase over
the previous year. Member numbers continue to grow this year and have topped the
70,000 mark. To better serve our members, we are now providing our monthly Welding
Journal in electronic format to our Student Members and to members outside the United
States. In addition, we are continuing work to develop a planned presence on social net-
working sites such as Facebook and Twitter. All of this will allow AWS to become better
known and more easily accessible through a variety of media.
The AWS Foundation is continuing its capital campaign on Welding for the Strength
of America and the AWS Welder Workforce Development Program. In addition to
working with Weld-Ed to promote welding careers, the Foundation awarded $390,000 in
scholarships to some 450 students in 2011.
We have also seen good results in Certification (our largest revenue-producing busi-
ness unit), electronic and printed book sales, and magazine advertising revenues. In
other words, the desired numbers are there, and we are optimistic that 2012 will also
yield positive financial results. Our strong position
allows us to fund new programs benefiting AWS mem-
bers and the welding industry as a whole.
In all of our program development activities, AWS
welcomes input from its members and volunteers. If
you have any suggestions of how AWS can grow,
broaden its influence, or provide better member bene-
fits, please dont hesitate to contact me or any AWS
staff member.
JUNE 2012 4
Officers
President William A. Rice Jr.
OKI Bering
Vice President Nancy C. Cole
NCC Engineering
Vice President Dean R. Wilson
Kimberly-Clark Global Safety
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
J. C. Bruskotter (Past President), Bruskotter Consulting Services
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Thermadyne Industries
D. A. Flood (Dist. 22), Tri Tool, Inc.
R. A. Harris (Dist. 10), Total Quality Testing
D. C. Howard (Dist. 7), Concurrent Technologies Corp.
J. Jones (Dist. 17), Thermadyne Industries
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
R. C. Lanier (Dist. 4), Pitt C.C.
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Corp.
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
D. L. McQuaid (At Large), DL McQuaid & Associates
J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
S. P. Moran (At Large), ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
W. R. Polanin (Dist. 13), Illinois Central College
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech C.C.
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center
N. S. Shannon (Dist. 19), Carlson Testing of Portland
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST, ret.
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
An Extraordinary Year
Robert Pali
AWS Treasurer
Editorial June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:30 PM Page 4
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
cm industries_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 9:52 AM Page 5
Congressional Hearing on
Manufacturing Jobs
Where the Jobs Are: Can American Manufacturing Thrive
Again? That was the question addressed by a recent hearing
held by the House Subcommittee on Commerce, Manufactur-
ing, and Trade. Witnesses included the Secretary of Commerce
and the president of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce.
The subcommittee heard testimony that, while manufactur-
ing jobs account for just a tenth of the nations jobs, the manu-
facturing sector suffered a third of the nations job losses during
the recent recession. And while the Bureau of Labor Statistics
has reported an uptick in the number of Americans employed in
the manufacturing sector in recent months, it is unclear whether
this is a true positive indicator of any permanence. Prior to 2010,
the manufacturing sector had suffered consecutive yearly job
losses since 1997.
Witnesses also attempted to identify the factors contributing
to the overall decline in manufacturing jobs, though there was
not a general consensus. The various, at times conflicting, fac-
tors cited included the following: increased productivity; lost out-
put fueled by falling demand as a result of increased import con-
sumption; a persistently high corporate tax rate; the high cost of
health care; the rising cost of energy; regulatory burdens; and
the U.S. tort law system.
However, there was consensus regarding a general skills gap
in U.S. manufacturing, resulting in a moderate to severe short-
age of qualified workers. Indeed, it is estimated that as many as
600,000 open manufacturing positions remain unfilled for that
reason, and it is expected that the skills gap will widen further in
the coming years due to public opinion among the rising genera-
tion of workers: Manufacturing ranked last as an industry in which
1824 year olds would choose a career.
The subcommittee identified as the most serious workforce
deficiencies, in order of severity, as follows: inadequate prob-
lem-solving skills; lack of basic technical training; inadequate
employability skills such as timeliness and work ethic; and inade-
quate technology, computer, math, reading, writing, and com-
munication skills.
Career and Technical Education
Proposal Unveiled
In April, the U.S. Department of Education unveiled Invest-
ing in Americas Future: A Blueprint for Transforming Career and
Technical Education (CTE), outlining the administrations pro-
posal for reauthorizing the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical
Education Act (Perkins).
The document is available at www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/
ovae/pi/cte/transforming-career-technical-education.pdf.
The blueprint for a reauthorized Perkins Act is shaped by four
core principles, as listed below.
1. Alignment. Effective alignment between high-quality CTE
programs and labor market needs to equip students with 21st-
century skills and prepare them for in-demand occupations in
high-growth industry sectors;
2. Collaboration. Strong collaborations among secondary and
postsecondary institutions, employers, and industry partners to
improve the quality of CTE programs;
3. Accountability. Meaningful accountability for improving
academic outcomes and building technical and employability
skills in CTE programs for all students, based upon common def-
initions and clear metrics for performance; and
4. Innovation. Increased emphasis on innovation supported
by systemic reform of state policies and practices to support CTE
implementation of effective practices at the local level.
Key components include the following:
Allowing states to identify the in-demand occupations in
high-growth industry sectors on which CTE programs should
focus;
Establishing consortia to ensure collaboration among sec-
ondary and postsecondary institutions;
A private-sector match contribution to strengthen the par-
ticipation of employers, industry, and labor partners in program
design and execution;
Within-state competitions; and
Creation of a competitive CTE Innovation and Transfor-
mation Fund.
The most notable, and potentially controversial, aspect of the
new plan is the addition of competitive components, which are
intended to enable states to emphasize high-growth jobs and
target specific, select CTE programs rather than making discrete
allocations of money to school districts and institutions.
Federal Ethics Web Site Launched
The White House has launched a new Web site, www.ethics.gov,
which provides online access, with full-text search capabilities, to
seven different databases:
White House Visitor Records
Office of Government Ethics Travel Reports
Lobbying Disclosure Act Data
Department of Justice Foreign Agents Registration Act
Data
Federal Election Commission Individual Contribution
Reports
Federal Election Commission Candidate Reports
Federal Election Commission Committee Reports.
Especially noteworthy are the travel reports and White House
visitor logs, which have not previously been easily accessible.
Multiple Challenges Lengthen OSHAs
Standard Setting
Between 1981 and 2010, the time it took the Department of
Labors Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
to develop and issue safety and health standards ranged widely,
from 15 months to 19 years, and averaged more than 7 years.
Experts and agency officials cited increased procedural re-
quirements, shifting priorities, and a rigorous standard of judi-
cial review as contributing to lengthy time frames for developing
and issuing standards.
These findings are set forth in a recent report from the U.S.
Government Accountability Office, available at www.gao.gov/
assets/590/589825.pdf.
WASHINGTON
WATCHWORD
JUNE 2012 6
BY HUGH K. WEBSTER
AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE
Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at
1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail
hwebster@wc-b.com; FAX (202) 835-0243.
WW June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 12:57 PM Page 6
North Americas largest
Plate Rolling, Brake
Forming and Structural
Rolling facility delivers
cost effective solutions.
For all of your rolling, forming
and bending needs, please call
Fax 1-905-356-6025
Email info@hcrsteel.com
1-800-263-2547 www.hcrsteel.com
8 thick
175lb rail
8 thick
175lb rail
Brake Forming
Plate Rolling
Structural Rolling
Brake Forming
Plate Rolling
Structural Rolling
We serve a
wide range of industries including
transportation, energy, mining,
metals, architectural, construction,
and agricultural as well as OEMs
across North America.
6 thick 6 thick
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
HODGSON_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 9:54 AM Page 7
PRESS TIME
NEWS
Nominations Sought for 10th Annual AWS Image of
Welding Awards
The American Welding Society (AWS),
Miami, Fla., has issued a call for entries for the
10th Annual Image of Welding Awards that
recognize and celebrate outstanding public
contributions promoting the image of welding
and the welding industry as a whole. This year,
a new category recognizing media outlets that
have contributed positive welding coverage has
been added. The deadline is July 31.
Presented by AWS and WEMCO, an asso-
ciation of welding manufacturers, a standing
committee of AWS, the awards will be issued
in the following categories: individual; educa-
tor; educational facility; small business (less
than 200 employees); large business (200 or more employees); distributor; AWS Sec-
tion; and media.
All individuals, organizations, and groups may be nominated for multiple categories.
Self nominations are also acceptable.
Winners will be presented with their respective awards at the Image of Welding
Awards Ceremony to be held during FABTECH, November 1214, at the Las Vegas
Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nev.
To see past winners, submit an online nomination, or download the PDF nomination
form, visit www.aws.org/awards/image.html. In addition, for your respective application
to be considered, complete the entire nomination form and submit electronically, re-
turn via email to image@aws.org, FAX to (305) 443-1552, or send via postal mail to AWS
Image of Welding Awards, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126.
LeTourneau University Gets $560,000 for Joining Research
LeTourneau Universitys (LETU) School of Engineering, Longview, Tex., has re-
ceived $250,125 in grant funding from the Federal Highway Administration for a two-
year research project on welding on modern bridges. This is in addition to a current
$180,000 grant.
Two of our masters degree students, as well as about ten undergraduates, will be
working on this study aimed at using innovative welding technologies for designing and
manufacturing future bridges that would last over 100 years, said Dr. Yoni Adonyi,
LETUs welding/materials joining engineering program coordinator. Our partners from
industry remain the Navy Surface Warfare Center, as well as the American Iron and
Steel Institute, and NASAs Marshall Space Flight Center. We are looking at high-
frequency, friction stir, and thermal stir welding applied to joining high-strength and
corrosion-resistant steels.
Also, the university recently completed a $129,000 grant from the II-VI Foundation
that funded the development of new technology for microwave welding to join bismuth
telluride to copper for building thermo-electric generators.
Miller, ITW Welding North America Companies Reveal Tour
Miller Electric Mfg. Co., Appleton, Wis., and the ITW Welding companies of North
America, including Hobart Brothers, Bernard, Tregaskiss, Weldcraft, and Smith Equip-
ment, will be bringing the Under the Hood 2012: Learn | Weld | Connect welding
expos to four cities across the U.S.
The next tour stops include Rancho Cucamonga, Calif., June 13, 14, and Troy, Ohio,
June 20, 21. Attendees may pre-register at Millerwelds.com/weldexpo or on-site.
Under the Hood 2012 offers two days of welding opportunities that include 10 edu-
cational sessions. The Miller Road Show Truck will be present with 40 hands-on dis-
plays. Do-it-yourself welding enthusiasts are also encouraged to attend an evening event,
from 6 to 9 p.m., at each of the expos (June 13 and June 20). World-class fabricators,
bike builders, and restoration experts will be on hand. Those interested can sign up at
MillerWelds.com/underthehood. Space is limited to the first 100 registrants per location.
JUNE 2012 8
MEMBER
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Design and Production
Managing Editor Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Sylvia Ferreira
sferreira@aws.org
American Welding Society
550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
American Welding Society
T. Birky, Lincoln Electric Co.
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
J. Deckrow, Hypertherm
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. Mueller, Thermadyne Industries
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship Systems
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
R. Ranc, Ex Off., Superior Products
W. A. Rice, Ex Off., OKI Bering
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
D. Wilson, Ex Off., Kimberly-Clark Global Safety
Copyright 2012 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-
tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-
tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
To enter this years Image of Welding
Awards, visit www.aws.org/awards/
image.html. The deadline is July 31.
PTN June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:53 PM Page 8
Cutting
-
edge
gas apparatus.
Rock
-
solid
guarantee.
The new and improved PUROX
PUROX
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
ESAB_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 9:53 AM Page 9
NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
GE Highlights What Works in America and
Focuses on Manufacturing, Jobs
GE, along with partners, held a four-day event in Washing-
ton, D.C., dedicated to Americas long-term economic and in-
dustry growth with discussions focused on manufacturing, inno-
vation, jobs, and commitments to building a more highly skilled
workforce, among other goals.
The company will launch new programs throughout the year,
including the following: hiring 5000 U.S. veterans over the next
five years and sponsoring a Hire our Heroes partnership with
the U.S. Chamber of Commerce; opening manufacturing skill-
building centers called GE Garages and partnering with
GOOD/Corps on the What Works Project, a new interactive plat-
form inviting the public to submit stories, images, or video de-
pictions of what is currently driving American competitiveness;
and doubling the number of GE engineering interns to more than
5000 as part of an initiative proposed by the Presidents Council
on Jobs and Competitiveness to add 10,000 more engineering
graduates a year in the United States.
Lincoln Electric Selected as Welding
Equipment Supplier of Dream Machines
The Parker Brothers deliver their Dream big. Build bigger
motto on Dream Machines, Syfys new reality show that has been
picked up for six episodes. It follows Florida-based brothers Marc
and Shanon Parker as they take the most imaginative vehicles
ever seen in movies, comic books, and TV shows, then engineers
them into on-the-road realities.
The shows production company, Triage Entertainment, chose
JUNE 2012 10
Railroads Historical Lift Bridge Undergoes Crucial Repair
Illinois Constructors Corp. (ICC) recently completed vital
structural repairs on the historical 95th Street lift bridge, orig-
inally built in 1912, and owned and operated by Norfolk South-
ern Railroad in southern Cook County.
The U.S. Coast Guard determined the work schedule be-
cause the bridge spans the Calumet River and approved a lim-
ited amount of time for the project due to the rivers heavy
shipping activity level. The task was completed in 112 con-
tiguous hours.
The ICC team coordinated and performed the repair work.
The inner shaft of one of eight 15-ft-diameter sheaves was
warped, and a new shaft was needed.
A crew of ironworkers and operating engineers spent more
than two months preparing for this work in advance of the
project. The crew identified the damaged shaft inside one of
the wheels used to lift the more than 2-million-lb bridge when
performing routine maintenance on the railroad lift-bridge.
The project is unique and required extra planning since
some repairs were performed offsite, said Rusy Mitcheff, op-
erations manager, ICC. This type of work is very unusual and
has not been performed by the railroad in many years.
The bridge had two key problem areas 221 ft in the air
and on the ground on-site. When the shaft was removed, a
counterweight was needed to maintain the balance weighing
more than 1 million lb. The crane used in the repair required
five days to erect prior to the repairs and more than 36 loads
of material acted as a counterweight during the repair work.
The main span length is 210 ft, and the structure length is
210 ft.
This project was very challenging due to the historical na-
ture of the lift bridge and the limited number of hours per-
mitted by the U.S. Coast Guard...train traffic is very active
here because it includes several Amtrak runs as well as vari-
ous freight lines. We needed to anticipate and plan for sev-
eral challenges in the event they occurred, said ICC Presi-
dent John Mackanin, P.E.
The Chicago headquarters office of Collins Engineers, Inc.,
provided engineering support.
Using a Manitowoc crawler crane with 262 ft of boom, Illinois
Constructors Corp. lifts and positions a 60,000-lb, 15-ft-diame-
ter cable drum (sheave) into place in the lift bridge mechanism
after 72 continuous hours of machining and reconditioning off-
site in a local machine shop. (Photo courtesy of ICC.)
NI June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:54 PM Page 10
11 WELDING JOURNAL
Lincoln Electric as its exclusive provider of welding equipment
and personal protection gear, including VIKING helmets, and
jackets, gloves, caps, and safety glasses from the companys Red
Line welding apparel line.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
On the Syfy networks new show, Dream Machines, imaginative
vehicles are engineered into reality. Lincoln Electric has been cho-
sen as its welding equipment and personal protection gear provider.
NI June 2012_Layout 1 5/11/12 11:11 AM Page 11
Westinghouse Awarded Contract to Apply
Underwater Laser Beam Welding
Westinghouse, Pittsburgh, Pa., has been awarded a contract
to apply the underwater laser beam welding process (ULBW) at
Progress Energys Robinson Nuclear Plant in Hartsville, S.C. This
will be the first application of the process, which has been ap-
plied previously in Japan, at a U.S. nuclear plant.
Developed jointly by Westinghouse and majority owner
Toshiba Corp., the ULBW process applies stress corrosion crack-
ing-resistant weld metal underwater onto the inside diameter
surface of aged components, serving as a method of mitigation
and repair. The laser beams heat and dilution controls result in
consistent weld quality and high deposit purity.
At Robinson Unit 2, the process will be applied to reactor ves-
sel nozzle dissimilar metal welds during the fall 2013 outage.
Development of the underwater laser welding process allows
us to make welds to vessel components without the customer hav-
ing to drain their vessel, said Nick Liparulo, senior vice presi-
dent, Westinghouse Nuclear Services. He also added this results
in a shorter implementation schedule and reduced exposure for
maintenance crews and plant personnel.
Monroe County Community College to Offer
Nondestructive Testing Certificate
Monroe County Community Colleges Industrial Technology
Divisions Nondestructive Testing (NDT) certificate program has
been approved by the curriculum committee.
The program is one of the first to be offered at a community
college in the state of Michigan with larger schools in Georgia
and California. Seven new courses are derivative of the existing
Nuclear Engineering Technology associate degree program. They
also have direct relevance to the colleges existing welding tech-
nology associate degree program.
The testing program taps into the states need for hi-tech skills
in high-demand occupations. It is estimated between 6000 and
7000 NDT jobs opened up last year. In addition, the U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics reports 430,450 NDT- related jobs in the U.S.
alone, approximately 20,000 of which are in Michigan with salary
ranges from $37,400 to $53,690 annually or $17.98 to $25.81/h.
JUNE 2012 12
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
The underwater laser beam welding process has
been applied in Japan and will be implemented at
South Carolinas Progress Energys Robinson Nu-
clear Plant. Shown is the underwater laser welding
machine (left, horizontal) getting installed into a
reactor vessel coolant loop nozzle mockup at 40 ft
of water depth. (Photo courtesy of Toshiba Corp.,
Nuclear Energy Systems.)
NI June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:54 PM Page 12
Bug-O Hosts Open House Event
On April 19, Bug-O hosted an open house at its training fa-
cility in Canonsburg, Pa. A main attraction featured welding
demonstrations with the Bug-O/Lincoln Electric pipe welding
system, portable weld prep machine tools from E.H. Wachs, Cy-
press pipe welding/cutting machines, and Bug-O overlay equip-
ment for hardfacing pipes and plates.
Among the company attendees were Chip Cable, president;
Norm Sted, vice president, sales and marketing; Matt Cable, IT;
and Mark Campbell, regional sales manager. Also present were
John Menhart with Caterpillar and vice chair of the AWS Pitts-
burgh Section, plus Vince Cirrincione III with Sky Oxygen and
an AWS member affiliated with the Pittsburgh Section.
13 WELDING JOURNAL
FOR STARTERS
Over 275 Grinding, Cutting and
Maintenance Work Savers including:
POLIFAN
MillerWelds.com/hero
Visit our website to meet
everyday welding heroes.
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
MILLER ELECTRIC_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 9:58 AM Page 15
ALUMINUM
Q&A
BY TONY ANDERSON
Q: What are the primary considerations
relating to the storage and preparation of
aluminum prior to welding, and how can
they affect the quality of my welds?
A: Good storage and preparation prac-
tices prior to welding are important for all
materials if you want to produce sound
welds and avoid weld discontinuities.
For aluminum, the level of cleanliness
during metal preparation is directly re-
lated to the quality of the completed weld.
Stringent preparation procedures prior to
welding are most important when fabri-
cations are required to meet prescribed
weld quality requirements, particularly
when the welds are subjected to radi-
ographic inspection.
Because of aluminums unique char-
acteristics, storage and preparation con-
siderations associated with obtaining
high-quality welds can be different than
for structural steels. The tough, oxide sur-
face film on aluminum, if not controlled,
can prevent fusion or become hydrated
and create porosity, and the high solubil-
ity of hydrogen in molten aluminum sub-
stantially increases the potential for
porosity from moisture and hydrocarbons.
The primary purpose of preweld
preparation for aluminum is to remove
hydrocarbons, moisture, and contami-
nated aluminum oxide prior to welding.
Removal of hydrocarbons Hydro-
carbons within the weld area produce hy-
drogen during the welding process and
cause porosity in the completed weld.
Base material is frequently formed,
sheared, sawed, and machined prior to
welding. If a lubricant is used during any
of these preweld operations, complete re-
moval of the lubricant prior to welding is
essential if high-quality welds are
required.
Since it is important to remove lubri-
cants before welding, it is advantageous
to use the minimum amount of lubricants
in preweld operations. Sawing and ma-
chining of aluminum can often be per-
formed dry. Hydrocarbons, if present, can
be removed by a number of these follow-
ing methods: wiping with solvents such as
acetone or alcohol, detergent-spray de-
greasing, steam degreasing, or wiping with
a mild alkaline solution.
Solvent cleaners are possibly the most
popular method used to remove hydro-
carbons. Most hydrocarbon solvents are
highly volatile and evaporate quickly, but
the water-based cleaners must be thor-
oughly wiped away or heat dried. A hy-
drocarbon solvent suitable for preweld
cleaning must dissolve oil and grease read-
ily, evaporate quickly, and not leave a
residue. One product called ZeroTri, a
heavy-duty degreaser by LPS, has proven
to work well Fig. 1.
Care must be taken, not only in the se-
lection of the correct solvent, but also in
its use. Adequate ventilation is essential,
and the manufacturers recommendations
should be carefully followed. Flammable
chemicals are obviously dangerous in the
presence of welding arcs.
If material has been subjected to con-
tamination from hydrocarbons, remove the
hydrocarbons before wire brushing the part
to remove aluminum oxide. Wire brushing
on an oily or greasy surface tends to smear
the contaminants into the surface, and the
wire brush becomes contaminated and un-
suitable for its intended purpose.
Removal of aluminum oxide Alu-
minum alloys rapidly develop a self-
limiting oxide film when exposed to air.
The aluminum oxide on the materials
surface has a melting point in excess of
3600F, which is around 2400F above
the melting point of pure aluminum base
material. Because of this large difference
in melting temperatures, the oxide film
can impede fusion between filler alloy
and base alloy. Flakes of oxide can be-
come entrapped during the welding
16 JUNE 2012
Fig. 1 A heavy-duty degreaser by LPS,
ZeroTri, removes hydrocarbons from an
aluminum test plate prior to welding. Use
a clean cloth or paper towel to wipe dry,
then use a stainless steel wire brush after
degreasing.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Aluminum Q and A June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 4:21 PM Page 16
17 17 WELDING JOURNAL
process and form inclusions within
the completed weld.
Aluminum, with an uncontami-
nated thin oxide layer, can be success-
fully welded with the inert-gas weld-
ing processes such as gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) or gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW), which breaks down
and removes the thin oxide during
welding. Potential problems arise
when the aluminum oxide has been
exposed to moisture. The oxide layer
is porous and can absorb moisture,
grow in thickness, and become a
major obstacle when attempting to
produce high-quality welds that are
required to have low porosity levels.
For high-quality welds, it is usually
necessary to remove the aluminum
oxide mechanically just prior to weld-
ing. Remove the oxide layer by brush-
ing with a stainless steel wire brush,
or by scraping, filing, machining, or
grinding. Be careful to use only tools
that are clean and free of contami-
nants such as oil and grease. An alter-
native to mechanical removal of alu-
minum oxide is chemical removal by
immersion in alkaline (caustic) solu-
tion, followed by a water rinse, and
then a nitric acid and water rinse. The
use of chemical cleaning, however, is
much less common as the handling
and disposal of these chemicals is
often seen as a restricting inconven-
ience.
Storage of aluminum filler metal
All aluminum filler metal should
be stored correctly to achieve high-
quality welds. The most common
problem is the exposure of wire to
moisture. This can occur quite easily
if the wire is subjected to abrupt
changes in temperature at high hu-
midity. Obtaining wire from a cool lo-
cation and immediately unpacking it
in a warm, humid area will subject the
wire to condensation from crossing
the dew point. This moisture produces
hydrated aluminum oxide on the sur-
face of the wire and, consequently,
causes low-quality, porous welds.
Also, at high humidity, small dif-
ferences between the aluminum wire
temperature and air temperature can
cause moisture condensation. For ex-
ample, at a relative humidity of 90%
and ambient air temperature of 70F,
the weld wire or aluminum plate need
only be 3F lower in temperature than
the ambient air before it will cross the
dew point and produce moisture
Fig. 2. Consequently, it is favorable to
store aluminum welding wire in a
heated area with a uniform tempera-
ture and low humidity.
Cutting, beveling, and gouging
Plasma arc is one of the most popu-
Wherever and whatever you need to cut or gouge power through more work faster,
with the full line of versatile Duramax torches for Powermax
systems.
75 Handheld
Full-length machine
15 Handheld
MANUAL PLASMA | MECHANIZED PLASMA | LASER | AUTOMATION | CONSUMABLES | SOFTWARE
For a closer look, visit
www.hypertherm.com/duramax
Mini machine
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Aluminum Q and A June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 4:25 PM Page 17
lar cutting methods used on aluminum.
Unfortunately, plasma arc cutting can af-
fect the quality of the cut edge on some
aluminum alloys. The partial melting of
the grain boundaries of some aluminum
alloys can result in microcracking in the
cut edge.
The 2xxx, 6xxx, and 7xxx series (heat-
treatable) alloys are particularly prone to
this type of cracking, whereas the 1xxx,
3xxx, and 5xxx series (nonheat-treatable)
alloys are not. The cracking tendency in-
creases with metal thickness because thick
metal imposes greater restraint on the so-
lidifying metal. Some welding standards
require that the potential cracking zone
be removed mechanically to a depth of
1
8
in. (3.2 mm) before incorporating the
plasma cut edge into a welded joint.
Lasers are also used to cut aluminum,
and they can produce high-quality cut
edges. This cutting method, being a ther-
mal process, can be subject to the same
post-cut edge preparation requirements
as plasma cutting.
Abrasive water-jet cutting is capable
of producing excellent results on alu-
minum. This is not a thermal process, and
excellent results have been reported using
cut edges that have had no further prepa-
ration prior to welding.
Another cutting method for aluminum
is sawing; circular saws and band saws are
used extensively for preparing weld sam-
ples for testing. Though useful for prepar-
ing small samples, use care with band-saw
cut edges as this cutting method can smear
surface oxides along the cut edge and
cause potential welding problems. Tooth
shapes have been developed by saw blade
manufacturers that perform well on alu-
minum. Blades recommended for alu-
minum have more rake and clearance than
those for steel.
Most gouging is performed on alu-
minum with mechanical tools. Straight-
line backgouging of groove welds is often
performed by using a rotary cutting ma-
chine designed for this purpose. Some
fabricators have chosen to adapt a small
portable power saw for backgouging, re-
placing the saw blade with a cutting blade
ground to the required shape. Tungsten
carbide cutting tools are often used for
gouging machines. Arc gouging using the
carbon arc gouging method is not recom-
mended for preparing weld joints in alu-
minum. The plasma arc gouging process
is sometimes used on aluminum welds
but, because of its high heat input and
potential for microcracking when used
on some aluminum alloys, it has a more
limited application.
Weld Backing
Temporary backing strips are usually
made from copper, anodized aluminum,
stainless steel, or various ceramic materi-
als. They are used to control penetration
and are removed after welding. Care must
be taken to prevent melting the backing
material into the weld pool. Permanent
backing strips are typically required to be
made from the same alloy as the base
metal being welded. Typically, no root
opening is used when using temporary
backing material. A root opening is nor-
mally used when using permanent back-
ing material.
Preheating and Interpass
Temperatures
Limit preheating and interpass tem-
peratures to 250F for 15 min max for the
heat-treatable base metals (2xxx, 6xxx,
7xxx) and the 5xxx series alloys with more
that 3% Mg content. Overheating these
base metals can seriously reduce their
strength and produce undesirable metal-
lurgical changes.
Postweld Heat Treatment and
Aging
When heat-treatable aluminum alloys
are welded, they lose a significant amount
of their mechanical properties in the heat-
affected zone. If the base metal being
welded is in the -T4 temper, much of the
original strength can be recovered after
welding by postweld aging. If the base
metal is welded in the -T6 temper, it can
be solution heat-treated and aged after
welding, which will restore it to the -T6
temper. Depending on which filler metal
is used for welding, postweld heat treat-
ing and aging may cause problems. If the
filler metal does not respond to heat treat-
ment and aging the same way as the base
metal, the weld joint may exhibit mechan-
ical properties below those of the base
metal. Due to stress concentrations in the
weld itself, this may not be a desirable con-
dition. Therefore, if postweld heat treat-
ment and aging are performed, the filler
metal selected is important.
Metal Storage and Weld Joint
Preparation Checklist
Store all welding wire and base metal
in a dry location with minimum tempera-
ture fluctuation. Welding wire should
preferably be stored in a dry heated room
or cabinet with low humidity.
Store base metal vertically to mini-
mize moisture condensation and absorp-
tion of water contamination between
layers.
If possible, bring all filler and base
metal materials into the welding area 24
h prior to welding to allow them to reach
room temperature.
Keep welding wire covered at all
times.
Use mechanical metal-removal
methods that cut and remove metal chips;
do not use preparation methods that leave
a ground or smeared surface.
Using a coarse-disc grinding tool is
preferable to a wheel grinding tool. How-
ever, if possible, avoid the use of any type
of grinding tool as they may leave con-
taminants on the plate surface.
Do not use lubricants in the joint
preparation metal working process.
Do not use chlorinated solvents in
JUNE 2012 18
Fig. 2 This graph reveals approximate dew point conditions for airmetal tempera-
tures and relative humidity percentages.
Aluminum Q and A June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 4:21 PM Page 18
the welding area because they may form
toxic gases in the presence of electric
welding arcs.
Do not use oxyfuel gas cutting, car-
bon arc cutting, or gouging processes.
Avoid oxyfuel flames to preheat.
These processes can damage the heat-
affected area and promote the growth
and hydration of the oxide film present
on the surface.
Mechanically remove the plasma arc
and laser-cut edges from 2xxx, 6xxx, and
7xxx series alloys if they are to be incor-
porated into the weld.
Prepare and clean the joint prior to
assembly.
When degreasing the surfaces with
a solvent, always use a clean cloth or
paper towels to solvent clean and dry a
welding joint.
Do not use shop rags to clean weld-
ing joints, and do not use compressed air
to blow off the joint. Shop rags typically
contain contaminants and compressed
air often contains moisture and oil.
Stainless steel wire brush the joint
only after solvent cleaning. Wire brush-
ing prior to cleaning embeds hydrocar-
bons and other contaminates in the metal
surface.
Stainless steel wire brush all metal
that has been etched. The by-product
residuals from etching must be removed
prior to welding.
Clean all wire brushes and cutting
tools frequently.
19 WELDING JOURNAL
TONY ANDERSON is director of alu-
minum technology, ITW Welding North
America. He is a Fellow of the British Weld-
ing Institute (TWI), a Registered Chartered
Engineer with the British Engineering Coun-
cil, and holds numerous positions on AWS
technical committees. He is chairman of the
Aluminum Association Technical Advisory
Committee for Welding and author of the
book Welding Aluminum Questions and
Answers currently available from the AWS.
Questions may be sent to Mr. Anderson c/o
Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd.,
Miami, FL 33126, or via e-mail at
tony.anderson@millerwelds.com.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Aluminum Q and A June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 4:21 PM Page 19
LETTERS TO THE
EDITOR
Reader Questions the
Relevance of Ultrasonic
Wave-Assisted GMAW
Listed below are comments and responses
regarding the Welding Journal Research Sup-
plement paper titled Ultrasonic Wave As-
sisted GMAW in the March 2012 issue (pages
91-s to 99-s) between AWS Fellow August F.
Manz and one of the papers authors, San-
bao Lin, with the State Key Laboratory of Ad-
vanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute
of Technology, Harbin, China.
Lin noted it is helpful to improve future
research works by receiving critical com-
ments from welding experts and admits that
some places pointed out by the reader were
not described accurately or precisely.
Transition Current
Comment: In the discussion of drop
spray transfer (page 91-s), the authors
state the following: The drop spray is
generally characterized by uniform drop
size, regular detachment, directional
droplet transfer, and insignificant spatter,
so it is a preferred process (Ref. 5). How-
ever, the current range for drop spray
transfer is relatively narrow less than
10 A (Ref. 6)...so it is hard to maintain the
drop spray process...in an effort to solve
the above problem...
The Ref. 6, which was cited, is Part II
Control of Metal Transfer of a two-
part article by Dr. A. Lesnewich with the
title Control of Melting Rate and Metal
Transfer in Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc
Welding, Welding Journal, September
1958, pages 418-s to 425-s.
In the article, Dr. Lesnewich discusses
the current range from globular transfer
to spray transfer, of what is known as the
transition current. He states, ...the
marked change in transfer occurs within
a current range of 10 A (see page 419-s).
This is not the current range for drop spray
transfer. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
spray transfer has a current range on the
order of hundreds of amperes. There is
no problem to solve. It has worked fine
for more than 50 years.
Response: This is related to how to un-
derstand the drop spray transfer mode
during GMAW.
In the GMAW process, droplet trans-
fer mode consists of short circuit trans-
fer, globular transfer, and spray trans-
fer. Spray transfer is further classified
into drop spray and streaming spray. The
transitions from the globular transfer to
streaming spray are different according
to different shielding gases, welding wire
materials, and so on. Generally, most of
the descriptions use the solid steel wire
and pure argon or argon-rich gas mix-
tures. In these conditions, the transition
current range from globular transfer to
streaming spray transfer is narrow. It can
also be regarded that the current range
of drop spray transfer (between globu-
lar transfer and streaming transfer) is
narrow. This phenomenon has been de-
scribed in several papers and books (for
example, in Prof. Lancasters book, The
Physics of Welding, and Advanced Weld-
ing Processes by John Norrish).
In our research, experiments were con-
ducted in the welding conditions of weld-
ing wire of steel and shielding gas of pure
argon, shown on page 95-s. The transition
current is narrow. The narrow current
range was also observed in the experi-
ments and discussed on page 97-s.
As to the readers description, the cur-
rent range is on the order of hundreds of
amperes. It is true for streaming spray trans-
fer rather than drop spray transfer. That is
why we expect to use ultrasonic wave to ob-
tain a stable drop transfer process.
The following is taken from the 7.2.5
drop spray transfer part of Advanced Weld-
ing Processes by John Norrish, 2006,
Woodhead Publishing:
The transition to projected spray
transfer occurs over a relatively narrow
current range but it has been found [111]
that an important intermediate transfer
mode can occur in this transition range.
This mode of transfer is characterized by
the formation of a solid conic neck on the
wire tip and spherical droplets slightly
larger in diameter than the diameter of
the filler wire are initially suspended from
the tip before being detached (Fig. 7.6).
Detachment occurs very efficiently and
high droplet velocities and very low spat-
ter losses are measured. With a 1.2-mm
carbon steel wire this transfer mode oc-
curs between 250 and 270 A in argon/5%
CO
2
, drop velocities of 7 m min
1
have
been recorded and a slight increase in
melting rate is observed. The drop spray
mode is efficient and clean with very low
spatter and particulate fume levels, but,
under normal steady DC operating con-
ditions, it requires very close control of
the welding parameters and this can only
be achieved with the high-quality elec-
20 JUNE 2012
TIP TIG
Cuts Costs
by Boosting
Hourly Pipe
Weld Production
Up to 400%
TIP TIG Pipe Weld Costs:
In contrast to manual TIG and
the auto Hot Wire TIG process,
with TIP TIG you can increase
your hourly pipe weld produc-
tion in the range of 100 to
400%.
TIP TIG Pipe Weld Quality:
TIP TIG always provides
superior weld quality than
regular manual TIG,
automated Hot Wire TIG
and any pulsed MIG weld.
TIP TIG Pipe Welds
& Alloys:
In contrast to all manual weld
processes, TIP TIG provides
the lowest weld heat, enabling
the lowest distortion, the
lowest oxidation, the lowest
weld fumes and superior
metallurgical results.
TIP TIG USA
828-337-2695 or 856-312-8164
ed@tiptigusa.com nick@tiptigusa.com
www.tiptigusa.com
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Letters to the Editor June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 4:13 PM Page 20
21 WELDING JOURNAL
tronic power sources described in Chap-
ter 3; in addition, the operating range is
very restricted.
Contact Tube
Comment: In Fig. 3, schematic of ul-
trasonic wave-assisted gas metal arc weld-
ing (U-GMAW), there is no contact tip
shown. The absence or presence of a con-
tact tip is critical in determining the elec-
trode extension, and hence, the effect of
Joule heating.
Response: Figure 3 shows the
schematic diagram of whole U-GMAW
system. It was used to illustrate the main
system structure and explain the princi-
ples of U-GMAW. Therefore, some de-
tails of the welding torch are not shown
inside this figure. However, it does not
mean that the contact tip was ignored in
the paper. In the detailed figures, the con-
tact tip can be seen in the photograph of
welding torch in Fig. 4. Also, it is shown
at the end of the torch in Fig. 5.
Furthermore, the contact tip to work-
piece distance is given in the experimen-
tal conditions (page 95-s). Therefore, the
effect of the electrode extension was con-
sidered in our experiments.
The two figures listed below have been
updated to point out where the contact
tip is located.
Conventional GMAW
Comment: In Figs. 6 and 8, as well as
Table 1 and elsewhere, the authors use the
term conventional GMAW. There should
have been an explanation of what they
meant by this term.
Response: The conventional GMAW
doesnt have special meaning in this
paper. It is just used for comparison with
the ultrasonic wave-assisted gas metal arc
welding (U-GMAW) process. It refers to
the common GMAW conditions without
ultrasonic wave.
In other published papers, the word
conventional is also used to make a com-
parison between gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) and activated flux-assisted
GTAW.
Droplet Gravity
Comment: The caption for Fig. 12, and
the box shown in the figure, uses the term
droplet gravity without definition. They
probably meant droplet weight or droplet
Fig. 4 Experimental setup.
Fig. 5 Photographing method of the
metal transfer process.
Let us demonstrate how you can increase your productivity and
lower defect rates with the high duty cycle that only machine
welding can achieve.
Worldwide installations in daily use
prove that there is a better way.
PIPEMASTER.
Simply the Best Tool
for Welding Small Pipe
Thirty-five years of listening to our customers and continuous
product improvement have led to the Pipemaster 515 and D-Head.
The system welds pipe from 1" - 14" (tubes from 1" - 5" OD).
Pipemaster 515
D-Head
Pendant
(
+
1) 860 653-2573
info@MagnatechLLC.com
www.MagnatechLLC.com
ORBITAL WELDING SYSTEMS
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Contact tip
programmable
digital Weld Controller and the new DualARC
rapid change-over, Multi-Process GTAW-
FCAW-GMAW weld head.
Pressure
Vessels,
Div. 1
Power
Boilers
N
E
W
W
E
N
W
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
TRI TOOL_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 10:06 AM Page 50
T
he standard method for joining
heavy-wall alloy steel pipe in
power plant construction is man-
ual gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) for
root and hot passes, followed by shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW) for fill passes.
Design engineers start with the assump-
tion that defects will be created during
field welding and make provision to re-
pair flaws when they occur. This pre-
sumption forces them to use larger in-
cluded angles for the bevel so grinding
equipment can access the flaw and pre-
pare the affected section for any needed
repair welding.
This article discusses the introduction
of automated orbital welding of heavy-
wall pipe during on-site construction of
a power plant. In our examples, the de-
cision to automate was made after the
joints were designed for manual field
welding, such that the design was not op-
timized for orbital welding. Additionally,
manual welders were trained to operate
the orbital equipment for the first time.
It is against this background that we ex-
plore the advantages of automation com-
pared to manual GTAW.
Designing for Automation
With automation, this assumption
that flaws will occur must be reversed
and/or replaced by a new assumption,
that welding can be performed flawlessly,
thereby mitigating the need for repair.
This is possible if the joints are designed
for automation, and the joining process
is optimized around all process variables.
Steps should be taken to address these
variables proactively by utilizing com-
puter-based welding programs, which can
anticipate and adjust to them.
A simple example would be the sub-
stitution of the operators manual adjust-
ment of the arc length with automatic
voltage control (AVC). The AVC moni-
tors the arc length and constantly adjusts
the voltage across the arc to maintain a
preset arc voltage. Once this variable is
optimized, the operator can then concen-
51 WELDING JOURNAL
Using On-Site Orbital Welding for
Power Plant Construction
A company took on the challenge of
producing defect-free welds in real
world field conditions while using
experienced manual welders to perform
orbital welding for the first time
TIMOTHY E. GITTENS is busi-
ness development manager at
Liburdi Dimetrics Corp.
Mooresville, N.C. GLENN R.
LACEY is director of quality and
MICHAEL KENT is piping super-
intendent for Gemma Power
Systems, Glastonbury, Conn.
BY TIMOTHY E. GITTENS,
GLENN R. LACEY, AND
MICHAEL KENT
Fig. 1 Sequence of operation for au-
tomated orbital welding.
Gittens 6-12_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:12 PM Page 51
trate on other variables, such as travel
speed. This too can be optimized and set
to a specific value or series of values to
compensate for material thickness varia-
tion, base material temperature, root
opening width and/or a number of other
inputs, which can be programmed into
the power supply.
Controlling the Variables
In more advanced power supplies, all
of the variables that can influence the
output parameters (weld result) can be
programmed in advance Fig. 1.
The automated welding sequence oc-
curs after the initiation of the sequence
start in accordance with instructions in
the weld program. The total weld se-
quence includes prepurge, arc start, ups-
lope, travel start delay, wire start delay,
all 16 weld level periods, downslope and
postpurge. In this way, the operator can
be relieved from manually controlling
most of these variables, which can con-
tribute to flaws due to poor training,
fatigue, vision, or a number of other
factors.
Once the equipment manufacturer
programs these process variables into the
power supply, it is much easier to control
the few remaining metrics that can im-
pact the results. These may include,
among others, 1) torch angle/orientation,
2) direction of travel relative to wire feed
entry, 3) shielding gas flow rate, and 4)
bead placement.
We learned from experience that once
the parameters were optimized and a
flawless bead was deposited, automation
could repeat this process until the joint
was completed, absent the operator
strengths and weaknesses or the variabil-
ity experienced from one operator to an-
other.
In addition to the control of process
variables, automation can substantially
increase deposition rates with continu-
ous wire feed and travel, thereby improv-
ing weld quality. Using automation, the
operator can move away from the arc and
fume plume, further enhancing the work
experience and minimizing safety risks.
Guidelines for Welding
Heavy-Wall Alloy Steel
Pipe On-Site
Planning
As mentioned previously, it is com-
mon for design engineers to assume flaws
will be produced, so they make provision
for repairs when they do occur by design-
ing joints with wide included angles. If,
in the planning phase of design, consid-
eration is given to utilize orbital welding,
the joint can be designed with smaller in-
cluded angles, which substantially reduce
the amount of weld metal required, the
amount of distortion realized, and the
time to complete the weld. These bene-
fits are inversely proportional to the
bevel angle of the joint. As illustrated in
Fig. 2, for the same joint thickness, there
are many options available to the design
engineer.
Rather than design in anticipation of
defects and implement orbital welding as
an afterthought, designers should plan
for automation and design for optimiza-
tion. Today, as has been the case for many
decades, fitters are allowed to absorb di-
mensional tolerances in the joint and
pass these wide tolerances on to the
welder, who has little choice but to bridge
the root openings and compensate for
the mismatch by adding filler metal, os-
cillating in the groove, or manipulating
current, as well as a wide range of other
techniques available to the skilled man-
ual welder.
Joint Design
Bad Design vs. Good Design
A good joint design is one that can be
easily assembled and the weld sequence
chosen keeps shrinkage, distortion, and
residual stresses to a minimum.
While this is readily acknowledged in
structural members, it is often ignored in
piping systems, primarily for reasons ex-
plained above and related to the ability
to repair a defect in a grooved (heavy
wall) joint.
JUNE 2012 52
SINGLE GROOVE
Fig. 2 Three joint design options.
There is about an 85% reduction in de-
posited metal from the single-V to the
narrow groove designs.
Fig.3 Weld metal volume compari-
son for 12-, 24-, and 36-in.- diameter by
2-in.-thick pipe joints.
NARROW GROOVE
COMPOUND GROOVE
Gittens 6-12_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:14 PM Page 52
The designer should keep in mind that
the less deposited metal necessary to fill
the joint, the better. This is not only for
distortion/shrinkage control, but also for
every bead/pass that is deposited there is
a chance of producing a defect or discon-
tinuity Fig. 3.
When the same thickness pipe/plate
is designed for narrow-groove welding,
there is a substantial reduction in the
number of passes, distortion, and poten-
tial defects. To produce the highest qual-
ity welds, the performance of the power
supply is crucial. The power supply
should be designed to deliver a very stiff
and stable arc, which insures good side-
wall fusion.
For best results, the pipe inside diam-
eter (ID) should be counterbored and fit-
ted accurately. Pipe fitup is another area
of neglect, resulting in increased diffi-
culty during the welding of the root and
hot passes. The better the fitup, the bet-
ter the end result.
The design of the joint at an early
stage in the process makes a significant
contribution to bottom line savings. A
combination of design, welding wire se-
lection, power supply characteristics, and
operator training is key to achieving good
results in the finished weld.
Operator Training
Training cannot be overemphasized.
It is critical to weld quality and, in addi-
tion to technical training, the operators
must be taught to take a personal inter-
est in and ownership of the process and
equipment. On this project, Liburdi Di-
metrics provided on-site operator train-
ing and technical support for equipment
maintenance, which was considered es-
sential to the success that was achieved.
The equipment included a stocked
tool kit and spare parts inventory, which
was replenished periodically. The OEM
technician repaired equipment, trained
operators on its proper use and kept the
systems running throughout the tenure
of the job.
Liburdi Dimetrics worked closely with
Gemma Power Systems to produce the
PQRs for carbon steel, stainless steel,
and P91 base materials needed for this
project. All samples passed the QC tests
without a failure.
Collaboration with OEM
Prior to the start of on-site welding,
Gemma Power Systems did an extensive
search to find the right equipment and a
manufacturer that could support the
project during the critical phase of as-
sembly. Liburdi Dimetrics was selected
based on its years of experience in power
plant pipe fabrication, its approach to
metal joining, its strong training pro-
grams, and its focus on weld quality.
Flawless Execution
Flawless execution is somewhat of a
foreign concept in most welding oper-
ations. In many training centers, the pri-
mary tool in the training booth is a grind-
ing wheel. Here again there is an over-
riding assumption that defects will be
produced and welders must learn how to
repair defects that are produced by their
53 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 4 Finished weld on heavy-wall P-91 pipe.
Fig. 5 Welding being performed in a tent for environ-
mental protection.
Fig. 6 Orbital welding of heavy-wall pipe with thermal
blankets.
4 5
6
Gittens 6-12_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:14 PM Page 53
own negligence, indifference, lack of
training, and/or any other human frailty
that can contribute to human error.
Flawless execution can be defined as
a zero-tolerance environment in which a
task is performed without defects, re-
jects, discontinuities, or flaws that re-
quire rework Fig. 4. It suggests that if
a job can be done correctly once, it can
be done correctly repeatedly.
Lessons Learned
Because this was a learning process
for Gemma Power Systems (utilizing
manual welders on orbital equipment for
the first time), the company evaluated a
wide range of factors including, but not
limited to, the project, the process, the
people, and the OEM partners.
The findings confirmed their assump-
tions in some areas and provided some
guidelines for future projects.
The Project
It is imperative that local (orbital
trained) site supervision is maintained
throughout the project. This supervision
is needed for continuity of practices, ob-
servation of discrepancies, and correc-
tion of inconsistencies. Welders tend to
deviate from established procedures
and/or take short cuts from time to time.
This results in flaws, which can be costly
to repair.
The Process
Welding is, by its nature a difficult
process to manage. There are many vari-
ables to control and plenty of opportu-
nities to manipulate the process to sat-
isfy the curiosity or creativity of the op-
erator. Operators can change a number
of process variables without a thorough
knowledge of its impact on the finished
weld. Unfortunately, if these defects or
discontinuities are not detected and cor-
rected in a timely manner, the economic
impact could be substantial. When
GTAW is performed in the field, it is im-
perative the arc envelope be protected
from the elements. Moisture and wind
are detrimental to the joining process
and result in defects, which can be
avoided by using tents Fig. 5.
The People
Experienced welders should under-
stand the properties of the welding arc
including the influence of torch angle,
travel speed, gas coverage, start/stop po-
sitions for each pipe diameter, the influ-
ence of joint geometry and their impact
on shrinkage, as well as root penetration.
The Partners
Partners include, but are not limited
to, orbital equipment manufacturers,
filler metal suppliers, thermal treatment
providers, design personnel, piping ex-
amination companies, and machining
equipment companies
Even when welded joints are prepared
for manual welding, orbital welding (Fig.
6) can still provide substantial benefits
such as savings in labor, improved pre-
dictability and repeatability, higher pro-
ductivity, and mitigation of operator fa-
tigue, a primary cause of weld defects
Conclusion
Orbital welding provides a distinct se-
ries of advantages over manual welding,
particularly on large-diameter and/or
heavy-wall pipe joints. Some of the pri-
mary contributors to weld defects and/or
discontinuities are lack of operator skill
and/or fatigue from constantly watching
the arc and its impact on his or her eyes.
In a physical sense, welding automa-
tion in general and orbital welding in par-
ticular help to enhance the skill of inex-
perienced operators since the power sup-
ply controls many of the process vari-
ables. For operators in the midpoint of
their careers, orbital welding comple-
ments their skills; and for operators
nearing the end of their careers, orbital
welding mitigates the impact of strained
backs and weak knees and other physical
conditions that impair their ability to per-
form these tasks in awkward, physically
demanding positions.
JUNE 2012 54
Manufacturing
Flux Cored
Welding Wire
COBALT
NICKEL
HARDFACE
STAINLESS
ALLOY STEEL
TOOL STEEL
MAINTENANCE
FORGE ALLOYS
CUSTOM ALLOYS
COR-MET, INC.
12500 Grand River Rd.
Brighton, MI 48116
PH: 800-848-2719
FAX: 810-227-9266
www.cor-met.com
sales@cor-met.com
COBALT LT
Welding W
Flux Cored
Manufacturin
elding Wire
Flux Cored
uring
TA STAINLESS
HARDFACE
NICKEL
INLESS
E
FORGE ALLO
MAINTENAN
TOOL STEE
ALLOY Y STEEL
OYS
CE
EEL
EEL
12500 Grand River Rd.
MET, INC. - COR
CUSTOM ALLOYS
FORGE ALLO
and River Rd.
, INC.
OYS
OYS
met.co - sales@cor
met.com - ww www.cor
9266 - 227 - FA FAX: 810
27 - 848 - PH: 800
Brighton, MI 481
t.com
t.com
9266
719
116
Orbital welding provides a distinct series of
advantages over manual welding,
particularly on large-diameter and/or
heavy-wall pipe joints.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Gittens 6-12_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:15 PM Page 54
T
hick-walled hollow cylinders find widespread indus-
trial applications. The closed body allows easy en-
closure of liquid, gaseous, and grainy media, and
provides superior bending and rotational stiffness in com-
parison to solid cylinders of the same weight. These ad-
vantages make them desirable in such different products as
pipelines (enclosure of media), cranes (bending stiffness),
and power trains (rotational stiffness). An application for
hollow tubes that has particularly high demands regarding
safety as well as precision is hydraulics, and especially, tel-
escopic hydraulics.
Telescopic hydraulics employ several tubes with an
inner and an outer dead stop (except the innermost and the
outermost tubes, which only possess one dead stop). A
component is nested inside the next bigger one. Pressure
supplied to one side of the device, causes the innermost
component to move. When its outer dead stop strikes the
inner dead stop of the next bigger component, it drags
along that component Fig. 1A.
Conventionally, telescopic hydraulic components are
manufactured by turning and gun drilling from cylinders
with wall thicknesses from the inner dead stop up to the
outer one. As components can be longer than a meter, this
is a time- and material-consuming operating technique that
55 WELDING JOURNAL
Use of high-power lasers combined with
GMAW in hydraulics manufacturing
reduces time and material consumption MORITZ OLIVER GEBHARDT
(moritz.gebhardt@gmx.de) is a
PhD student at Technische Univer-
sitt Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
ANDREY GUMENYUK and
MICHAEL RETHMEIER are with
BAM Federal Institute for Materials
Research and Testing in Berlin.
Hybrid Process Welds
Thick-Walled Tubes
BY MORITZ OLIVER GEBHARDT,
ANDREY GUMENYUK, AND
MICHAEL RETHMEIER
Fig. 1 Telescopic hydraulics and their manufacturing
process. A Telescoping action of the tubes; B cur-
rent technology using chipping and gun drilling; C
new process using welded construction and prefabri-
cated center section.
Gebhardt feature_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:20 PM Page 55
can be avoided, when only the functional
ends are chipped and welded to prefabri-
cated tubes that make up the body Fig.
1B, C. Since the wall to be welded is very
thick (8 to 15 mm), a beam process is ben-
eficial regarding edge preparation, pro-
cessing time, and welding distortions.
A number of studies discuss laser
beam welding of tubes for industrial ap-
plications. In Ref. 1, the author describes
the installation of an automatic laser
beam plant for the production of tele-
scopic hydraulic cylinders. The laser
process shortens the production time
from 2.5 h of the originally employed fric-
tion welding process to about 15 min
(10%). Due to the available beam power
of 6 kW, the wall thickness of the products
is less than 8 mm. A similar process was
applied for radial welds in the production
of heat coils made from low- and high-al-
loyed steels. The wall thickness welded
were between 2.4 and 7.6 mm at outer di-
ameters of 40 to 60 mm (Ref. 2).
Laser-arc hybrid welding, i.e., the
combination of a laser beam with a gas
metal arc (GTA), gas tungsten arc (GTA),
or plasma arc (PA) welding process in a
common weld pool, is well documented
and finds widespread application in in-
dustry (Refs. 38). It is used, for example,
in the automobile industry (< 3 mm) as
well as in shipbuilding (up to 12 mm).
The CO
2
-GMA welding process is used
in oil tank volume production (Ref. 9).
Oil tanks made from low-alloyed struc-
tural steel S235JR with wall thicknesses
of 5 to 8 mm get three 5-m-long radial
welds in this process. Due to the com-
pletely different proportion of wall thick-
ness to outer diameter, and due to the
lower wall thickness, those results are not
applicable to hydraulic component pro-
duction. Laser-GMA-hybrid welding of
wall thicknesses up to 14.5 mm in combi-
nation with small outer diameters ( 135
mm) and hence extremely high stiffness,
has not been reported so far.
JUNE 2012 56
Fig. 2 Solidification crack in a partial penetra-
tion radial laser-GMA hybrid weld of a tube made
from S460NH, outer diameter of 205 mm and wall
thickness of 11.5 mm. The built-in weld bead sup-
port helps to align the tubes and prevents splat-
ters from entering the tube.
Fig. 3 Experimental setup of the welding exper-
iments. A Equipment setup; B positions of
the laser and torch.
Fig. 4 Welding result of a tube made from
S770QL. A Cross section; B parameters; C
root side; D top side; E X-ray image.
2 3
4
Gebhardt feature_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:20 PM Page 56
Solid-state lasers that supply beam
powers between 10 kW and (quite re-
cently) 30 kW while maintaining a high
beam quality (BPP < 15 mm mrad)
have been commercially available for sev-
eral years. Their high efficiency, high
beam quality, and low operational ex-
pense make them particularly suitable for
heavy wall thickness welding.
In research institutes, 20-mm butt
jointed structural steel plates were
welded single-rung using a 20-kW fiber
laser (Ref. 10). The addition of a GMAW
process dropped the weldable wall thick-
ness to 16 mm under the same conditions,
but allowed to bridge gaps of up to 0.35
mm and a misalignment of up to 1 mm.
An edge preparation or preheating of the
material allowed increasing of the wall
thickness back up to 20 mm.
Controlling Weld Cracking
A major reason preventing the more
extensive industrial use of high-power
solid-state lasers is the risk of solidifica-
tion cracking involved in laser beam
welding of components with wall thick-
nesses 10 mm (Ref. 11).
Solidification cracks are a special
form of hot cracks. Hot cracks develop
during the last stages of solidification,
while some of the melt is still present in
the growing dendritic network. The
whole mechanism of hot cracking is not
fully understood (Ref. 12). When cracks
originate and propagate in hostile envi-
ronments examination is difficult, if not
impossible, and hence an educated
guess frequently replaces an experimen-
tal proof (Ref. 13).
Despite lacking a comprehensive un-
derstanding of hot cracking, some facts
are understood. It is known that hot
cracks are influenced by the chemical
composition, the crystal structure of the
solidifying grains, the temperature field,
the mechanical condition, as well as in-
teractions between those factors (Refs.
1218).
A special problem in tube welding is
the start and end of the weld, as run-on
and run-off plates are not an option. At
the location where the welding process is
switched off, pores and cracks frequently
appear. This can be impeded by running
into the base material before deactivating
of the power sources (Ref. 19).
The closed body of thick-walled tubes,
which provides the favorable properties
mentioned above, is a yet-uninvestigated
variable concerning hot crack emergence
in beam welding at wall thicknesses >10
mm. First experiments of partial penetra-
tion laser-hybrid welding using tubes
made from a low-alloyed structural steel
showed solidification cracks Fig. 2.
This raised the question about whether
the stiff tube, the partial penetration, the
process parameters, or the material was
the source of those defects.
This report demonstrates that com-
plete joint penetration welding up to wall
thicknesses of 14.5 mm is possible yield-
ing crack-free, high-quality welds.
Materials
The samples were made from low-
alloyed, fine-grain structural steels
S460NH, S770QL, and S890QL. Table 1
shows the chemical compositions and
mechanical properties elastic limit R
p0.2
and tensile strength R
m
. All of these
steels have carbon contents of about
0.2% and contain Ti, Nb, and V, which is
typical for fine-grain steels. The content
of the critical elements P and S is low for
all, with S460NH having by far the high-
est content.
Experimental Setup
The experiments were conducted with
three different laser systems: a TruDisk
8002 disc laser with a maximum of 8 kW
beam power; a TruDisk 16002 disc laser
available to supply 16 kW of beam power;
and a YLR 20000 fiber laser with 20 kW-
57 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 5 Welding result of a tube made from S890QL.
A Cross section; B parameters; C root side;
D top side; E X-ray image.
Fig. 6 Bad weld quality produced by using a closed
fastening device. A Root side; B top side.
5 6
Gebhardt feature_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:20 PM Page 57
max of beam power. The disc lasers were
used with a 0.2-mm fiber in combination
with a BEO D70 optics having a focal
length of 200 mm (resulting in a 0.3-mm
focus diameter), and a digital impulse
welding current source Quinto GLC 603.
A 0.2-mm fiber and BimoHP optics with
300 mm focal length (resulting in a 0.56-
mm focus diameter) were attached to the
fiber laser.
The arc current here was supplied by
a Quinto GLC 403 digital impulse weld-
ing current source. An open fastening de-
vice, which allowed for the venting of the
tube, was employed in the experiments.
Figure 3A shows the disc laser setup.
Figure 3B shows the laser and torch po-
sitions, where is the angle between
laser and welding wire, a is the distance
between the respective points where the
laser and the welding wire touch the sur-
face, and t is the distance between the
laser and the peak of the tube (kept con-
stant in all experiments at 10 mm).
The influence of t on the wall thick-
ness regarding complete joint penetra-
tion welding is negligible. The experi-
ments were conducted with stationary
welding tool and turned tube in direc-
JUNE 2012 58
Fig. 7 Welding result of a tube made from S460NH with
a wall thickness of 11.5 mm. A Cross section; B pa-
rameters; C root side; D top side; E X-ray image.
Fig. 8 Welding result of a tube made from S460NH with
a wall thickness of 14.5 mm. A Cross section; B pa-
rameters; C root side; D top side; E X-ray image.
Table 1 Chemical Compositions and Major Mechanical Properties of Tested Materials
Normalized Quenched and Tempered
Element (wt-%) S460NH S770QL S890QL
C 0.22 0.20 0.18
Si 0.23 0.37 0.39
Mn 1.74 1.72 1.45
P 0.007 0.012 0.02
S 0.028 <0.001 <0.001
Al 0.032 0.020 0.024
Cr 0.17 0.34 0.77
Cu 0.18 0.03 0.20
Mo 0.02 0.25 0.35
Ni 0.11 0.05 0.15
Ti 0.001 0.004 0.007
Nb <0.005 <0.005 0.041
V 0.12 0.08 0.04
Fe balance balance balance
CEV
(a)
0.59 0.65 0.68
R
p0,2
/MPa 455 882 973
R
m
/MPa 625 936 1019
a CE=+Mn/6+Cr/5+Mo/5+v/5+ni/15+Cu/15
Gebhardt feature_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:21 PM Page 58
tion, resulting in an opposite welding di-
rection (v
w
). A leading arc configuration
was employed.
Some tubes were tack welded in posi-
tions 50, 170, and 290 deg from the weld
start. The tack welds were 5 deg long and
produced by autogenous laser beam
welding with reduced beam power.
The tubes were turned to remove ox-
ides, and the edges were turned to prep
the surfaces for welding. After welding,
the tubes were X-rayed, and the pictures
digitized and evaluated. This method
permits use of filters to optimize the con-
trast, thus enhancing the inspection re-
sults. The weld start- and end-regions
were neglected here, as they represent a
separate technical problem.
Welding Experiments on
Quenched and Tempered
Tubes
The welding experiments on samples
made from S770QL with a wall thickness
of 9 mm were performed using a TruDisk
8002 disc laser. Sample lengths perpendi-
cular to the welding direction were 200
mm each side (i.e., 400 mm in total) and
the outer diameter was 138 mm. The ex-
periments were conducted with 3.5 mm
distance between the processes (parame-
ter a in Fig. 3 B) at an angle of 30 deg. The
focus was positioned on the surface of the
tube.
The shielding gas used was argon with
18% CO
2
, and the welding wire was of
class G3Ni1 with a diameter of 1.2 mm. A
good weld quality was achieved using a
laser beam power of 8 kW in combination
with a wire feed speed of 8 m/min. (6.4
kW) at a welding speed of 2 m/min. The
result is displayed in Fig. 4.
In the cross section, the low weld re-
inforcement without any dents and the
well-formed root are visible. The X-ray
picture (Fig. 4E) shows spillings inside
the tube. No other anomalies are notice-
able. An equally good weld quality was
achievable on tubes made from S890QL
with 10.5-mm wall thickness and an outer
diameter of 131.5 mm. The sample length
at right angle to the welding direction was
200 mm each. A distance of 3 mm and an
angle of 30 deg were set between both
processes and the laser focus layer was
positioned 3 mm below the tube surface.
The shielding gas and welding wire were
the same as for S770QL. The experi-
ments were conducted using a TruDisk
16002 disc laser. The best results were
achieved using 10-kW laser beam power,
a wire feed speed of 10 m/min (7.6 kW) at
a traveling speed of 2.0 m/min.
Figure 5 shows the good quality of the
weld. The top side is without any dents
and the root side is well developed. No
anomalies, except the spillings at the in-
side are visible in the X-ray picture (Fig.
5D). Some samples were welded using a
closed fastening device, which hinders
venting of the tube. In this case, using the
same welding parameters and setup, ac-
ceptable weld quality was unachievable.
There are visible droppings of the weld
upper side and the root dropped nearly
along the whole length of the weld Fig.
6. By changing back to the open fastening
device, the problems vanished. This is as-
sumed to be due to a disturbance of the
keyhole by the increase of the static pres-
sure inside the tube.
Welding Experiments on
Normalized Tubes
Like for the quenched and tempered
steels, acceptable weld quality without
any cracks was achievable in welding ex-
periments using normalized steel
S460NH. Samples with a wall thickness of
11.5 mm were welded using a fiber laser
YLR 20000. The samples were 50 mm
long perpendicular to the welding direc-
tion and had an outer diameter of 136
mm. An angle of 25 deg and a distance of
3 mm were chosen between the welding
processes. The focus layer was positioned
3 mm below the weld surface.
Using the same shielding gas as in the
other experiments, the welding wire was
replaced by one of class G4Si1. Welding
on these samples was conducted with
rolled as well as sawn edge preparation,
without any noticeable effect on the weld
quality. A chamber-bevel with 45 deg and
a length of 1 mm helped to reduce weld
reinforcement and to impede the devel-
opment of dents. The best results were
obtained using 10-kW laser beam power,
a wire feed speed of 12 m/min (10.3 kW)
and a travel speed of 2.1 m/min. A sam-
ple result is displayed in Fig. 7 showing a
59 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 10 Measurement of tube alignment.
Fig. 9 Microhardness of a tube weld made of S770QL with
a wall thickness of 9 mm.
Gebhardt feature_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:21 PM Page 59
weld with extremely low reinforcement, a
well-developed root, and a minimum of
dents. The X-ray picture in Fig. 7D is free
from noticeable imperfections.
Samples made from S460NH having a
wall thickness of 14.5 mm and an outer
diameter of 136.6 mm were again welded
with a TruDisk 16002 disc laser, using the
same shielding gas and welding wire as in
the experiments on S890QL. The focus
was positioned 4 mm below the tube sur-
face and the processes were set to run 4
mm away from each other at an angle of
30 deg. Those samples were extensively
used for further experiments regarding
partial penetration (that are not part of
this report), whereas quality optimiza-
tion was dispensed to save material. Fig-
ure 8 shows the result at a laser power of
14 kW, a wire feed speed of 12 m/min
(10.3 kW) and a travel speed of 1.8
m/min. The upper side of the weld is
nicely imbricate, but shows small dents,
while the root is well developed and
mainly homogeneous. Not visible in the
picture are rudiments of root dropping.
This is acceptable for hydraulic cylinder
applications, as root and upper side have
to be removed before operating anyway.
The X-ray picture (Fig. 8E), is free from
any conspicuous features.
Hot Cracking
In two X-ray pictures, a single hot
crack is detectable in each. All others
were free from any major anomalies and
would have passed as Class B in DIN EN
ISO 12932 (2011) (20) regarding inner
defects. One crack was found in a sample
with 14.5-mm wall thickness made from
S460NH and the other one in a sample
with 11.5-mm wall thickness made from
S890QL. Both samples were tack welded,
and both cracks were located inside the
tack welds. It is possible to calculate the
probability that this is a coincidence. A
tube has a length of 360 deg, 45 deg are
subtracted from this due to the neglect of
the start and end area. Three tack welds,
each being 5 deg long, were placed along
the tube. They accumulate to give 15 deg.
The probability that a crack is located in-
side a tack weld by pure coincidence is
(1)
p
coinc
= 15 deg/(360 45 deg) = 0.0476
Cracks were found in two independ-
ent welds. Employing the probability de-
termined so far, the probability that
cracks are found in two tubes within the
tack welds by coincidence is
(2)
P
2coinc
= p
coinc
p
coinc
= 0.00227 = 0.2%
The converse probability, p
connect
, is
the likelihood that a connection exists be-
tween the tack welds and the hot cracks.
It is
(3)
p
connect
= 1 P
2coinc
= 0.99773 = 99.8%
This is deemed high enough to con-
clude that the hot cracks found in these
experiments were caused by the tack
welds. It is known that opening of tack
welds by welding over them can cause
cracks due to the rapid release of stored
elastic energy and the resulting sideward
movement (Ref. 21).
Hardness
High welding speeds in combination
with low heat inputs and great wall thick-
nesses are the source of high cooling
rates involving a hard and brittle mi-
crostructure at the elevated carbon
equivalents, especially of the quenched
and tempered steels. Time-temperature
measurements in the heat-affected zone
on several samples revealed rapid cooling
of the weld with resulting t
8/5
times of
about a second. This already indicates
strong weld hardening. A sample made
from tubes out of S770QL with a wall
thickness of 9 mm was tested for hardness
Fig. 9. The base material hardness is
already very high ranging at 320 0.5HV,
but is widely exceeded by the weld hard-
ness of 460 0.5HV and a peak value of
even 490 0.5HV. Accordingly postweld
heat treatment is inescapable. As it is
usual to nitrogenize (500 to 520C) tele-
scopic cylinders, this is no major disad-
vantage for the process, but may be prob-
lematic for other applications.
Alignment
Telescopic hydraulic applications de-
mand a particularly high level of preci-
sion regarding alignment of the welded
components. For a working hydraulics
misalignment of no more than 0.08 mm is
acceptable, as stated by an industrial
partner (Ref. 22). Misalignment was
measured by arranging dial extensome-
ters on the left-and right-hand sides of
the weld, 10 mm away from the weld cen-
terline. On three positions along the cir-
cumference the height was metered in re-
lation to the height at the weld start (0
deg) on both sides of the weld. The dif-
ferences between both sides were calcu-
lated to give the misalignment. The re-
sults are shown in Fig. 10. Only a single
value for the tube without tack welds is
outside of the specified tolerance. Re-
garding the accuracy of the utilized meas-
uring technique, this must be deemed ac-
ceptable as well.
As the applied clamping was rather
soft, especially in comparison to indus-
trial ones, the result is quite interesting.
Obviously, the distortions caused by the
process are very low and are hence no
major concern. The main task regarding
alignment is careful arrangement of the
parts before welding.
Conclusions
This study shows that the laser-GMA
hybrid process can make high-quality de-
fect-free welds in tubes up to 14.5-mm
wall thickness. When complete joint pen-
etration welding is applied, there is no
major risk of hot cracking, as long as tack
welds are avoided. The process allows
maintaining of very close tolerances as in
hydraulic manufacturing, without the
need for special clamping devices. Due to
the high welding speeds applicable, a sin-
gle weld can be performed in about 12 s
at the diameters presented, compared
with the conventional chipping process in
hydraulic cylinder manufacturing that
can take as long as an hour (but for the
whole tube).
When the middle part of the compo-
nent is bought prefabricated, the only
amount of material consumption is the
welding wire and the material directly at
the functional ends. The chipping process
needs to reduce the whole wall thickness
from the outer diameter and the inner di-
ameter of the respective dead stops to the
wall thickness of the tube, which may be
up to 50 % of the material.
Due to the high cooling rates involved
in laser-hybrid welding, a postweld heat
treatment is mandatory. This is no issue,
as long as the tubes are heat treated for
other purposes anyway, but must be re-
garded, when choosing this process for
manufacturing. Also, clamping devices
should be designed to allow for tube in-
side venting. Otherwise problems con-
cerning the weld quality may arise.
Acknowledgments
The IGF research project 15917N of
the research coalition Forschungsvere-
inigung Schweien und verwandte Ver-
fahren e.V. des DVS was funded via AiF
as part of the program for the promotion
of the industrial coalition for research
and development (IGF) by the German
Federal Ministry of Economics and Tech-
nology (BMWi) on behalf of an enact-
ment by the German Bundestag.
JUNE 2012 60
Gebhardt feature_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:22 PM Page 60
1. N.N. 1999. The rise and rise (telescopically)
of laser welding. Welding and Metal Fabrication
67 (6): 11-s to 12-s.
2. Aristotille, R., Fersini, M., Bosi, C., Colombo,
E., Giolfo, M., Penasa, M., and Rosellini, C. 1998.
Feasibility study on the application of laser butt
welding of tubes to pipe coil production line. Wel-
ding International 12 (7): 539s to 547-s.
3. Seyffarth, P., and Gaede, R. 2008. Hochlei-
stungsfaserlaser Hybrid schweiung mit MAG-
Tandemschweiung gekoppelt Weltweit erst-
maliger Einsatz auf einer Werft fr Blechdicken
bis 20 mm. DVS Kongress, Groe Schweitech-
nische Tagung, DVS-Berichte vol. 250. pp. 74-
78. DVS-Verlag: Dsseldorf, Germany.
4 Siltanen, J. 2010. Utilizing laser-GMA hybrid
welding in industrial application. Proc. of ICALEO
2010. pp. 53-61. Laser Institute of America.
5. Neubert, J., and Keitel, S. 2011. Influence
of tolerances on weld formation and quality of
laser-GMA-hybrid girth welded pipe joints. Wel-
ding in the World 55 (
1
2): 50-s to 57-s.
6. Kristensen, K. 2009. Thick plate CO
2
-laser
based hybrid welding of structural steels. Welding
in the World 53 (
1
2). 48-s to 57-s.
7. Butthoff, H., Neubert, J., and Rude, S. 2008.
MSG-Laserstrahlhybridschweien Eine tech-
nologische Alternative fr den Rohrleitungsbau?
DVS Kongress, Groe Schweitechnische Ta-
gung, DVS-Berichte vol. 250. pp. 252-256. DVS-
Verlag: Dsseldorf, Germany.
8. Reisgen, U., Olschok, S., and Mavany, M.
2011. Laserstrahl-MIG-Hybridschweien Die
Erweiterung vom Makro- in den Mikrobereich.
Schweien und Schneiden 63 (
1
2): 34-s to 40-s.
9. Dahmen, M., Bongard, K., Kaierle, S., Po-
prawe, R., and Cottone, F. 2000. Hybrid-
schweien von ltanks Ein innovativer Fge-
proze. DVS-Berichte vol. 209. pp. 207-210.
DVS-Verlag: Dsseldorf, Germany.
10. Vollertsen, F., Grnwald, S., Rethmeier, M.,
Gumenyuk, A., Reisgen, U., and Olschock, S.
2010. Welding thick steel plates with fibre lasers
and GMAW. Welding in the World 54 (3/4): 62-s
to 70-s.
11. Schuster, J. 2004. Heirisse in
Schweiverbindungen. DVS-Berichte vol. 233.
DVS-Verlag: Dsseldorf, Germany.
12. Cross, C.E. 2005. On the Origin of Weld
Solidification Cracking. Hot Cracking Phenomena
in Welds. Eds. T. Bllinghaus and H. Herold.
pp. 318. Springer Verlag: Berlin Heidelberg,
Germany.
13. Eskin, D. G., and Katgerman, L. 2007. A
quest for a new hot tearing criterion. Metallurgi-
cal and Material Transactions A 17 (38A): 1511-s
to 1519-s.
14. Weise, S. 1998. Heirissbildung beim La-
serstrahlschweien von Bausthlen. PhD disser-
tation. Bremen, University Bremen, Germany.
15. Nishimoto, K., Saida, K., Kiuchi, K., and
Nakayama, J. 2011. Influence of Minor and Impu-
rity Elements on Hot Cracking Susceptibility of
Extra High-Purity Type 310 Stainless Steels. Hot
Cracking Phenomena in Welds III. eds. J. Lippold,
T. Bllinghaus, and C. E. Cross. pp. 183208.
Springer Verlag: Berlin Heidelberg, Germany.
16. Gebhardt, M., Quiroz, V., Gumenyuk, A.,
and Rethmeier, M. 2010. Restraint Effects on
Stresses and Strains in Single-Run High Power
Laser Beam Welding of Thick Plates. Mathemati-
cal Modeling of Weld Phenomena 9. Eds. H. Cer-
jak and N. Enzinger. pp. 10111033. Verlag der
TU-Graz: Graz, Austria.
17. Kannengiesser, Th., and Kromm, A. 2007.
Design-specific influences on local weld displa-
cement and hot cracking. Proc. of the IIW Inter-
national Conference on Welding and Joining of
Materials ICWJM-2007. pp. 19. Cusco, Peru.
18. Cross, C. E., and Bllinghaus, Th. 2005.
The effect of restraint on weld solidification
cracking in aluminum. Welding in the World 49:
458-s to 463-s.
19. Novkov, L. 2010. Laserstrahl-MSG-Hy-
bridschweien an mehrstufigen Hydraulikzylin-
dern. DVS Kongress, Groe Schweitechnische
Tagung, DVS-Berichte vol. 267. pp. 177180.
DVS-Verlag: Dsseldorf, Germany.
20. Draft standard 2010: DIN EN ISO 12932,
Schweien Laserstrahl-Lichtbogen-Hybrid-
schweien von Sthlen, Nickel und Nickellegie-
rungen Bewertungsgruppen fr Unregelmig-
keiten. Beuth-Verlag GmbH: Berlin, Germany.
21. Kannengieer, Th., and Cross, C. E. 2006.
Effect of tack placement on local weld displace-
ment and solidification cracking during arc wel-
ding of aluminum alloy 6083. Proceedings of the1st
Southeast Asia IIW Congress, Welding in Southeast
Asia: A Challenge for the Future. pp. 480491.
Bangkok, Thailand.
22. Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Jrgen Schleusener, pro-
duction manager of F.X. Meiller Fahrzeug- und
Maschinenbau GmbH & Co. KG, on 12/03/2009.
61 WELDING JOURNAL
References
Gebhardt feature_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:22 PM Page 61
JUNE 2012 62
W
elding engineering knowledge
coupled with welder/operator
competencies and technical ex-
pertise represents a vital technology to
help maintain the integrity of the infra-
structure required to extract and pump
oil from the Prudhoe Bay (also called the
North Slope and/or Slope) oilfields to the
Marine Terminal at Valdez, Alaska, via
the 800-mile-long Trans-Alaska Pipeline.
The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System
(TAPS) represents an expansive infra-
structure that encompasses the Trans-
Alaska Pipeline and 11 pump stations as
well as several hundred miles of feeder
pipelines. The feeder pipeline network
(Fig. 1) transports oil from well pads to
gathering centers/flow stations, which
subsequently feed into the Trans-Alaska
Pipeline.
Welding/joining technology plays a
pivotal role in the fabrication and repair
of the following:
An intricate natural gas piping system
that is essential for sustaining oil pro-
duction efforts with respect to provid-
ing energy for the heating of person-
nel quarters, operation centers/sta-
tions, and equipment facilities;
Widespread array of seawater piping
and oil equipment (e.g., wellheads,
Christmas trees, pumps) that is em-
ployed to assist in the extraction and
control of oil from in-ground deposits;
Multiple turbine power generators that
provide electrical power to the oilfield
community;
Countless pipe valves that require
hardsurfacing/cladding;
Heavy construction equipment (Fig.
2), snow plows, snow throwers, and fa-
cility machinery;
Structural steel waterway pipe cross-
ings and heavy equipment bridges,
drilling rig structural frames, and stor-
age tanks. Also, numerous horizontal
and vertical support mounts are fabri-
cated to secure above-ground pipelines
Fig. 3.
In addition, due to the fact that Prud-
hoe Bay is located on the shore of the
Beaufort Sea, specialty fabrications such
as door/stairway safety enclosures are
constructed to help protect oilfield per-
sonnel as well as wildlife such as polar
bears from surprise encounters and di-
rect contact with each other Fig. 4.
Within the TAPS infrastructure and
Prudhoe Bay oilfield, the multitude of
pipeline, structural steel assemblies, stor-
Welding technology, engineering, and inspection
knowledge are vital to the oilfield operations at the North
Slope and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System infrastructure
Welding Supports
Prudhoe Bay
Oilfield Operations
The near view shows fabricated
pipeline support mounts while an
oilfield drilling rig is shown from afar.
BY WILLIAM C. LAPLANTE
WILLIAM C. LAPLANTE
(william.laplante@bp.com) is a
welding engineer, BP
Exploration (Alaska) Inc.,
Anchorage, Alaska. He is also
an AWS CWI and CWE.
LaPlante FINAL LAYOUT_Layout 1 5/10/12 10:29 AM Page 62
63 WELDING JOURNAL
age tanks, etc., necessitates constant vig-
ilance relative to weld inspection and cor-
rosion surveillance via visual inspection
and nondestructive examination (NDE)
technologies, including radiographic, ul-
trasonic, magnetic particle, penetrant,
and eddy current testing.
Prudhoe Bay Project
Logistics
Prudhoe Bay lies within the Arctic
Circle, which equates to extreme work-
ing, living, and equipment operating con-
ditions. North Slope personnel com-
monly referred to as Slopers say there
are four seasons at Prudhoe: June, July,
August, and winter. Winter is a long or-
deal in Alaska and this is especially true
at Prudhoe Bay. Only one airport and one
road access and service Prudhoe Bay, the
Deadhorse Airport and the Dalton High-
way (aka Haul Road). The Dalton High-
way has received a degree of notoriety
from the TV show Ice Road Truckers. Due
to severe weather conditions that affect
production scheduling, project planning
and preparation are critical so that all
welding and fabrication materials can be
trucked to Prudhoe Bay before bad
weather sets in to meet tight production
schedules. That is, plan the work and
then work the plan. It should be noted
that exceedingly large pieces of equip-
ment such as drilling rig assemblies are
barged to the North Slope through the
Bering Strait.
For pipeline applications such as pipe
replacement and repair, pipeline con-
struction schedules are extremely tight
and the work is expensive. Housing ac-
commodations for field construction
crews are also limited, so accurate work-
force manning estimates are required.
Special training is provided for person-
nel travelling to Prudhoe Bay for the first
time that encompasses safety and health
criteria; environmental regulations, poli-
cies, and procedures; and workplace haz-
ard awareness.
Weather conditions are constantly
monitored and broadcast via Harmony
radio communications in an effort to
warn workers of impending storms.
Blinding snowstorms and subzero tem-
peratures can render workers stranded
and isolated in vehicles for prolonged pe-
riods. Hence, from October 1 to May 1,
personnel working in the field must carry
duffle bags in their vehicles filled with
designated arctic clothing. Ice roads are
constructed during winter months to fa-
cilitate transportation of fabrication ma-
terials along the pipeline construction
site and to support movement of heavy
construction and pipe-laying equipment
across the tundra plains and water. Ice
roads run parallel to the pipeline and are
temporary, so the window for ice road
operation is limited to the severe cold
months (e.g., January to April). Perma-
nent, gravel-based access roads are also
constructed in applicable areas to sup-
port all-season pipeline construction and
maintenance efforts.
Fig. 1 A sampling of the Prudhoe Bay
oilfield piping network.
LaPlante FINAL LAYOUT_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:28 PM Page 63
JUNE 2012 64
In addition to project material and
equipment requirements, thoughtful
consideration is given to the acquisition
of critical personnel. Due to the remote-
ness of Prudhoe Bay, the availability and
the hiring of qualified welders, pipefit-
ters, welding inspectors, quality assur-
ance personnel, engineers, etc., to sup-
port project efforts represents a costly
and difficult challenge for companies,
thus, long-term planning is required to
successfully obtain personnel for project
applications.
Oilfield Codes, Materials,
and Welding Processes
For pipeline and project fabrication
and repair applications (Fig. 5), multiple
welding codes are utilized, including API
1104, 5CT, 6A, 650, and 653; ASME
B31.1, B31.3, and B31.4; and AWS D1.1,
D1.5, and D1.6. Also, utilized in conjunc-
tion with respective weld codes, are Na-
tional Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers (NACE) corrosion-based codes
such as NACE MR0175 (Ref. 1). In ad-
dition, certain pipelines are Department
of Transportation (DOT) classified,
where DOT requirements become ap-
plicable. NACE MR0175 is employed for
petroleum and natural gas applications
such as when metal materials are em-
ployed in the presence of water and in
hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) containing aque-
ous media/production fluid environ-
ments (sour service). When metal mate-
rials are subjected to a H
2
S media, hy-
drogen-induced cracking (HIC), stress
corrosion cracking (SCC), and sulfide
stress cracking (SSC) become notably
problematic. In combination with weld
code requirements for Performance
Qualification Records (PQRs), NACE
MR0175 requires that PQR weld speci-
men hardness tests and weld deposit
chemical analyses be performed as well.
Within Prudhoe Bay oilfield operations,
different pipe, plate, structural, and
equipment materials are employed for
fabrication projects and repair applica-
tions such as the following:
Copper-nickel alloy 90/10 pipe.
Duplex stainless steel (i.e., 2205) and
superduplex stainless steel (i.e., 2507)
pipe.
Titanium Alloy Ti-CP Grade 2 tubing.
API 5L grades X70 pipe.
API 5CT L80 pipe.
Chromium-molybdenum pipe (e.g.,
AISI 4130).
Aluminum alloys (e.g., 6061-T6) struc-
tural members.
Austenitic 300 series stainless steel
pipe and tubing.
Turbine components such as rotors and
airfoils (e.g., Inconel 738, Incoloy 901,
A291).
ASTM structural steel plate and mem-
bers for frames, supports, and storage
tanks.
For field fabrication and repair appli-
Fig. 2 Heavy construction equipment
examples.
LaPlante FINAL LAYOUT_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:29 PM Page 64
cations, the vast majority of welding is
accomplished utilizing the shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW) process. The sub-
merged arc welding (SAW) process is
predominantly employed in shops for the
double-joining of pipe (i.e., girth weld-
ing of two, nominal length 40-ft pipe sec-
tions into one 80-ft section). Also, SAW
is employed for turbine generator, rotor
shaft buildup repair applications. Other
welding/joining processes employed are
gas tungsten arc, gas metal arc, and flux
cored arc welding. Thermite welding is
also used for electrical and copper cable
grounding connections and diffusion
brazing is utilized for turbine airfoil com-
ponent repair.
Charpy Impact Testing and
Other Requirements
For arctic fabrication applications, an
absolute criticality is placed on the thor-
oughness and detail of PQRs, Welding
Procedure Specifications (WPSs), and
welder performance qualification test-
ing. The protection of personnel and the
environment from accidents due to weld
metal and/or base material catastrophic
failure is taken very seriously. Thus, me-
chanical testing and fracture toughness
of weld metal and base materials repre-
sents a critical characteristic in PQR and
welder performance qualification.
Production welding reproducibility of
qualified PQR weld criteria is para-
mount. Oilfield materials are subjected
to bitter arctic cold on a prolonged basis;
therefore, operational requirements ne-
cessitate a fundamental understanding
65 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 3 Fabricated pipeline support
mounts.
Fig. 4 A door/stairway safety enclo-
sure.
LaPlante FINAL LAYOUT_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:29 PM Page 65
and awareness of mechanical testing and
metallurgical principles. For pipelines,
API Standard 1104 requires that destruc-
tive testing be employed to determine the
quality of welds for PQR qualification.
Also, for pipeline fitness-for-purpose cri-
teria and to determine the fracture
toughness characteristics of the base and
weld material, Charpy V-notch (CVN)
testing, as detailed in API 1104, is per-
formed. For fabrication and repair appli-
cations, CVN testing with specimen tem-
peratures at 50F or lower are con-
ducted for base materials in accordance
with respective specifications and weld
codes. Detailed CVN test and fracture
evaluation criteria and information are
noted within ASME SA370, ASTM A370,
and ASTM E23.
Due to the fact that many oil and nat-
ural gas pipe applications employ carbon
steel materials and encompass sour serv-
ice, NACE MR0175 requires that for
PQR qualification, hardness testing of
the weld and heat-affected zone be per-
formed as well. NACE MR0175 also re-
quires a chemical analysis of the weld de-
posit be conducted. Weld deposit analy-
sis is required due to the embrittlement
of nickel when exposed to sulfur in a H
2
S-
containing aqueous media/production
fluid environment. For extreme cold
weather fabrication applications, it is es-
sential that a metallurgical assessment of
the weld and base material be performed
prior to weldment implementation. Arc-
tic conditions magnify weldability crite-
ria such that the overall strategy is to in-
crease the weldability of the material
being welded, or at least make an effort
to overcome the weldability problems the
respective alloy presents.
Conclusion
Welding technology, engineering, and
inspection knowledge represents a vital
expertise relative to supporting oilfield
operations at Prudhoe Bay and the TAPS
infrastructure. Personnel working at
Prudhoe Bay maintain a high level of
workmanship quality standards and con-
tinuously strive to sustain a safe and ac-
cident-free workplace and a clean envi-
ronment. Compliance to API, ASME,
and AWS welding-related codes, as well
as NACE corrosion code requirements
represent essential components in
achieving high-integrity welds.
JUNE 2012 66
Fig. 5 A field shelter protects an in-
service (i.e., fluid flowing through the
pipeline during welding) pipeline repair
activity with the outside temperature
at 26F. Welders, pipefitters, NDE,
and QA personnel encounter fabrica-
tion and repair applications around the
clock in all types of weather conditions.
The above pipe material is APL 5L
grade X65, 16 in. in diameter, nominal
0.312-in. wall thickness. The SMAW
process was used with E8018-C3H4R
electrodes, in accordance with API
1104, Appendix B.
References
1. ANSI/NACE MR0175/ISO
15156-1 Petroleum and natural
gas industries Materials for
use in H
2
S-containing environ-
ments in oil and gas production
Part 1: General principles for
selection of cracking-resistant
materials, 2nd Edition. 2009.
LaPlante FINAL LAYOUT_Layout 1 5/9/12 1:30 PM Page 66
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
METABO_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 9:57 AM Page 67
JUNE 2012 68
JIM CUHEL is a welding engineer with
Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
(www.millerwelds.com), Appleton, Wis.
KEITH PACKARD is a segment manager,
power generation, with Hobart Brothers Co.
(www.hobartbrothers.com), Troy, Ohio.
BY JIM CUHEL AND
KEITH PACKARD
The RMD and GMAW-P processes with
metal cored wire have helped get welders up
to speed faster in pipe welding applications,
helping to address training needs and a
shortage of qualified welders.
Miller and Hobart Article June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:26 PM Page 68
69 WELDING JOURNAL
S
wartfager Welding, Inc., is a fam-
ily-owned business that works. Ken
Swartfager began welding at an
early age under the guidance of his
grandfather and great-grandfather.
Dustin Swartfager, Kens son, also took
up the trade at an early age and is now
actively involved in the family business
Fig. 1.
Currently operated by the sixth gen-
eration, Swartfager Welding got its start
in the 1800s as a traditional black-
smithing operation. Today, it is a leading
fabricator for the rail and marine indus-
tries, as well other heavy fabrication ap-
plications, such as aggregate plants and
infrastructure.
Much of the work done by Swartfager
Welding involves pipe fabrication and
other high-pressure applications. Work-
ing to American Welding Society (AWS)
standards as well as industry-specific
certifications, such as Germanischer
Lloyd for the shipping industry the
company has relied heavily upon both
Regulated Metal Deposition (RMD)
and pulsed gas metal arc welding
(GMAW-P) processes with metal cored
wires to exceed code requirements and
improve their operation through in-
creased productivity, less postweld
cleanup, and easier operation and train-
ing for the workforce.
Some applications have cut up to 70%
of total production time out of the
process. One manual application (de-
scribed later) cut down welding time
from 30 to 7 min. Robotic applications
have also been made substantially faster.
(Germanischer Lloyd) is one of the
most painstaking things in the world to
get an accreditation for, said Dustin
Swartfager, and we have four or five
guys qualified for all of their shipping bu-
reaus so we can provide oil- and water-
critical piping systems for marine appli-
cations, and metal cored is our defined
process that made it a lot easier to get
certified. It took our certification win-
dow from normally 18 to 36 months down
to about four because every time they
sampled our stuff, they couldnt find any-
thing to balk at.
A Pennsylvania manufacturer builds critical
oil and water piping systems
new processes and
Metal Cored Wire
combine to Improve
Pipe Fabrication
Fig. 1 From left, Dustin and Ken
Swartfager of Swartfager Welding,
Inc., pose with Gary Kahle of Mathe-
son Valley Gases.
Miller and Hobart Article June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:26 PM Page 69
JUNE 2012 70
When youre dealing with high-pres-
sure piping or just something as simple
as low-pressure water piping, your weak-
est link is always your weld joint. Thats
always where your material characteris-
tics vary and everything changes.
Metal cored allows us to take about
any type of piping or tubing, 1026
through your regular A53 grades of ma-
terial, and produce a joint that is struc-
turally better, it looks better, it gives us
the ability to weld out of position and still
keep joint integrity. Spatter is at a mini-
mum when youre out of position with
GMAW-P (with metal cored wires).
We probably get a 30 to 40% increase
in production during the day because we
dont have to go back and grind all of the
spatter off the pipe. We dont have to
worry so much about fitup being perfect
on the root pass because metal cored wire
and RMD allow you to sidestep and ac-
tually make it all look nice. You can get
good backbone structure on your cover
pass with metal cored wire by just chang-
ing your gun angle. For pipe welding, it
is what everybody should be running.
Equipment and Wire
Combinations Enhance
Pipe Fabrication
Swartfager has two primary setups for
pipe fabrication: The company owns four
PipeWorx multiprocess pipe welding
systems for manual applications and also
runs an automated cell powered by the
Auto-Axcess 450 robotic welding
power source Fig. 2.
While traditional gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW) is used in some root ap-
plications, the company relies heavily on
0.045- and
1
16-in. Metalloy 76 metal
cored wires from Hobart Brothers with
a mix of 75% argon/25% CO
2
shielding
gas for root (RMD) passes and 90%
argon/10% CO
2
for the fill and cap passes
(GMAW-P). Both manual and auto-
mated systems are capable of running
both processes.
Prior to implementing metal cored
wires, Swartfager relied almost exclu-
sively on the GTAW process for root
passes and solid wire for the remaining
passes. The introduction of metal cored
wires and RMD a precisely controlled
short-circuiting metal transfer process
helped significantly to increase travel
speeds (compared to GTAW), bridge
root openings, eliminate incomplete fu-
sion, as well as allow a welder to deposit
a thicker root pass, reduce spatter (com-
pared to conventional gas metal arc
processes) on root passes, and achieve a
better weld compared to a solid wire
Fig. 3.
Some of our applications cant use a
solid filler wire and get the right quality
for the application, said Swartfager.
Thats when we switched to a metal
cored wire on the root pass, which allows
us to get a better weld.
Using the same wire and the same ma-
Fig. 2 An automated system pow-
ered by the Auto-Axcess 450 from
Miller switches from RMD on root
passes to GMAW-P in fill and cap
passes.
Miller and Hobart Article June 2012_Layout 1 5/11/12 2:44 PM Page 70
71 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 3 RMD, a precisely controlled
short-circuiting metal transfer process,
helped increase travel speeds, bridge
root openings, eliminate incomplete fu-
sion, and reduce spatter when matched
with metal cored wires.
Miller and Hobart Article June 2012_Layout 1 5/11/12 2:43 PM Page 71
chine, Swartfager can then switch directly
over to the GMAW-P process for the re-
maining passes. This process helps re-
duce spatter, improve weld quality, and
has made it much easier for operators to
weld out of position Fig. 4.
Solid wire cover passes didnt look
good, said Swartfager. You had spat-
ter issues and a multitude of problems
that were hard to overcome, such as
achieving proper fillet shape while out of
position and lack of proper fusion from
the lower heat setting needed to keep the
solid wire in the appropriate spot while
being out of position.
He mentioned working with Gary
Kahle of Matheson Valley Gases (also
pictured in Fig. 1) to use metal cored
wire.
That ran great when you turned the
pipe, but we also had to get out of posi-
tion with it. That led us to pulser boxes on
existing machines and eventually to the
PipeWorx and a new mindset that any
equipment capable of running a good
pulse program with metal cored wire al-
lowed us to do things, where now we dont
have to unfixture (and refixture) a pipe.
We can go out of position with the same
wire weve become accustomed to and get
the same results, Swartfager added.
Compared to trying to weld the re-
maining passes with a solid wire and a
standard CV process, GMAW-P and
metal cored wires help Swartfager in-
crease productivity by offering faster
travel speeds and reduced repositioning
of the part to get it into position.
Either horizontal or vertical, out of
position, any way you can dream it, you
can get it done with pulsed GMA and
have a weld that looks respectable and
to print, he said. If you try to run a solid
wire and CV at the same deposition rate
(as pulsed GMA and metal cored wires
while out of position), you are going to
drop it all over the floor.
And while metal cored wires typically
run hotter than solid wires, the pulsed
GMA process provides precise control
over heat input into the pipe, preventing
distortion and costly rework.
With a pulse setup on your cover, you
can really control the heat and not slow
down, he said. Were not really wor-
ried about joules of input changing the
characteristics of the material were
working on, because the pulse program-
ming allows us to keep it from getting
that hot.
Process, Wire Combine to
Reduce Cleanup and
Rework
Swartfager reports that the combina-
tion of metal cored wires and RMD and
GMAW-P processes substantially re-
duces spatter. While this is a quality im-
provement, it also helps increase produc-
tivity by allowing workers to move on to
the next part rather than spend more
time cleaning a part.
Just the reduction in spatter from the
root pass when youre dealing with a
water pipe (is important), said
Swartfager.
The savings is substantial because
youre not putting in man hours, at your
shop rate, to grind out BBs. If you were
to take every joint on the inside of a water
pipe and grind it, and it took the guy 15
minutes at a shop rate of $75/hour, com-
pared to maybe five minutes with metal
cored, the savings are substantial. When
you look at the cover pass, when you go
out of position with solid wire, you better
have sanding consumables to clean up the
mess. With this, it takes us five seconds to
scuff up the joint and send it to paint.
JUNE 2012 72
Fig. 4 The GMAW-P process with
metal cored wires has helped reduce
spatter, improve weld quality, and
made it easier to weld out of position.
Miller and Hobart Article June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:27 PM Page 72
The reduction in spatter also reduces
the need for consumables, such as anti-
spatter solution.
We used to go through seven or eight
55-gallon drums (of antispatter solution)
a year, now were down to maybe one,
he said.
Processes Simplify
Operator Training,
Improve Performance
Like many parts of the country, west-
ern Pennsylvania where Swartfager is lo-
cated is experiencing a shortage of skilled
welders. Technology advances and sim-
plifying processes with RMD, GMAW-P,
and metal cored wires have substantially
helped get new welders up to speed
faster.
The technology allows you to bridge
the gap between education and lifetime
work hours in a field, said Swartfager.
You take somebody who has a basic,
good understanding but who might not
be as proficient as someone who has done
it for ten years with the technology
thats available now, you can get an end
result almost as good or as good in weeks
instead of years. You can give them all
the tools necessary to complete a job, do
everything the right way in a shorter
amount of time. You keep your invest-
ment lower to get the same return. With-
out the new equipment, that just would-
nt be possible.
Because processes like RMD main-
tain a consistent arc length even at vary-
ing electrode extensions, welding opera-
tors who may not be as skilled at main-
taining wire electrode extension can still
have good control of the process.
RMD is an excellent way to get a root
pass from guys who might not be able to
do it with GTA, he added. It gives you
the ability to take somebody off the
street, teach them how to listen for a
sound (sizzling bacon), and produce a
weld that is acceptable anywhere for any
application. Instead of six months of
hands-on training in the shop, you get
what you need out of them with two
weeks and some practice. It is probably
one of the greatest things weve seen in
welding in the last 15 years.
The same ease of use translates to the
GMAW-P processes with metal cored
wires.
My guys spend as much time out of
position and in nonuser-friendly welding
positions as they do laying a flat bead,
said Swartfager. Half their day is spent
welding out of position. Without this ap-
plication, theyd just be dripping filler
wire all over everything. It keeps it where
it needs to be.
In addition, he noted it allows you to
control the arc and pool, plus make sure
you have good deposition and tie-in to
the weld.
The equipment and process itself are
also designed to simplify training and im-
prove operator performance. In manual
applications where Swartfager uses metal
cored wire and the multiprocess pipe
welding systems on both the root and hot
pass, operators only have to hit a button
to switch processes from RMD to
GMAW-P. In applications where a GTA
root is required, switching back to a wire
process is as simple as picking up the gun
and pulling the trigger.
You can go from cover pass back to
the GTA root pass (on the next pipe) by
touching the GTA pedal, explained
Swartfager. He further mentioned you can
switch from wire to wire and back to GTA
by clicking the switch or pushing the foot
pedal, and there is minimal downtime.
Just in operator time and keeping
everything in a nice, tight, neat package,
it probably saves you half an hour to 40
minutes each day.
Proof in the Final Product
One recent application that shows the
overall benefits of metal cored wires with
RMD and GMAW-P involved a proto-
type part built from 6-in.-diameter,
Schedule 120 pipe.
A competitive shop, using solid wires,
quoted the fabrication process for each
part at 30 min. Using the PipeWorx sys-
tem with metal cored wires, laying an
RMD root pass and a GMAW-P hot pass,
Swartfager was able to produce the same
part in seven to eight min.
These results wont be universal or
proportional to every application, but it
showcases the possibilities when imple-
menting this system approach.
We want to be on the cutting edge
every time, thats the only way we
progress, concluded Swartfager.
73 WELDING JOURNAL
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Miller and Hobart Article June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:28 PM Page 73
COMING
EVENTS
SME Annual Conf. June 35, Cleveland Marriott Downtown
Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio. Sponsored by the Society of Manufac-
turing Engineers. www.sme.org/conference.
17th Beijing-Essen Welding and Cutting Fair. June 47. New
China Intl Exhibition Centre, Beijing, China. www.cmes.org/
essen/en/index.htm.
North American Manufacturing Research Conf. (NAMRC). June
48, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Ind. Sponsored by
the Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.sme.org/namrc.
Global Petroleum Show. June 1214. Stampede Park, Calgary,
Alb., Canada. http://globalpetroleumshow.com.
Alloys in Power Plant Technology. June 12, 13. ABBA Berlin
Hotel. Berlin, Germany. Sponsored by VDI, Association of Ger-
man Engineers. www.vdi.de/materialsinpowerplants.
The Energy Boom: Get on the Bandwagon. June 12, 13, San
Diego, Calif. Sponsored by the American Welding Society.
www.aws.org/conferences.
Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation
(QNDE). July 1520. Hyatt Regency Tech Center, Denver, Colo.
Contact heidil@iastate.edu or www.qndeprograms.org.
Optimizing Operations through Continuous Improvement Conf.
June 2628. Loews Vanderbilt Hotel, Nashville, Tenn. Sponsored
by Tube & Pipe Association, Intl; UK-based Intl Tube Associa-
tion; and Fabricators & Manufacturers Association, Intl;
www.pipetubeconf.com/nashville.
65th Annual Assembly of the International Institute of Weld-
ing (IIW). July 813. Hyatt Regency Hotel Denver and Colorado
Convention Center, Denver, Colo. Sponsored by the American
Welding Society, Edison Welding Institute, and Welding Research
Council. Featured will be a conference on Welding for Repair and
Life Extension of Plants and Infrastructure. For complete infor-
mation, visit www.iiw2012.com.
GAWDA Annual Convention. Sept. 912. The Broadmoor, Col-
orado Springs, Colo. www.gawda.org/activities/annual-conven-
tion/colorado-springs-2012.
IMTS 2012, Intl Manufacturing Technology Show. Sept. 1015.
McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by the Association for
Manufacturing Technology; www.IMTS.com.
6th Intl Quenching and Control of Distortion Conf. Sept. 1013.
Radisson Blu Aqua Hotel, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by the Heat
Treating Society of ASM International; www.asminternational.org/
content/Events/qcd/.
15th Annual Aluminum Welding Conf. Sept. 18, 19, Seattle,
Wash. Industry experts will survey the state of the art in aluminum
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
JUNE 2012 74
continued on page 76
MOTOR GUARD CORPORATION
(800) 227-2822
www.motorguardplasma.com
Brought to you by
Removes
contaminants from
compressed air
Eliminates
arc-sputter
Prolongs life
of electrodes
Cleaner, faster,
smoother cuts
Ask your
supplier for a
Motor Guard Filter
Weld Test Stand
The Weld Test Stand
allows for quick,
secure clamping and
positioning of pipe
or plate test
assemblies.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
CE June_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:33 PM Page 74
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
SELECT ARC 2_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 10:05 AM Page 75
welding technology and practice. Sponsored by the American
Welding Society. www.aws.org/conferences.
ICALEO, 31st Intl Congress on Applications of Lasers and
Electro-Optics. Sept. 2327. Anaheim Marriott Hotel, Anaheim,
Calif. Laser Institute of America, www.icaleo.org.
2012 Intl Conf. on Advances in Materials Science and Engineer-
ing. Sept. 27, 28. Bangkok, Thailand. Singapore Society of Me-
chanical Engineers. www.smss-sg.org/amse2012/index.htm.
Sheet Metal Welding Conf. XV. Oct. 25, VisTaTech Center,
Livonia, Mich. This is the premier conference dedicated to ad-
vancing the science and technology of sheet metal welding. Spon-
sored by the AWS Detroit Section. www.awsdetroit.org.
2nd Intl Welding and Joint Technologies Congress and 19th
Technical Welding Sessions. Oct. 35. Civil Engineering School,
Polytechnic University of Madrid, Spain. Sponsored by the Span-
ish Welding Assn. www.cesol.es/jornadas2012.htm.
TITANIUM 2012, 28th Annual Conf. and Expo. Oct. 710. Hilton
Atlanta Hotel, Atlanta, Ga. Intl Titanium Assn.
www.titanium.org.
METALCON Intl 2012. Oct. 911. Donald E. Stephens Conven-
tion Center, Chicago, Ill. www.metalcon.com.
Aluminum Week 2012. Oct. 1518. Renaissance Chicago Down-
town Hotel, Chicago, Ill. Co-locating events for The Aluminum
Assn., Aluminum Extruders Council, and Aluminum Anodizers
Council. Visit www.aluminum.org.
JUNE 2012 76
continued from page 74
Save Over 30%
Save Over 30%
On Welding
On Welding
Fitting Costs
Fitting Costs
&
&
With advanced automation, precision cutting, beveling
and 3-D profiling on pipe diameters from 296 inches,
HGG Stationary Pipe Cutting Machines (SPC) will easily
save you over 30% on welding and fitting costs. With 27
years experience in machine manufacturing and 3-D
profile-cutting services, HGG is your solution source.
Find out how much our SPC will save you:
Phone: 1-330-461-6855
Email: americas@hgg-group.com
Web: hgg-group.com
SERIOUS AIR FOR SERIOUS PLACES
continued on page 78
F
o
r
i
n
f
o
g
o
t
o
w
w
w
.
a
w
s
.
o
r
g
/
a
d
-
i
n
d
e
x
F
o
r
i
n
f
o
g
o
t
o
w
w
w
.
a
w
s
.
o
r
g
/
a
d
-
i
n
d
e
x
F
o
r
i
n
f
o
g
o
t
o
w
w
w
.
a
w
s
.
o
r
g
/
a
d
-
i
n
d
e
x
CE June_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:34 PM Page 76
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
harris_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 9:54 AM Page 77
JUNE 2012 78
EuroBLECH 2012, 22nd Intl Sheet Metal Working Technology
Exhibition. Oct. 2327. Hanover Exhibition Grounds, Hanover,
Germany. www.euroblech.com.
LME 2012, Lasers for Manufacturing Event. Oct. 23, 24, Renais-
sance Schaumburg Convention Center Hotel, Schaumburg, Ill.
Laser Institute of America. www.lia.org/lmesd.
Manufacturing with Composites. Oct. 23, 24, Charleston Con-
vention Center, North Charleston, S.C. Sponsored by the Society
of Manufacturing Engineers. www.sme.org/mfgcomposites.
National FFA Convention and Expo. Oct. 2427. Indianapolis,
Ind. Future Farmers of America. www.ffa.org.
ASNT Fall Conf. Oct. 29Nov. 2. Rosen Shingle Creek Resort, Or-
lando, Fla. www.asnt.org/events/conferences/fc12.htm.
EXPO IAS 2012, 6th Conf. on Uses of Steel, 19th Rolling Conf.
Nov. 68. City Center, Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina. www.siderur-
gia.org.ar/conf12/Home.html.
20th National Quality Education Conf. Nov. 11, 12. Hyatt Re-
gency Louisville, Louisville, Ky. Contact American Society for
Quality (ASQ), (800) 248-1946; www.asq.org.
FABTECH. Nov. 1214. Las Vegas Convention Center, Las
Vegas, Nev. This exhibition is the largest event in North America
dedicated to showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fab-
ricating, tube and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufac-
turing technologies. Contact American Welding Society,
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264; www.fabtechexpo.com and
www.aws.org/conferences.
Indian Industrial Trade Fairs. Nov. 2124. India Expo Centre,
Delhi, India. Hannover Messe/CeMAT. http://bit.ly/zVd4mM.
Power-Gen Intl Show. Dec. 1113. Orange County Convention
Center, Orlando, Fla. www.power-gen.com.
JOM-17, Intl Conf. on Joining Materials. May 58, 2013. Kon-
ventum Lo Skolen, Helsingr, Denmark. Institute for the Joining
of Materials (JOM) in association with the IIW. Cosponsored by
AWS, TWI, Danish Welding Society, Welding Technology Insti-
tute of Australia, University of Liverpool, Cranfield University,
Force Technology, and ABS (Brazilian Welding Assn.). E-mail
Osama Al-Erhayem at jom_aws@post10.tele.dk.
Educational Opportunities
How to Weld Titanium Workshop. June 26, Edison Welding
Institute, 1250 Arthur E. Adams Dr., Columbus, Ohio. Intl
Titanium Assn. www.titanium.org; (303) 404-9400.
Fundamentals of Brazing. Sept. 2527, Wyndham Hotel San
Jose, San Jose, Calif. Lucas Milhaupt, a Handy & Harman Co.
(800) 558-3856. www.lucasmilhaupt.com/en-US/training/upcom-
ingtrainingeventsdetail/29.
Best Practices for High-Strength Steel Repairs. I-CAR courses
for vehicle repair and steel structural technicians. www.i-car.com.
800-886-5418
Fax 810-632-6640
www.heckind.net
BEVEL-MILL
PLATE BEVELERS
Model 9000
Bevel up to 1
3
/16
Fast, accurate bevels
Easy to operate
Model PRO 12
Bevel at 10 feet
per minute
Power Feed
SEVERAL MODELS AVAILABLE
continued from page 76
continued on page 80
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
CE June_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:34 PM Page 78
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
arc one_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 9:39 AM Page 79
Canadian Welding Bureau Courses. Welding inspection courses
and preparation courses for Canadian General Standards Board
and Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission certifications. The
CWB Group, www.cwbgroup.org.
Art Using Welding Technology Classes and Workshops. Miami,
Fla. With artist and sculptor Sandra Garcia-Pardo. Meet the
artist at www.theartlink.org; (786) 547-8681.
ASM Intl Courses. Numerous classes on welding, corrosion, fail-
ure analysis, metallography, heat treating, etc., presented in
Materials Park, Ohio, online, webinars, on-site, videos, and
DVDs; www.asminternational.org, search for courses.
Automotive Body in White Training for Skilled Trades and
Engineers. Orion, Mich. A five-day course covers operations,
troubleshooting, error recovery programs, and safety procedures
for automotive lines and integrated cells. Applied Mfg.
Technologies; (248) 409-2000; www.appliedmfg.com.
Basic and Advanced Welding Courses. Cleveland, Ohio. The
Lincoln Electric Co.; www.lincolnelectric.com.
Basics of Nonferrous Surface Preparation. Online course, six
hours includes exam. Offered on the 15th of every month by The
Society for Protective Coatings. Register at www.sspc.org/training.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors Training Courses and
Seminars. Columbus, Ohio; www.nationalboard.org; (614) 888-
8320.
CWI/CWE Course and Exam. Troy, Ohio. A two-week prepara-
tion and exam program. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology;
(800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
CWI/CWE Prep Course and Exam and NDT Inspector Training
Courses. An AWS Accredited Testing Facility. Courses held year-
round in Allentown, Pa., and at customers facilities. Welder
Training & Testing Institute; (800) 223-9884; info@wtti.edu;
www.wtti.edu.
CWI Preparatory and Visual Weld Inspection Courses. Classes
presented in Pascagoula, Miss., Houston, Tex., and Houma and
Sulphur, La. Real Educational Services, Inc. (800) 489-2890;
info@realeducational.com.
Consumables: Care and Optimization. Free online e-courses on
the basics of plasma consumables for plasma operators, sales,
and service personnel; www.hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com.
Crane and Hoist Training for Operators. Konecranes Training
Institute, Springfield, Ohio; www.konecranesamericas.com; (262)
821-4001.
Dust Collection Seminars. Free, full-day training on industrial
ventilation basics and OSHA, EPA, and NFPA regulations.
Presented throughout the year at numerous locations nation-
wide. Camfil Farr APC, www.farrapc.com/offices; (866) 669-6750.
EPRI NDE Training Seminars. Training in visual and ultrasonic
examination and ASME Section XI. Sherryl Stogner (704) 547-
6174; sstogner@epri.com.
JUNE 2012 80
Fischers Feritscope
FMP30
is the ideal solution for fast,
precise measurement of ferrite
content of constructional steels,
welded claddings, austenitic
stainless steels and duplex steels.
Non-destructive measurement
in the range of 80% Fe or 0-120
WRC number.
Battery or AC powered
Large, backlit display
Automatic probe recognition
Statistical evaluation
USB interface
Multiple application memories
FISCHER DataCenter Software
1-800-243-8417 1-860-683-0781 Fax: 1-860-688-8496
www.Fischer-Technology.com info@fischer-technology.com
Measurement
of the Ferrite Content in Austenitic
and Duplex Steel
FERITSCOPE
FMP30
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
continued from page 78
CE June_Layout 1 5/10/12 3:35 PM Page 80
When critical welding conditions necessitate
performance without compromise, you can depend
on Arcos to provide you with a comprehensive line
of premium quality high alloy, stainless and nickel
electrodes to conform to your stringent requirements.
You can be assured of our commitment to superior
welding products because Arcos quality meets or
exceeds demanding military and nuclear application
specications. Arcos dedication to excellence has
earned these prestigious certications:
- ASME Nuclear Certicate # QSC448
- ISO 9001: Certied
- Mil-I 45208A Inspection
- Navy QPL
We Can Meet Yours, Too!
To learn more about the many reasons you should
insist on Arcos high alloy, stainless and nickel
electrodes for your essential welding applications,
call us today at 800-233-8460 or visit our website
at www.arcos.us.
Arcos Industries, LLC
39- Arcos lrivc - \t C+rmcl, lA 17S1
lnonc (70) 339-200 - l+x (70) 339-20o
Arcos Electrodes
Meet Exacting Military
and Nuclear Standards.
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
arcos 2_FP_TEMP 5/9/12 9:40 AM Page 81
CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only July 7
New Orleans, LA July 813 July 14
Phoenix, AZ July 813 July 14
Memphis, TN July 813 July 14
Miami, FL July 813 July 14
Orlando, FL July 1520 July 21
Milwaukee, WI July 1520 July 21
Los Angeles, CA July 1520 July 21
Sacramento, CA July 1520 July 21
Louisville, KY July 1520 July 21
Kansas City, MO July 2227 July 28
Cleveland, OH July 2227 July 28
Denver, CO July 29Aug. 3 Aug. 4
Philadelphia, PA July 29Aug. 3 Aug. 4
San Diego, CA Aug. 510 Aug. 11
Chicago, IL Aug. 510 Aug. 11
Miami, FL Aug. 510 Aug. 11
Baton Rouge, LA Aug. 510 Aug. 11
Bakersfield, CA Aug. 1217 Aug. 18
Charlotte, NC Aug. 1217 Aug. 18
Rochester, NY Exam only Aug. 18
San Antonio, TX Aug. 1217 Aug. 18
Miami, FL Exam only Aug. 18
Portland, ME Aug. 1924 Aug. 25
Minneapolis, MN Aug. 1924 Aug. 25
Salt Lake City, UT Aug. 1924 Aug. 25
Pittsburgh, PA Aug. 1924 Aug. 25
Seattle, WA Aug. 1924 Aug. 25
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Sept. 8
Houston, TX Sept. 914 Sept. 15
St. Louis, MO Sept. 914 Sept. 15
New Orleans, LA Sept. 914 Sept. 15
Miami, FL Sept. 914 Sept. 15
Anchorage, AK Exam only Sept. 22
Miami, FL Exam only Oct. 18
Tulsa, OK Oct. 1419 Oct. 20
Long Beach, CA Oct. 1419 Oct. 20
Newark, NJ Oct. 1419 Oct. 20
Nashville, TN Oct. 1419 Oct. 20
Portland, OR Oct. 2126 Oct. 27
Roanoke, VA Oct. 2126 Oct. 27
Detroit, MI Oct. 2126 Oct. 27
Cleveland, OH Oct. 2126 Oct. 27
Atlanta, GA Oct. 28Nov. 2 Nov. 3
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Nov. 3
Dallas, TX Oct. 28Nov. 2 Nov. 3
Sacramento, CA Oct. 28Nov. 2 Nov. 3
Spokane, WA Oct. 28Nov. 2 Nov. 3
Las Vegas, NV Exam only Nov. 14
Syracuse, NY Dec. 27 Dec. 8
Houston, TX Dec. 27 Dec. 8
Reno, NV Dec. 27 Dec. 8
Los Angeles, CA Dec. 27 Dec. 8
Miami, FL Dec. 27 Dec. 8
9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education
requirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken
at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
San Diego, CA July 914 No exam
Miami, FL July 1621 No exam
Orlando, FL Aug. 2025 No exam
Denver, CO Sept. 1015 No exam
Dallas, TX Oct. 1520 No exam
New Orleans, LA Oct. 29Nov. 3 No exam
Miami, FL Nov. 26Dec. 1 No exam
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
Minneapolis, MN July 1620 July 21
Miami, FL Sept. 1014 Sept. 15
Norfolk, VA Oct. 1519 Oct. 20
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
Dallas, TX July 1620 July 21
Chicago, IL Sept. 1014 Sept. 15
Pittsburgh, PA Oct. 1519 Oct. 20
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
WEEKS OF, FOLLOWED BY LOCATION AND PHONE NUMBER
Aug. 10, Nov. 9 at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
Aug. 20, Dec. 3 at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Oct. 22, Oct. 26 at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
July 9, Oct. 15 at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
July 9, Sept. 10, Nov. 5 at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at:
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Certified Welding Engineer (CWEng) and Senior Certified
Welding Inspector (SCWI)
Exams can be taken at any site listed under Certified Welding
Inspector. No preparatory seminar is offered.
International CWI Courses and Exams Schedules
Please visit www.aws.org/certification/inter_contact.html.
JUNE 2012 82
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the seminar/exam or
exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our website
www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course status before making travel
plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353,
ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early to avoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.
AWS Certification Schedule
Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
Cert Schedule JUNE_Layout 1 5/10/12 9:40 AM Page 82
An unprecedented opportunity
to meet and learn from the worlds
best minds in welding
in Americas Mile-High City
Follow us on
Twitter at iiw2012
8-13 July 2012
Hosted by:
The American Council of IIW
IIW Annual Assembly
July 811
Opening Ceremony
Gala Banquet
July 1213
Individual
(you or other individual)
Section
(AWS local chapter)
Large Business
(200 or more employees)
Small Business
(less than 200 employees)
Distributor
(welding products)
Educator
(welding teacher at an institution, facility, etc.)
Educational Facility
(any organization that conducts welding
education or training)
Media
(open to industry and business publications)
Know an individual, company,
educator, or educational
facility that exemplifies what
welding is all about?
Nominate them for the
Section
(welding products)
Distributor
WS local chapter) (A
Section
(open to industry and business publications)
Media
education or training)
ganization that conducts welding (any or
Educational Facility
,2
This simplified model also exhibited an
adjusted (for degrees of freedom) R
2
of
0.70.
Optical Metallography
An overview of microstructures pro-
duced by CHRT within the experimental
envelope described above is contained in
Fig. 4AC. In 282, grain boundary separa-
tion was present in all samples except those
tested at 1400F (760C)/0.600 in. (15.2
mm)/min extension rate.
Lack of separation prob-
ably accounted for the
high elongation (38.1%)
exhibited under those
test conditions. At
1600F (871C)/0.600 in.
(15.2 mm)/min exten-
sion rate, considerable
grain boundary separa-
tion was present, yet
grains exhibited signifi-
cant plastic deformation
near the fracture. This
likely contributed to im-
proved performance
(18.3% elongation)
under those conditions.
No significant amount of
secondary carbide pre-
cipitation was found in
post test specimen grain
boundaries.
R-41 test specimens exhibited little ev-
idence of plastic deformation under all
test conditions, except at the fracture sur-
face, itself. This was only observable at the
165-s WELDING JOURNAL
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 4 Post-CHRT microstructures at various temperatures (vertical axis)
and extension rates (horizontal axis). A 282; B R-41 alloy; C 263
alloy.
Table 2 Composition of Alloys Used for Response Surface Experiment
Alloy R-41 HAYNES282 HAYNES263
Element wt-% wt-% wt-%
Al 1.49 1.46 0.57
B 0.01 0.00 0.00
C 0.09 0.06 0.06
Co 10.69 10.11 19.91
Cr 19.42 19.67 19.91
Cu 0.01 0.00 0.00
Fe 3.72 0.20 0.36
Mn 0.01 0.04 0.41
Mo 9.91 8.36 5.77
Si 0.05 0.04 0.23
Ti 3.11 2.08 2.19
V 0.02 0.01 0.00
W 0.05 0.00 0.00
Nb 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ni 51.43 57.97 50.59
Estimated Gamma 0.30 0.24 0.15
Prime Volume
Fraction at 931F (500C)
A B
C
metzler new_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:18 PM Page 165
1400F test temperature. Specimens tested
at higher temperatures exhibited only in-
tergranular failure. The grain boundaries
in this alloy contained a nearly continuous
film of secondary carbide precipitation
after testing at all temperature/extension
rate conditions. (This
film was not present in
pretest microstruc-
tures.) The formation
of these continuous
grain boundary car-
bide films probably
provided a low-energy
fracture propagation
path along the grain
boundaries. This, cou-
pled with a partially
gamma-prime hard-
ened matrix, likely
exacerbated intergran-
ular fracture beyond
that normally encoun-
tered in Ni-based al-
loys in this
temperature range.
Alloy 263 exhibited
grain boundary sepa-
ration at all test temperatures. Only minor
amounts of plastic deformation were
found at 1400F and 1500F (816C). At
1600F (871C), this alloy contained sig-
nificant grain elongation and some dy-
namic recrystallization after testing at
0.332 in. (8.43 mm)/min even though sig-
nificant grain boundary separation had oc-
curred. As expected, this specimen showed
(relatively) high elongation (26.0%) to
failure. No significant amount of second-
ary carbide precipitation was found in
posttest specimen grain boundaries.
Electron (SEM) Metallography
Some early investigators (Ref. 7) ques-
tioned whether gamma-prime actually
precipitated during a similar test regime in
Inconel X-750 alloy. To address this
question, post CHRT specimens were also
examined by SEM for signs of gamma-
prime precipitation, especially in areas ad-
jacent to grain boundaries that had clearly
separated. A different etchant (described
above) was used to reveal gamma-prime
particles in relief. An overview of these
structures is illustrated in Fig. 5AC.
Gamma-prime particles were not visi-
ble in 282 alloy after 1400F testing at any
extension rate. At 1500F/0.332 in. (8.43
mm)/min, some very fine, gamma-prime
appeared to have precipitated in grain in-
teriors. Some blocky carbides were also
JUNE 2012, VOL. 91 166-s
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 5 Post-CHRT microstructures at high magnification at various tem-
peratures and extension rates. Inset magnified 2. (CHRT test elongations
shown on micrographs.). A 282 alloy; B R-41 alloy; C 263 alloy.
Table 3 CHRT Results, Box-Behnken Response Surface Experiment
Test Extension Rate Estimated Gamma-Prime Elongation to Failure Pretest Posttest
Temperature F (C) in./min (mm/min) Volume Fraction 1-in. (25.4-mm) Gauge Marks GS (ASTM) GS (ASTM)
1500 (816) 0.332 (8.43) 0.225 23.4 4.0 4.0
1400 (760) 0.063 (1.60) 0.225 20.3 4.0 3.5
1600 (871) 0.063 (1.60) 0.225 13.8 4.0 3.5
1400 (760) 0.600 (15.2) 0.225 38.1 4.0 4.0
1600 (871) 0.600 (15.2) 0.225 18.3 4.0 4.0
1400 (760) 0.332 (8.43) 0.150 22.5 3.5 3.5
1600 (871) 0.332 (8.43) 0.150 26.0 3.5 DRX?
1500 (816) 0.332 (8.43) 0.225 22.2 4.0 4.0
1400 (760) 0.332 (8.43) 0.300 13.1 6.0 6.0
1600 (871) 0.332 (8.43) 0.300 6.3 6.0 6.0
1500 (816) 0.063 (1.60) 0.150 14.0 3.5 3.5
1500 (816) 0.600 (15.2) 0.150 21.9 3.5 3.5
1500 (816) 0.063 (1.60) 0.300 7.3 6.0 6.0
1500 (816) 0.600 (15.2) 0.300 11.1 6.0 6.0
1500 (816) 0.332 (8.43) 0.225 22.5 4.0 4.0
A B
C
metzler new_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:18 PM Page 166
found in grain boundaries. At 1600F/
0.063 in. (1.60 mm)/min, gamma-prime
clearly had formed during heat up and
testing. Small, secondary carbide particles
had also precipitated in grain boundaries.
The presence of these smaller, but non-
continuous grain boundary carbides would
not likely reduce grain boundary ductility
to the degree that a continuous secondary
carbide film would. A gamma-prime de-
nuded zone was present near grain bound-
aries where secondary carbide
precipitation had occurred. At the higher
extension rate, 0.600 in. (15.2 mm)/ min,
no gamma-prime particles were visible in
posttest specimens.
Gamma-prime particles were clearly
present in R-41 over the entire range of test
conditions. Grain boundaries contained
nearly continuous deposits of small second-
ary carbides and numerous, larger blocky
carbides, often located at grain boundary
triple points. No gamma-prime denuded
zones were apparent near grain boundaries.
As expected, higher test temperatures and
slower extension rates (more time at test
temperature) yielded lower elongations
during CHR testing. Gamma-prime parti-
cles were more easily distinguished follow-
ing tests that yielded the lowest elongations.
Posttest gamma-prime appeared to be
present in 263 alloy under all conditions ex-
cept 1600F/0.332 in. (8.43 mm)/min. These
test conditions also produced partial dy-
namic (or meta-dynamic) recrystallization,
again suggesting that significant gamma-
prime precipitation had not occurred.
These conditions also yielded the highest
elongation in the entire test matrix. Al-
though some large, blocky carbides were
present in grain boundaries, their presence
would not likely reduce the observed
CHRT elongation significantly because
they did not form a continuous film (easy
fracture path). Discreet, secondary carbide,
grain boundary precipitates were not gen-
erally resolvable.
Discussion
DOE Analysis
Standardized main effects results pro-
duced by this response surface experiment
showed that volume fraction gamma-
prime, test temperature, and extension
rate were significant at the 90% confi-
dence level. As expected (qualitatively),
higher extension rates favored higher test
elongation results, simply by reducing the
total amount of time specimens spent in
the gamma-prime precipitation tempera-
ture regime. The magnitude of this effect
did not change significantly with alloy
identity. (The gamma-prime volume frac-
tion/extension rate interaction was not sta-
tistically significant.)
Similarly, higher test temperatures
generally favored lower test elongation re-
sults. Although the temperature/extension
rate interaction fell just below statistical
significance (at the 95% CL), it was the
largest two-factor interaction yielded by
this experiment and is illustrated in Fig. 6.
This plot suggests that at high exten-
sion rates, temperature plays a more im-
portant role than at low extension rates. At
the standard CHRT extension rate,
0.063 in. (1.60 mm)/min, test behavior ap-
pears to vary little with temperature (in
the gamma-prime precipitation regime).
Test time may be long enough such that
alloy gamma-prime precipitation capabil-
ity (gamma-prime equilibrium volume
fraction) becomes dominant over short-
term precipitation kinetics. At higher ex-
tension rates, thermally activated
precipitation kinetics limit the rate at
which elongation decreases during
CHRTs.
The main effect of equilibrium gamma-
prime volume fraction on CHRT elonga-
tion was strongly significant. Its
second-order effect was also statistically
significant, indicating strong nonlinear
CHRT elongation vs. equilibrium gamma-
prime volume fraction behavior. The main
effects plot (contained in Fig. 3, right-hand
curve) illustrates this behavior. Alloy 282,
whose calculated equilibrium gamma-
prime volume fraction was 0.24, exhibited
anomalously high CHRT elongations. The
sluggish gamma-prime precipitation rate
characteristic of this alloy (Fig. 7) appar-
ently limits the amount of elongation re-
duction under all CHRT conditions visited
in this experiment, as opposed to R-41 and
263, where equilibrium gamma-prime vol-
ume fraction primarily controls CHRT
behavior.
These DOE results are also supported
by the SEM microstructural observations
conducted in this study. Post-CHRT R-41
specimens contained observable gamma-
prime particles over the entire tempera-
ture/extension rate space of this
experiment. Similarly, 263 post-CHRT
specimens contained observable gamma-
prime particles, except at the highest test
temperature, 1600F. In contrast, gamma-
prime particles were only observable in
282 alloy at the highest test temperature
and lowest extension rate.
Conclusions
1) The CHRT (strain-age cracking) re-
sponse of several gamma-prime harden-
able Ni-based superalloys can be described
in terms of a simple quadratic model in
test temperature, extension rate, and equi-
librium volume fraction gamma-prime
(alloy composition) space as follows:
Elongation (%) = 23.9457 + 512.905*
VF
+ 15.8287* Extension Rate
0.037*T 1312.38* VF
2
2) Test temperature and extension rate
effects behaved linearly; their exhibited
curvature was less than observed experi-
mental error. The CHRT elongation de-
167-s WELDING JOURNAL
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 6 Extension rate/test temperature interaction plot. Fig. 7 Comparative age-hardening kinetics of several wrought
gamma-prime-strengthened alloys (Ref 8).
metzler new_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:18 PM Page 167
creased with increasing test temperature
and increased with extension rate.
3) The effect of equilibrium gamma-
prime volume fraction was strongly non-
linear, with the 282 alloy exhibiting
anomalously large CHRT elongations.
4) This nonlinear behavior appears to
be caused by 282s sluggish gamma-prime
precipitation kinetics relative to the R-41
and 263 alloys. The R-41 and 263 alloys
developed observable gamma-prime par-
ticles under almost all test conditions vis-
ited in this study, while 282 only exhibited
observable precipitation at the highest test
temperature and low extension rates.
5) The overall CHRT behaviors of the
41 and 263 alloys are determined more by
the total amount of gamma prime that can
potentially precipitate (alloy composition)
than precipitation kinetics, whereas in 282
alloy, sluggish precipitation kinetics dom-
inate its CHRT response.
6) All fabrication history gathered to
date on the 282 alloy has indeed suggested
that this alloy is quite resistant to strain-
age cracking.
Acknowledgments
Lori Meacham, John Cotner, and Mark
Richeson of Haynes International are grate-
fully acknowledged. Meacham assisted with
Gleeble-based CHRT operation and pro-
gramming. Cotner and Richeson provided
electron and optical metallography skills
necessary to complete this study.
References
1. Metzler, D. A. 2008. A Gleeble-based
method for ranking the strain-age cracking sus-
ceptibility of Ni-based superalloys. Welding Jour-
nal 87(10): 249-s to 256-s.
2. C. T. Sims, and W. C. Hagel, eds. 1972. The
Superalloys, pp. 529531, New York, N.Y., Wiley.
3. Radavich, J. F. 1997. Electron metallog-
raphy of alloy 718. Superalloys 718, 625, 707 and
Various Derivatives, E. A. Loria, ed. The Miner-
als, Metals and Materials Society, pp. 1718.
4. Norton, S. J., and Lippold, J. C. 2003. De-
velopment of a Gleeble-based test for postweld
heat treatment cracking susceptibility. Trends in
Welding Research, Proc. of the 6th International
Conference, ASM International, pp. 609614.
5. Prager, M., and Shira, C. S. 1968. Welding
of precipitation hardenable nickel-base alloys.
WRC Bulletin No. 128.
6. Rowe, M. D. 2006. Ranking the resistance
of wrought superalloys to strain-age cracking.
Welding Journal 85(2): 27-s to 34-s.
7. Dix, A. W., and Savage, W. F. 1971. Fac-
tors influencing strain-age cracking in Inconel
X-750. Welding Journal 50(6): 247-s to 252-s.
8. HAYNES 282 brochure, www.hay-
nesintl.com/pdf/h3173.pdf, p. 10.
JUNE 2012, VOL. 91 168-s
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
CAN WE TALK?
The Welding Journal staff encourages an exchange of ideas with you, our readers. If youd like to ask a question,
share an idea or voice an opinion, you can call, write, e-mail or fax. Staff e-mail addresses are listed below, along with
a guide to help you interact with the right person.
Publisher
Andrew Cullison
cullison@aws.org, Extension 249
Article Submissions
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen
mjohnsen@aws.org, Extension 238
Feature Articles
Associate Editor
Howard Woodward
woodward@aws.org, Extension 244
Society News, Personnel
Associate Editor
Kristin Campbell
kcampbell@aws.org, Extension 257
New Products
News of the Industry
Managing Editor
Zaida Chavez
zaida@aws.org, Extension 265
Design and Production
Senior Production Coordinator
Brenda Flores
bores@aws.org, Extension 330
Production
Advertising Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein
salty@aws.org, Extension 243
Advertising Sales
Advertising Sales &
Promotion Coordinator
Lea Paneca
Lea@aws.org, Extension 220
Production and Promotion
Advertising Production Manager
Frank Wilson
fwilson@aws.org, Extension 465
Advertising Production
Peer Review Coordinator
Melissa Gomez
mgomez@aws.org, Extension 475
Peer Review of Research Papers
Welding Journal Dept.
550 N.W. LeJeune Rd.
Miami, FL 33126
(800) 443-9353
FAX (305) 443-7404
Correction
One authors name was misspelled for the paper titled Design of Experiment and Goal Programming Application for the GMAW
Process, which ran in the April issue of the Welding Journal Research Supplement beginning on page 106-s. The correct spelling is
N. E. Ipek. The names of the four authors are Y. T. I, F. ELALDI, F. PAKDIL, and N. E. IPEK.
The Welding Journal apologizes for the error.
.
.
metzler new_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:18 PM Page 168
Introduction
High-strength aluminum alloys, such
as 7xxx, are commonly used in modern in-
dustry because they are lightweight and
highly durable (Ref. 1). These alloys are
difficult to weld using conventional fusion
welding techniques because the quality of
the welded joint deteriorates under the
presence of porosity, hot cracking, and
distortion (Refs. 2, 3). Friction stir welding
(FSW), a novel solid-state welding process
invented in 1991 at TWI, was developed to
solve these problems (Ref. 4). In FSW, the
interaction of a nonconsumable and rotat-
ing tool with workpieces creates a joint
through frictional heating and plastic de-
formation at temperatures below the
melting point of the welded alloys. This
way, the metal in the welded zone reaches
a soft state, and a circumferential metal
flow is obtained all around the contact sur-
face between the FSW tool and weld
joints.
The formation quality of friction stir
welded joints relies on the deformation
ability and flow of the metal around the
FSW tool. Inappropriate weld parameters
and conditions result in weld defects, such
as flashes, tunnels, and voids. Thus, inves-
tigations on the flow mechanism of the
plastic metal around the FSW tool have
been carried out using various methods
(Refs. 58). At the same time, consider-
able efforts have been devoted to under-
standing the effect of process parameters
or the profiles of the FSW tool on the ma-
terial flow behavior of friction stir welded
joints (Refs. 911). However, despite ad-
vancements in the study of weld joint qual-
ity, further optimization of weld parame-
ters and conditions remains a key issue
because of the special formation processes
of the FSW. Determining methods that
can improve the formation quality of fric-
tion stir welded joints is a worthwhile
endeavor.
In recent years, increasing attention
has been paid to submerged FSW because
it improves the mechanical properties of
friction stir welded joints (Refs. 1215).
The principle of submerged FSW is that
the welds are placed into a liquid medium,
and weld processing is carried out under a
specific ambient temperature. This
method is highly suitable for aluminum al-
loys that are sensitive to excessive heating
during welding processes (Ref. 16). The
peak temperature of the weld thermal cy-
cles at heat-affected zones can be effec-
tively decreased by forced cooling during
submerged FSW. However, the effects of
submerged FSW on controlling the for-
mation quality of friction stir welded joints
are rarely reported.
In the present work, the effects of weld
conditions are systematically investigated,
such as the rotational directions of the
FSW tool and welding in air and under-
water, on the formation quality of weld
joints under a wide range of welding pa-
rameters. This work aims to more effec-
tively elucidate the relationship between
weld conditions and weld defects. The
findings can serve as reference for indus-
trial fabrication.
Experimental Procedure
All welding procedures were per-
formed on high-strength 7050 aluminum
alloy plates with a thickness of 5.8 mm,
width of 80 mm, and length of 180 mm.
Improvement of Formation Quality for
Friction Stir Welded Joints
This study takes into account the rotational direction of the stir tool,
cooling rates around the weld zones, and fabrication of defect-free joints
BY R.-D. FU, R.-C. SUN, F.-C. ZHANG, AND H.-J. LIU
KEYWORDS
Friction Stir Welding
Welding Condition
Formation Quality
FSW Tool
Rotational Direction
Weld Ambient Temperature
Aluminum Alloys
R.-D. FU (rdfu@ysu.edu.cn), R.-C. SUN, and
F.-C. ZHANG are with State Key Laboratory of
Metastable Materials Science and Technology,
Qinhuangdao, Hebei Prov., P.R. China. FU and
ZHANG are also with College of Materials Sci-
ence and Engineering, Yanshan University, Qin-
huangdao, Hebei Prov., P.R. China. H.-J. LIU is
with State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding
Production Technology, Harbin, Heihongjiang
Prov., P.R. China.
ABSTRACT
The weld, ambient temperature, and direction of a friction stir welding (FSW)
tool play roles as important as that of the welding parameters in the FSW process.
On the assumption that the weld parameters are the same under different direc-
tions, the joint welded using a stir tool rotated in a counterclockwise direction ex-
hibits better formation quality than does the joint welded in a clockwise direction.
The formation quality of the joints welded underwater clearly improves compared
with that of the joints welded in air. Excellent weld joints free from defects are ob-
tained in the present range of the FSW parameters for joints welded underwater
and the stir tool rotated in the counterclockwise direction. The investigation of
the flow path of the softened metal around the FSW tool reveals that the flow pat-
tern of the softened metal driven by the shoulder and the pin varies with the ro-
tational direction of the FSW tool, weld ambient temperature, and weld parame-
ters. An excessively high weld input is detrimental to sound flow and avoidance of
weld defects. By contrast, moderately decreasing the ambient temperature around
the weld zone can improve the formation quality of the weld joints, regardless of
the other weld conditions.
169-s WELDING JOURNAL
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fu et al Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:27 PM Page 169
The chemical composition of the alloy is
6.00% Zn, 2.2% Mg, 2.24% Cu, and
0.05% Ni, with the balance made up of Al.
Welds were produced using CNC
FSW equipment. The nonconsumable
FSW tool with left-hand screw threads is
made of H13 steel. The diameters of the
shoulder and pin are 12 and 6.2 mm, re-
spectively. The length of the pin is about
5.3 mm. The welding direction was paral-
lel to the rolling direction of the plate,
and the rotation axis of the tool was nor-
mal to the plane of the plate. Four weld-
ing conditions were chosen in the weld
process: the rotational directions of the
stir tool were clockwise and counter-
clockwise, and the welds were exposed to
air and submerged in water. The welds
were submerged in water at a depth of ap-
proximately 30 mm from the top surface
of the plates. The range of travel speed
was 40 to 200 mm/min, and the range of
rotational speed was 350 to 1000 rev/min.
The penetration depth was controlled
through the actual shoulder plunge depth
at approximately 0.5 mm. The tempera-
ture history of the welds during FSW was
continuously recorded using a multichan-
nel thermodetector.
Metallographic samples were ground,
polished, and etched using Kellers
reagent (1 mL hydrofluoric acid, 1.5 mL
hydrochloric acid, 2.5 mL nitric acid, and
95 mL water). Micrographs of the entire
weld joint were observed using an optical
microscope.
Results and Discussion
Welding in Air and Underwater with the
FSW Tool Rotated Clockwise
The cross-section morphology of the
joints friction stir welded in air with the
FSW tool rotated clockwise at different
travel and rotational speeds is shown in
Fig. 1. The tunnel defect forms at the ad-
vanced side (AS) of the friction stir welded
joints under all welding parameter ranges.
The size of the tunnel defect decreases
with increasing travel speed, but not with
rotational speed. This result indicates that
decreasing weld heat input under the
same weld conditions prevents tunnel de-
fects at the AS of the friction stir welded
joints. This observation also shows that
the metal around the defects exhibits vor-
tex-like flow features that cause disor-
dered flow.
Figure 2 shows the cross-section mor-
phology of the joints welded underwater
with the same weld parameters as that
used for the joint welded in air. Although
the weld defects continue to form under
all weld parameter ranges, the size of the
weld defects clearly decreases. On the
basis of the joints welded in air (Fig. 1), we
deduce that the cause of weld defects may
be closely related to the excessive heat
input for the joints welded in air. Increas-
ing only the travel speed cannot effectively
eliminate weld defects because the flow
mode of the softened metal around the
weld defects has an important effect: an
excessively high travel speed may result in
the transformation of the metal flow from
ordered to disordered mode, i.e., a vortex-
like flow, which is often considered abnor-
mal and should be avoided in FSW
processes.
Welding in Air and Underwater with the
FSW Tool Rotated Counterclockwise
Figure 3 shows the cross-section mor-
phology of the joints welded in air with the
FSW tool rotated counterclockwise under
different weld parameters. At a rotational
speed of 350 to 600 rev/min and travel
speed of 40 to 100 mm/min, the weld de-
fects disappear from the weld joint. For
the joints welded at a rotational speed of
JUNE 2012, VOL. 91 170-s
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 1 Cross-section morphology of the joints welded in air with different welding parameters and
clockwise rotational direction of the FSW tool.
Fig. 2 Cross-section morphology of the joints welded underwater with different welding parame-
ters and clockwise rotational direction of the FSW tool.
Fu et al Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:27 PM Page 170
1000 rev/min, the weld defects persist, and
the size of the defects decreases with in-
creasing travel speed. An exception is
when the tunnel defect forms again for the
joint welded at a rotational speed of 350
to 1000 rev/min when the travel speed is
200 mm/min. The size of the defects de-
creases with increasing rotational speed
and when the formation position of the de-
fects shifts upward. This result can be at-
tributed to an increase in weld heat input
for increasing rotational speed. As a re-
sult, the flowability of the softened metal
increases. The above-mentioned varia-
tions of weld defects with the weld param-
eters are in contrast to those observed in
the FSW tool rotated clockwise.
In addition, the metal flow mode and
formation mechanics of the weld defect
can be clearly observed from the travel
speed variations of the defects for the
joints welded at a rotational speed of 1000
rev/min. Figure 3 shows that metal flow
can be divided into two parts, namely,
shoulder extrusion zone I and pin stirring
zone II. The formation of the weld defects
at the top of the AS is closely related to the
metal flow driven by shoulder extrusion
and pin stirring. Moreover, the flow driven
by the shoulder becomes incomplete at
lower travel speeds, i.e., at the moment the
weld heat input is so high that the softened
metal under the shoulder cannot facilitate
flow with the rotational movement of the
shoulder. The above-mentioned results
further demonstrate that an excessively
high heat input is detrimental to the for-
mation quality of weld joints under most
weld conditions.
The joints welded underwater with dif-
ferent weld parameters and the FSW tool
rotated counterclockwise are shown in Fig.
4. Compared with the joints welded in air
(Fig. 3), those welded underwater at the
same weld parameters are free of defects.
This result indicates that the range of the
optimum FSW parameter expands when
the joints are welded underwater and the
FSW tool is rotated counterclockwise.
Discussion
Role of Rotational Direction in Weld
Formation
The results show that the quality of the
joints welded with the FSW tool rotated
counterclockwise is superior to that of the
joints welded in the clockwise direction. In
addition, the formation positions of the
weld defects differ when the rotational di-
rection of the FSW tool is altered, i.e., the
weld defect is located at the bottom zones
of the AS for clockwise rotation, and at the
top zones of the AS for counterclockwise
rotation. This result reveals that the metal
flow direction should change when the ro-
tational direction is altered. The metal flow
around the FSW tool is shown in Fig. 5.
Generally, the weld zones of weld
joints are divided into two parts. The first
is zone I, where the softened metal driven
by the shoulder occurs via a horizontal
flow around the axle of the FSW tool. The
second is zone II, where the softened
metal driven by the screw thread on the
pin is positioned either downward or up-
ward in the spiral flow with respect to the
rotational direction of the FSW tool (Ref.
17). When the FSW tool rotates clockwise,
aside from the horizontal flow of the metal
driven by the shoulder in zone I, an addi-
tional flow runs from zones I to II driven
by the pressure force of the shoulder. In
zone II, the metal first occurs downward in
the spiral flow driven by the stirring of the
screw thread on the pin. Once the metal
reaches the bottom of the joints, the flow
direction of the metal is reversed, as
shown by the arrows in Fig. 5A. When the
171-s WELDING JOURNAL
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 3 Cross-section morphology of the joints welded in air with different welding parameters and
counterclockwise rotational direction of the FSW tool.
Fig. 4 Cross-section morphology of the joints welded underwater with different welding parame-
ters and counterclockwise rotational direction of the FSW tool.
Fu et al Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:27 PM Page 171
flow is complete, no weld defects form at
the AS of the weld joint. However, the
flow at the AS stops because the tempera-
ture of the bottom metal is lower than that
of the upper metal. Meanwhile, the down-
ward flow from zone I does not cross paths
with the upward flow. Consequently, weld
defects form at this position.
When the FSW tool rotates counter-
clockwise, the metal flow direction in zone
II is opposite to that in the clockwise rota-
tion Fig. 5B. This flow from zones II to
I crosses paths with the downward flow
from zone I at the top position near the
AS. The good mixture between the two
flows effectively prevents the formation of
weld defects at the position where the
temperature is high. Thus, the probability
that weld defects will form is lower in the
counterclockwise direction than in the
clockwise direction.
However, although the counterclock-
wise direction of the FSW tool can effec-
tively decrease the occurrence of weld de-
fects, it does not completely eliminate weld
defects, similar to welding at high rotational
or travel speeds. Cavity or groove-like de-
fects can be caused by insufficient heat
input and abnormal stirring (Ref. 18). In-
sufficient heat input has been widely ac-
cepted as being related to the deterioration
of the flowability of the metal around the
FSW tool. Abnormal stirring is seldom con-
sidered, but it is an important factor in
metal flow under certain conditions. Fig-
ures 14 show that the features of the vor-
tex-like flows around the location of the
weld defect almost merge regardless of the
rotational direction of the FSW tool. This
near-merging demonstrates that abnormal
stirring can also result in weld defects.
Therefore, the weld defect formed in the
counterclockwise direction may be related
to abnormal stirring, which stems from the
wiping effect among the interfaces between
layers extruded by the FSW tool in the weld
zone. Consequently, the wiping effect re-
sults in the lack of mixing and a vortex-like
flow around the pin (Ref. 19).
Role of Cooling Conditions in
Weld Formation
A comparison of the results
for air and underwater weld-
ing with all other conditions
constant reveals that the for-
mation quality of the joints
welded underwater is superior
to the quality of those welded
in air. This finding indicates
that the formation quality of
the joints can be improved
through the acceleration of
the cooling rate around the
weld zone. As previously dis-
cussed, if the metal flow exhibits a vortex-
like feature, the occurrence probability of
weld defects increases. The formation of a
vortex-like flow is related to both excessive
heat input and the slide-stick wiping
flow. To obtain insight into the relation-
ships between weld defects and weld heat
input, we measured the transversal tem-
perature distribution of four group joints
welded with the FSW tool rotated coun-
terclockwise Fig. 6. The weld tempera-
ture fields of the joints welded at rota-
tional speeds of 350 and 1000 rev/min are
shown in Fig. 6A and B, respectively.
First, the peak temperature around the
pin for the joints welded underwater sig-
nificantly decreases compared with that
for the joints welded in air. Moreover, the
weld temperature at the RS is higher than
that at the AS for the joints welded at low
and high weld parameters. According to
previous studies (Refs. 14, 20), high tem-
peratures can promote the plasticization
of a welded base metal. The quality of
joints welded at high heat input is better
than that of joints welded at low heat
input. However, excessive heat input can
change the friction conditions and flow
paths of plasticized metal. Under hot pro-
cessing with stick conditions, excessive
material flow results in flash formation,
surface galling, and nugget collapse.
Under cold processing with slip condi-
tions, insufficiently flowing material re-
sults in surface incomplete fill, wormhole,
or incomplete consolidation defects on
the AS. The optimum processing condi-
tions for preventing flow-related defects
are postulated to occur at a temperature
where the stick-slip wiping flow occurs,
and the material flowing from the region
ahead of the pin tool is precisely balanced
with the material flowing back into the va-
cated region behind the tool (Ref. 17).
When welded in air conditions, metals
show higher plasticization than when they
are welded underwater because of high
heat input. The flow resistance of plasti-
cized metal increases because of the wip-
ing effect that occurs between each layer
driven by the FSW tool. In addition, al-
though the flowability of welded metal in-
creases with increasing heat input, the
flow path also varies to form flashes rather
than flow downward. The balance be-
tween the flow from the region in front
and behind the pin is broken. Conse-
quently, incomplete filling at the AS re-
sults in tunnel defects.
In underwater welding, the excessive
heat in plasticized metals is quickly dissi-
pated by ambient water, causing a de-
crease in wiping effects. The stick friction
becomes the dominant factor that pro-
motes plasticized metal flow together with
the rotation of the FSW tool.
JUNE 2012, VOL. 91 172-s
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
A
B
Fig. 5 Metal flow around the FSW tool. A Clockwise direction; B counter-
clockwise direction.
Fig. 6 Thermal history of the joints welded in air and under-
water. A 350 rev/min; B 1000 rev/min.
A
B
Fu et al Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:27 PM Page 172
Conclusions
The conclusions derived are summa-
rized as follows.
1. The rotational direction of the stir
tool plays an important role in weld for-
mation during FSW. The quality of the
joints welded using the stir tool rotated
counterclockwise is superior to that of the
joints welded in the clockwise direction,
regardless of the other weld conditions.
2. Accordingly, the cooling rates
around the weld zones also play a role as
important as that of the other weld condi-
tions in the weld formation of friction stir
welded joints. The quality of the joints
welded underwater is better than that of
the joints welded in air, regardless of the
other weld conditions.
3. Defect-free joints are obtained
under all weld parameters when the joints
are welded underwater and the FSW tool
is rotated counterclockwise. The fabrica-
tion of defect-free joints also indicates
that the ranges of optimum FSW parame-
ters expand under this weld condition.
4. Controlling the plasticized state and
flow patterns of the metal around the stir
tool is essential in fabricating defect-free
joints.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial
support of the Modern Welding Production
Technology State Key Laboratory and the
National Science Foundation for Distin-
guished Young Scholars (No. 50925522).
References
1. Thomas, W. M., and Nicholas, E. D. 1997.
Friction stir welding for the transportation in-
dustries. Materials and Design 18(46): 269273.
2. Nandan, R., DebRoy, T., and Bhadeshia,
H. K. D. H. 2008. Recent advances in friction-
stir welding Process, weldment structure,
and properties. Progress in Materials Science 53:
9801023.
3. Uday, M. R., Ahmad, F. M., Zuhailawati,
H., and Ismail, A. B. 2010. Advances in friction
welding process: A review. Science and Tech-
nology of Welding and Joining 15(7): 534558.
4. Thomas, W. M., Nicholas, E. D., Need-
ham, J. C., Murch, M. G., Templesmith, P., and
Dawes, C. J. G. B. Patent Application No.
9125978.8 (December 1991).
5. Reynolds, A., Seidel, R. U., and Simon-
sen, M. 1999. Visualization of material flow in
an autogenous friction stir weld. 1st Interna-
tional Symposium on FSW, 1418. Thousand
Oaks, Calif.
6. Fratini, L., Buffa, G., Micari, F., and Shiv-
puri, R. 2009. On the material flow in FSW of T-
joints: Influence of geometrical and technologi-
cal parameters. International Journal of Advanced
Manufacture Technology 44(56): 570578.
7. Silva, A. A. M. da, Arruti, E., Janeiro, G.,
Aldanondo, E., Alvarez, P., and Echeverria, A.
2011. Material flow and mechanical behaviour
of dissimilar AA2024-T3 and AA7075-T6 alu-
minium alloys friction stir welds. Materials and
Design 31: 20212027.
8. Mukherjee, S., and Ghosh, A. K. 2010.
Flow visualization and estimation of strain and
strain-rate during friction stir process. Materials
Science and Engineering A527: 51305135.
9. Rajakumar, S., Muralidharan, C., and Bal-
asubramanian, V. 2011. Influence of friction stir
welding process and tool parameters on strength
properties of AA7075-T6 aluminium alloy joints.
Materials and Design 32(2): 535545.
10. Kumar, K., and Kailas, S. V. 2008. The
role of friction stir welding tool on material flow
and weld formation. Materials Science and En-
gineering A485(12): 367374.
11. Elangovan, K., and Balasubramanian, V.
2008. Influences of tool pin profile and tool
shoulder diameter on the formation of friction
stir processing zone in AA6061 aluminium
alloy. Materials and Design 29(2): 362373.
12. Fratini, L., Buffa, G., and Shivpuri, R.
2010. Mechanical and metallurgical effects of in
process cooling during friction stir welding of
AA7075-T6 butt joints. Acta Materialia 58:
20562067.
13. Bloodworth, T. 2009. On the immersed
friction stir welding of AA-6061-T6: A metal-
lurgic and mechanical comparison to friction
stir welding. Masters thesis of science in me-
chanical engineering. Nashville, Tenn., 5.
14. Upadhyay, P., and Reynolds, A. P. 2010.
Effects of thermal boundary conditions in fric-
tion stir welded 7050-T7 sheet. Materials Science
and Engineering A527: 15371543.
15. Liu, H. J., Zhang, H. J., and Yu, L. 2011.
Effect of welding speed on microstructures and
mechanical properties of underwater friction
stir welded 2219 aluminum alloy. Materials and
Design 32: 15481553.
16. Nelson, T. W., Steel, R. J., and Arbegast,
W. J. 2003. In-situ thermal studies and the ef-
fects on natural aging response in friction stir
welds in age hardenable aluminum alloys. Sci-
ence and Technology of Welding and Joining 8(4):
283289.
17. Alvarez, P., Janeiro, G., Silva, A. A. M.
da, Aldanondo, E., and Echeverr, A. 2010. Ma-
terial flow and mixing patterns during dissimi-
lar FSW. Science and Technology of Welding and
Joining 15(8): 648653.
18. Arbegast, W. J. 2008. A flow-partitioned
deformation zone model for defect formation
during friction stir welding. Scripta Materialia
58(5): 372376.
19. Kim, Y. G., Fujii, H., Tsumur, T., Ko-
mazaki, T., and Nakata, K. 2006. Three defect
types in friction stir welding of aluminum die
casting alloy. Materials Science and Engineering
A415: 250254.
20. Hwang, Y. M., Kang, Z. W., Chiou, Y. C.,
and Hsu, H. H. 2008. Experimental study on
temperature distributions within the workpiece
during friction stir welding of aluminum alloys.
International Journal of Machine Tools and Man-
ufacture 48: 778787.
173-s WELDING JOURNAL
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Peer review of research pa-
pers is now managed through
an online system using Edito-
rial Manager software. Papers
can be submitted into the sys-
tem directly from the Welding
Journal page on the AWS Web
site (www.aws.org) by clicking
on submit papers. You can
also access the new site di-
rectly at www.editorialman-
ager.com/wj/. Follow the
instructions to register or log
in. This online system stream-
lines the review process, and
makes it easier to submit pa-
pers and track their progress.
By publishing in the Welding
Journal, more than 68,000
members will receive the re-
sults of your research.
Additionally, your full paper
is posted on the American
Welding Society Web site for
FREE access around the
globe. There are no page
charges, and articles are pub-
lished in full color. By far, the
most people, at the least cost,
will recognize your research
when you publish in the world-
respected Welding Journal.
Authors: Submit Research
Papers Online
Fu et al Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:27 PM Page 173
Introduction
Shielding gases are fundamental to the
operation of the gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) process and there are a number
commonly used, each with its own specific
properties, i.e., ionization potential, which
creates unique arc characteristics (Refs.
17). Shielding gases are also commonly
used in a variety of premixed combina-
tions of two or more gases in order to take
advantage of the beneficial properties of
each gas (Refs. 8, 9). Recently, however,
there has been some positive research
(Refs. 14) into the effects of alternating
shielding gases in both GMAW and, to a
lesser extent, gas tungsten arc welding.
This method involves discretely supplying
two different shielding gases, each with a
duty cycle of 50%; i.e., while one gas is
flowing the other is not, which results in a
continuous shield with varying properties.
These studies have shown beneficial re-
sults including an increased travel speed,
reduced porosity, and increased strength.
For example, Campbell et al. (Ref. 1) re-
ported the use of alternating shielding
gases can reduce the overall weld cost by
approximately 17% while also consider-
ably reducing distortion. Chang (Ref. 2)
reported the use of alternating shielding
gases created beneficial effects on the
weld pool and, as shown in Fig. 1 (Ref. 3),
different flow vectors were created in the
weld pool for different gases used. How-
ever, when alternating between shielding
gases, complex flow patterns were created
that caused a dynamic action in the weld
pool and this is known to be a result of the
fluctuation between these individual
shielding gas flow vectors. The dynamic
nature of the shielding gas delivery is
known to be influenced by factors such as
(a) arc pressure variation, (b) variation in
weld pool fluidity, and (c) arc pressure
peaking.
As several industry sectors (e.g., ship-
building and road transportation) move
toward thinner and stronger materials in
order to reduce the overall mass of the
structure (Refs. 10, 11), it is widely recog-
nized that these thinner materials are
more susceptible to distortion induced by
the heat input generated by the welding
processes used during fabrication. Distor-
tion is a result of the nonuniform expan-
sion and contraction of the weld material
due to the heating and cooling cycle (Ref.
11) and although computational models
can be used to help predict the magnitude
of weld-induced distortion (Ref. 12), as a
result of the number of variables involved
(Ref. 13) including material properties,
welding procedure, structural design, and
manufacturing procedure (each of which
have numerous sub variables) results in
such models being specific to the data
used in the model generation. However,
the effort required to rectify the distortion
from the steel structure is highly resource
intensive. For that reason it is beneficial to
eliminate as much distortion at the source
as possible and this is largely achievable
through good practices, mainly related to
reducing the heat going into the steel
structure and the concentration of heat in
specific areas. Further, there is an increas-
ing demand for quality prediction in
todays ever-increasing automated soci-
JUNE 2012, VOL. 91 174-s
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
ABSTRACT
An artificial neural network (ANN) model has been applied to the prediction of key
weld geometries produced using gas metal arc welding (GMAW) with alternating shield-
ing gases. This is a recently developed method of supplying two individual shielding gases
to the weld area in which the gases are discretely supplied at a given frequency. The model
can be used to predict the penetration, leg length, and effective throat thickness for a
given set of weld parameters and alternating shielding gas frequency.
A comparison of the experimental and predicted geometries matched closely and
demonstrates the effectiveness of this software approach in predicting weld outputs.
The model has shown that the application of alternating shielding gases increases the
penetration and effective throat thickness of a fillet weld while the leg length is
reduced.
A sensitivity analysis was performed that showed travel speed is the most influen-
tial input parameter when predicting weld geometries. This is to be expected for any
given welding setup due to the influence of the travel speed on the heat input. The
sensitivity analysis also showed that the shielding gas configuration had the lowest in-
fluence on the output of the model. The output from the model has demonstrated that
the use of alternating shielding gases during GMAW results in a step change in the
weld metal geometry. This suggests that, in the case of alternating shielding gases, an
increased travel speed is required to produce a similar weld geometry to that of the
conventional Ar/20%CO
2
technique.
KEYWORDS
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Artificial Neural Networks
Alternating Shielding Gases
S. W. CAMPBELL and A. M. GALLOWAY are
with Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland. N.
A. MCPHERSON is with BAE Systems Surface
Ships Ltd., Glasgow, Scotland.
Artificial Neural Network Prediction of Weld
Geometry Performed Using GMAW with
Alternating Shielding Gases
A sensitivity analysis showed travel speed is the most influential input parameter
when predicting weld geometries
BY S. W. CAMPBELL, A. M. GALLOWAY, AND N. A. MCPHERSON
Campbell Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:30 PM Page 174
ety, and it is imperative that there is a high
level of consistency in the process in order
to satisfy this demand.
While the external fillet weld geometry
can be measured, there is no way of know-
ing the penetration of the weld without the
aid of nondestructive testing although im-
proved accuracy may be obtained by sec-
tioning and polishing the sample. As both
of these geometry details are important in
terms of weld integrity, it is clear that an
optimized approach needs to be taken
such that the maximum penetration and
effective throat are deposited to satisfy the
structural integrity demands with the con-
verse being the case in terms of minimiz-
ing the weld heat input and final distor-
tion. Hence, in an attempt to achieve the
optimum weld geometry conditions, the
implementation of various model simula-
tion environment software, such as artifi-
cial neural networking (ANN), offers con-
siderable predictive strength to this
optimization approach.
Artificial neural networks are mathe-
matical or computational models that are
able to capture and represent complex
input-output relationships. They are dis-
tributed, adaptive, generally nonlinear
learning machines built from many differ-
ent processing elements (PEs) (Ref. 14).
McCulloch and Pitts (Ref. 15) developed
the first neural networks in 1943 based
upon their understanding of neurology;
this operated using simple and/or logic
functions and made several assumptions
as to the operation of neurons. Major ad-
vances were made around 1960 when
Rosenblatt (Ref. 16) designed and devel-
oped the perceptron, which was con-
structed by multiple layers and allowed the
system to learn to associate a given input
to an output. Around the same time,
Widrow and Hoff (Ref. 17) developed the
ADALINE (ADAptive LINear Element)
system, an analogue electronic device that
operated on the Least Mean Square
(LMS) learning rule. Werbos (Ref. 18) de-
veloped the backpropagation learning
method in the early 1970s and although
this learning method took a number of
years to gain popularity, it is now probably
the best known and applied learning
method used today. The interconnectivity
of the PEs defines the topology of the net-
work. There are three main network
topologies commonly implemented:
Multilayer Perceptron (MLP)
Generalized Feed-Forward (GFF)
Modular Feed-Forward (MFF)
Neural networks can be used to predict
any process as long as sufficient data are
generated to accurately train and validate
the model. The GMAW process is ex-
tremely complex and involves the interac-
tion of several nonlinear welding vari-
ables. Artificial neural networks have the
ability to develop patterns and detect sub-
tle link/trends that are too complex to be
observed via other techniques, therefore
allowing for the strong indicators of new
situations of interest. In addition, other
computational modeling environments
are unidirectional, i.e., calculate an output
for a given set of input variables, and often
require extensive computational power to
process complex models whereas ANNs
are bidirectional and have the ability to
predict the input variables required to
produce a given output. The ANNs can,
therefore, be employed to accurately pre-
dict mechanical properties and other im-
portant weld characteristics without the
need for destructive testing, while precise
models will provide confidence in the
welds produced.
The basic architecture of an ANN is
shown in Fig. 2 and consists of intercon-
nected processing elements in the differ-
ent layers of the system:
An input layer represents the raw
data that are fed into the system
One or more hidden layers the out-
put of which is determined by the activities
of the inputs and the weights of the con-
nections
An output layer conveys the signals
to the environment and is dependent upon
the processes and weights of the hidden
units.
This type of computational model can
be effectively applied to the welding
process where the input layer consists of
the welding parameters and the output
layer is made up of the weld geometry, me-
chanical properties, and other factors as a
consequence of the input parameters.
Artificial neural networks were first
applied to the welding process around the
early 1980s (Refs. 19, 20). Since then they
have been used extensively in the predic-
tion of weld characteristics such as me-
chanical properties (Refs. 2125) and
have been shown to be fairly accurate in
determining tensile strength, hardness,
elongation, and impact energy. They have
been used to determine the weld quality
(Ref. 26) based upon differing input set-
tings including current, voltage, and gas
compositions. Artificial neural networks
have also been implemented for the pre-
diction of weld-induced deformation
(Refs. 27, 28) and weld geometry (Refs.
2931). Although ANNs have previously
been used for the prediction of various
welding parameters, there have been no
publications for the prediction of welding
parameters while implementing this novel
technique of alternately supplying shield-
ing gases. Further information on the his-
torical development of ANNs toward
welding processes is reported elsewhere
(Refs. 32, 33).
Experimental Setup
The material used throughout was 6-
mm-thick DH36 grade steel in the form of
60-mm-wide bar with a typical chemical
composition shown in Table 1. The bars
were tacked together in the form of an in-
verted T as shown in Fig. 3.
The average welding parameters are
shown in Tables 2A and 2B. The gas flow
was controlled using an electronic control
unit (Fig. 4), which allowed the alternating
frequency to be accurately set prior to
welding while implementing an oscillo-
scope for validation. The basis of the unit
was two timing circuits (one for each gas)
175-s WELDING JOURNAL
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 1 Arc pressure and fluid flow vectors (Ref. 3). Fig. 2 Multilayer perceptron architecture with one hidden layer.
Campbell Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:30 PM Page 175
that generated a continuous square wave
at a specified frequency. The output from
the timing circuits was then used to con-
trol the current supply to the solenoid
valves in order to regulate the flow of each
gas. The unit incorporated an invert func-
tion to supply opposite signals to each
valve for alternation precision, thus gen-
erating a pressure-time graph comparable
to that shown in Fig. 1. It is important to
recognize that although the alternating
frequency is a variable during experimen-
tation, each gas is supplied for 50% of the
time regardless of the frequency. Since the
flow rate of each gas was preset at 15
L/min (when flowing continuously), the
overall gas consumption remained 15
L/min independent of the frequency. At
present, the device used for alternating
the shielding gases is an experimental unit
that is not currently commercially avail-
able. However, the unit is a simple setup
that was minimal in cost to generate. The
potential savings and benefits (Ref. 1) of
the system are likely to substantially out-
weigh any modest capital investment re-
quired to implement the technology on a
commercial scale.
There are various filler materials used
in industry depending upon the applica-
tion and the ability of each to be used in a
particular weld position including solid
wire, metal cored wire, and flux cored
wire. One-mm metal cored wire (EN 758:
T46 4 M M 1 H5), which has a typical all-
weld-metal chemical composition as
shown in Table 3, was used throughout ex-
perimentation with a constant feed speed
of 90 mm/s.
All experimental welds were deposited
on an automatic welding rig where the
plate, held rigid, moved at a preset speed
under a fixed welding nozzle as shown in
Fig. 4. The nozzle used was adapted so as
to allow the helium to be directly supplied
to the welding zone Fig. 5. In each case
the welds were produced using a torch
preset at a 45-deg angle and fixed in
position.
A precalibrated, portable arc monitor-
ing system (PAMS) was used throughout
to accurately obtain the welding arc volt-
age and current. The on-board A-D con-
verter of the PAMS unit has a 14-bit reso-
lution that results in the voltage being
accurate to approximately 0.012 V and the
current to approximately 0.12 A. The sam-
ple frequency of the unit is 5 kHz and will
therefore accurately represent the aver-
age parameters even when alternating be-
tween gases since the sample frequency (5
kHz) is very much greater than the alter-
nating frequency (28 Hz).
Model Development
The software implemented for this
study was NeuroSolutions, which had pre-
viously been used successfully for the pre-
diction of weld geometries (Ref. 31) and
distortion (Ref. 27). A total of 45 samples
was produced (9 for each gas configura-
tion), a hold-out method was used
throughout the model generation process,
in which 40 samples were used for the
training of the model while the remaining
5 (one for each gas configuration) for test-
ing. These data are displayed in Table 2A.
The same five test data sets were used
throughout in order to produce a direct
comparison on the accuracy of the model
using each of the topologies. Throughout
model generation, each model was run
three times and the average error taken.
This was done since the same topology
with the same training data can produce so
many different sets of final weights. There
are three main reasons behind this:
There are many symmetries in the input-
output mapping created by the MLP.
There is no guarantee that the problem
has a single solution.
The final weights are obtained in an iter-
ative fashion from random initial values.
The following network topologies were
considered:
Multilayer Perceptron (MLP)
Generalized Feed-Forward (GFF)
Modular Feed-Forward (MFF)
Mathematically, the output from each
of the models is the same and can be rep-
resented as shown in Equation 1:
where O is the output, I
n
is the n
th
input
sample, w
n
is the weight of the n
th
sample,
and n is the number of samples.
It was found that although the MLP
topology produced a higher mean square
error than the GFF and MFF topologies,
when comparing the percentage errors of
the test data sets it was found that the
MLP topology produced the lowest error
and was therefore selected.
There is an optimum number of itera-
tions for training the model and, conse-
quently, the number of learning iterations
had to be determined. The model was
O l w
n
n
n
n
=
=
1
(1) *
JUNE 2012, VOL. 91 176-s
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 3 Weld detail showing geometries measured. Fig. 4 Automatic welding rig (Insert: gas control unit).
Table 1 Chemical Composition of DH36
Steel (trace indicates nondeliberate additions)
Element Chemical Compostion
(wt-%)
Carbon 0.15
Silicon 0.35
Manganese 1.38
Phosphorus 0.013
Sulfur 0.012
Chromium 0.017 (trace)
Molybdenum 0.001 (trace)
Nickel 0.018 (trace)
Aluminum 0.026
Copper 0.01 (trace)
Niobium 0.025
Nitrogen 0.003
Campbell Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:30 PM Page 176
177-s WELDING JOURNAL
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Table 2A Training/Testing Weld Data
Weld Parameters Weld Outputs
Shielding Gas Voltage (V) Current (I) Travel Speed (mm/s) Penetration (mm) Leg Length (mm) Effective Throat (mm)
Configuration
Ar/20%CO
2
21.7 158 2.0 1.168 6.739 4.626
Ar/20%CO
2
23.6 157 2.0 1.471 6.541 4.710
Ar/20%CO
2
26.0 157 2.0 0.992 7.628 4.943
Ar/20%CO
2
22.0 151 2.5 1.483 6.249 4.626
Ar/20%CO
2
23.9 154 2.5 1.044 6.687 4.182
Ar/20%CO
2
26.1 157 2.5 1.070 6.894 4.357
Ar/20%CO
2
21.9 152 3.0 1.078 5.300 3.298
Ar/20%CO
2
23.8 158 3.0 1.391 6.371 3.916
Ar/20%CO
2
26.1 158 3.0 1.136 6.506 4.228
Alternating @ 2 Hz 21.8 153 2.0 1.229 6.803 5.637
Alternating @ 2 Hz 23.4 156 2.0 1.421 6.977 4.646
Alternating @ 2 Hz 26.4 159 2.0 1.365 7.171 4.616
Alternating @ 2 Hz 22.0 157 2.5 1.020 6.559 4.964
Alternating @ 2 Hz 23.7 156 2.5 1.269 5.789 3.807
Alternating @ 2 Hz 25.8 159 2.5 1.116 7.634 5.236
Alternating @ 2 Hz 21.9 152 3.0 1.107 5.365 4.748
Alternating @ 2 Hz 23.4 155 3.0 1.426 5.319 4.556
Alternating @ 2 Hz 26.2 154 3.0 1.342 5.498 4.200
Alternating @ 4 Hz 21.6 150 2.0 1.148 6.913 5.752
Alternating @ 4 Hz 23.9 155 2.0 1.494 6.680 5.091
Alternating @ 4 Hz 25.8 156 2.0 1.499 6.582 4.879
Alternating @ 4 Hz 21.7 157 2.5 1.277 6.196 4.818
Alternating @ 4 Hz 23.7 155 2.5 1.315 6.467 4.869
Alternating @ 4 Hz 25.6 157 2.5 1.371 6.207 4.032
Alternating @ 4 Hz 21.9 154 3.0 1.235 5.727 4.798
Alternating @ 4 Hz 23.8 159 3.0 1.581 4.969 3.333
Alternating @ 4 Hz 26.1 156 3.0 1.290 5.699 4.407
Alternating @ 6 Hz 21.7 154 2.0 1.338 6.416 5.680
Alternating @ 6 Hz 23.5 159 2.0 1.690 6.352 4.855
Alternating @ 6 Hz 25.6 159 2.0 1.347 7.069 4.563
Alternating @ 6 Hz 22.0 152 2.5 1.172 6.239 4.975
Alternating @ 6 Hz 24.3 153 2.5 1.577 5.926 4.044
Alternating @ 6 Hz 25.5 156 2.5 1.198 6.303 3.928
Alternating @ 6 Hz 21.8 156 3.0 1.069 5.133 3.812
Alternating @ 6 Hz 24.0 151 3.0 1.216 5.703 3.679
Alternating @ 6 Hz 25.6 156 3.0 1.702 5.856 3.609
Alternating @ 8 Hz 21.7 155 2.0 0.915 7.326 5.589
Alternating @ 8 Hz 24.0 158 2.0 1.039 7.279 4.475
Alternating @ 8 Hz 25.9 158 2.0 1.522 7.368 4.617
Alternating @ 8 Hz 21.9 154 2.5 1.141 6.459 4.664
Alternating @ 8 Hz 23.9 153 2.5 1.244 6.490 4.093
Alternating @ 8 Hz 26.0 155 2.5 1.415 6.901 4.265
Alternating @ 8 Hz 22.2 153 3.0 1.503 5.364 4.449
Alternating @ 8 Hz 24.0 157 3.0 1.263 5.370 4.014
Alternating @ 8 Hz 26.0 155 3.0 1.711 5.886 3.940
Table 2B Validation Weld Data
Weld Parameters Weld Outputs
Shielding Gas Voltage (V) Current (I) Travel Speed (mm/s) Penetration (mm) Leg Length (mm) Effective Throat (mm)
Configuration
Alternating @ 5 Hz 21.7 153 2.0 1.288 6.835 5.675
Alternating @ 5 Hz 23.8 156 2.0 1.534 6.922 4.923
Alternating @ 5 Hz 25.8 157 2.0 1.421 7.052 4.652
Alternating @ 5 Hz 21.9 157 2.5 1.201 6.177 4.955
Alternating @ 5 Hz 24.0 154 2.5 1.363 6.431 4.366
Alternating @ 5 Hz 26.1 155 2.5 1.315 6.661 4.211
Alternating @ 5 Hz 22.1 154 3.0 1.218 5.295 4.352
Alternating @ 5 Hz 23.9 157 3.0 1.341 5.480 3.934
Alternating @ 5 Hz 25.8 156 3.0 1.523 5.794 3.892
Campbell Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:30 PM Page 177
trained using between 4000 and 20,000 iter-
ations, with 8000 iterations producing the
lowest percentage error and, therefore, the
most accurate approximation. Contrary to
what would be logically expected, the neu-
ral network can become overtrained and
the percentage error actually increases
above 8000 iterations (Ref. 14).
The number of hidden layers of pro-
cessing elements (PEs) that are not con-
nected directly to the external world was
established. There are two extreme cases
for the number of hidden layers: either the
network has too many PEs to do the job,
or it has too few. The model was run with
15 hidden layers; it was found that the 1
hidden layer model re-
turned the lowest per-
centage error of the test
data.
Momentum learning
was then applied to the
model, which is an im-
provement to the straight
gradient-descent search
in the sense that a mem-
ory term is used to speed
up and stabilize conver-
gence. The use of a mo-
mentum coefficient
helps stop the learning
process getting stuck in a
local minimum or flat
spot. In momentum
learning, the equation to update the weights
becomes Equation 2.
where w
ij
is the weight that connects the i
th
PE to the j
th
PE, n is the iteration number,
is the step size,
i
is the computed error at
the i
th
PE, x
j
is the flow of activations at the
j
th
PE, and is the momentum constant.
The use of momentum learning results
in the weighting changing proportionally
to how much they are updated in the pre-
vious iteration. The momentum constant
can have a value of between 0 and 1. It was
determined that a value of 0.7 produced
the most accurate model.
The final stage in the model develop-
ment is specifying when the weights are up-
dated. Online learning updates the weights
after the presentation of each data set. In
contrast, batch learning updates the weights
w n w n n x n
w n w n
ij ij i j
ij ij
+
( )
=
( )
+
( ) ( )
+
( )
1
1
(( ) ( )
(2)
JUNE 2012, VOL. 91 178-s
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 5 Welding torch showing adapted nozzle.
Fig. 7 Effect of shielding gas configuration on predicted penetration.
Fig. 6 Comparison of experimental and predicted geometries.
Fig. 8 Temperature contours at a 200-A welding current (Ref. 25) for
the following: A Argon; B helium.
Table 3 Chemical Composition of Welding
Wire
Element Chemical Compostion
(wt-%)
Carbon 0.05
Silicon 0.5
Manganese 1.3
Phosphorous <0.015
Sulphur <0.015
A
B
Campbell Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/11/12 2:31 PM Page 178
after the presentation of the entire training
set. It was found that batch learning updates
returned the lowest final error.
After this procedure, it was deter-
mined that the following network archi-
tecture provides the best-fitting model:
Model Topology Multilayer Perceptron
Iterations 8000
Hidden Layers 1
Momentum Coefficient 0.7
Weight Updating Batch
The model, constructed according to
the network architecture specified previ-
ously, was then validated against experi-
mental data (Table 2B) not contained
within the training or testing data. This
was used solely to ensure the model was
learning the trends among the training
data, with the testing data being used for
comparison in the later discussions.
Prediction of Weld Geometry
The model generated has been shown
to accurately represent the weld penetra-
tion, leg length, and effective throat thick-
ness by comparing the actual values with
those predicted by the NeuroSolutions
package as shown in Fig. 6. The software
has been shown, on average, to overesti-
mate weld penetration by 0.06 mm and un-
derestimate leg length and effective throat
thickness by 0.23 and 0.52 mm, respec-
tively. When compared with the experi-
mental data, this equates to percentage er-
rors of 4.9, 3.4, and 9.6%, respectively,
which is deemed as highly accurate in any
ANN study.
The trained model was then applied to a
given set of input parameters with the only
variable being the shielding gas composi-
tion. The results (Fig. 7) show that the ad-
dition of helium has resulted in an increase
in penetration, due to the narrower, more
concentrated arc column that helium pro-
duces (Ref. 34), as depicted in Fig. 8.
Additionally, the prediction has shown
that increasing the frequency of shielding
gas alternation from 2 to 8 Hz resulted in
a 0.03-mm increase in penetration. As a
consequence, for a given level of penetra-
tion, the travel speed can be increased re-
ducing the cost of the weld. It has been de-
termined that for an equivalent level of
penetration, the travel speed for alternat-
ing shielding gases can be increased, on
average, by 28% over the Ar/20%CO
2
base case, and therefore has the potential
to greatly increase the productivity of the
welding process. This confirms the find-
ings of Campbell et al. (Ref. 1), which
demonstrated that the travel speed can be
increased by 18% on the second pass and
82% on the third pass, thus resulting in an
overall time reduction of 22%.
It has been widely publicized that plate
distortion is a function of heat input. It has
been reported that lower heat input weld-
ing processes result in less heat-induced
distortion (Refs. 1, 35). The decrease in
heat input, which would be as a result of
the increased travel speed used to produce
the equivalent levels of penetration when
using alternating shielding gases, will also
have beneficial effects with regard to
weld-induced distortion.
The model has also shown that the ap-
plication of alternating shielding gases re-
sults in a shorter leg length (Fig. 9), thus
confirming the experimental results and is
a consequence of the concentrated arc col-
umn that helium produces (Ref. 34). The
effective throat thickness is shown to in-
crease with the use of alternating shielding
179-s WELDING JOURNAL
W
E
L
D
I
N
G
R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 9 Effect of shielding gas configuration on predicted leg length. Fig. 10 Effect of shielding gas configuration on predicted effective throat.
Fig. 11 A Weld profile showing the concavity of a typical weld produced using Ar/20%CO
2
; B weld profile showing the convexity of a typical weld pro-
duced using alternating shielding gases.
A B
Campbell Supplement June 2012_Layout 1 5/10/12 1:30 PM Page 179
gases (Fig. 10); this is primarily linked to
the added convexity of the weld metal with
the addition of helium.
The macro images (Fig. 11) show that
a typical alternating shielding gas weld
produces a narrower weld with increased
convexity (while Fig. 3 shows the meas-
ured dimensions). This, along with the re-
sults generated by the ANN model, show
there is a trend between the shielding gas
and the weld geometry. As reported by
Kang et al. (Ref. 3), alternating shielding
gases creates complex flow vectors within
the molten weld pool, whereas constant
gas flows produce a steady flow vector. It
was reported that helium produces a flow
vector that circulates inward, which will
result in a narrower, more convex, weld
profile. This is most probably due to the
Marangoni effect in that the shielding gas
configuration affects the surface tension
of the weld, resulting in a thermocapillary
convection phenomenon. As the
Marangoni effect is governed by the tem-
perature gradient on the weld pool surface
and the temperature coefficient of the sur-
face tension, it follows that, as helium has
a higher arc power density than argon, it
consequently produces a smaller cathode
spot, an increased electromagnetic force,
and an increase in the temperature gradi-
ent of the weld pool surface. Conse-
quently, helium will have a greater
Marangoni effect than argon and will thus
create greater surface tension, which ex-
plains the narrower weld with greater pen-
etration shown in Fig. 11.
Sensitivity Study
A sensitivity study is an extremely pow-
erful tool in the NeuroSolutions package
that can be used to determine the influ-
ence of each of the input variables on the
output of the model.
In order to perform the sensitivity analy-
sis, the neural network must first be
trained as normal. The analysis then per-
turbs each of the inputs, one at a time, by
a known variance from the mean while
keeping all other variables at their respec-
tive means and measuring the change in
the output.
The sensitivity for the input k can be ex-
pressed as shown in Equation 3.
where S
k
is the sensitivity for input k, y
ip
is
the i
th
output obtained with the weights
fixed for the, p
th
pattern, o is the number
of network outputs, p is the number of pat-
terns, and
2
k
is the variance of the input
perturbation.
This, when applied across the training
data, can compute how much a change in
the input affects the output. The sensitiv-
ity of a model is not only important in the
context of this model, i.e., determining the
key factors for weld penetration, etc., but
also aids the training of the model with in-
puts of high sensitivities having more im-
portance in the mapping.
Sensitivity of Results
The results of the sensitivity study, Fig.
12, show that the travel speed is the most
influential input variable in affecting the
output variables. This is to be somewhat
expected since the heat input, Q, is directly
related to the travel speed through Equa-
tion 4.
where V is the voltage (V), I is the current
(A), is the thermal efficiency factor, and
TS is the travel speed (mm/s).
The sensitivity study results show that
the shielding gas configurations have the
lowest contribution of the inputs on the
weld geometries. However, this cannot be
taken at face value and is a result of the
sensitivity study perturbing the alternating
frequency, e.g., comparing an alternating
frequency of 5.9 Hz with 6 Hz. As can be
seen in Figs. 6, 8, and 9, although there is
a slight change in the geometries using dif-
ferent frequencies of alternation, the
greatest step change is observed between
the use of premixed Ar/20%CO
2
and al-
ternating at 8 Hz; although, in fact, any
frequency of alternation provides a similar
step change. Figures 6, 8, and 9 also show
that alternating shielding gases have a pos-
itive effect on the level of weld penetration
while also reducing leg length and in-
creasing the effective throat thickness.
Conclusions
A comparison of experimental and
predicted results show that ANN software
can be successfully employed to generate
a model to predict multiple weld geome-
tries. The results of the sensitivity analysis
were in agreement with both findings of
the experimental investigations and find-
ings in other literature.
The ANN model has shown the ability
to accurately identify subtle differences in
the weld geometry, and has consequently
produced a relationship linking the fre-
quency of alternation to the weld penetra-
tion that has not previously been recog-
nized. In doing so, this has shown that
there is an inherent relationship between
the frequency of alternation and the travel
speed.
It has also been found that by training
the model in reverse, the model can be im-
plemented to determine the weld param-
eters required to produce a weld of speci-
fied geometry. The implementation of an
ANN model for the prediction of the weld
parameters necessary to satisfy a given
geometry requirement can reduce the
time required compared to determining
the parameters experimentally, producing
a noticeable economic benefit.
As a consequence of computational
models becoming ever more advanced,
their ability to accurately predict key weld
geometries for a given set of parameters
will help increase confidence that the re-
sultant weld will be of this desired quality.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge
the funding provided by BAE Systems
Surface Ships Ltd., which made this re-
search possible. Additional thanks are due
to Dr. Martyn Lightfoot of the Ship-
builders and Shiprepairers Association
and Simon Beckett of BAE Systems for
their support.
References
1. Campbell, S. W., Galloway, A. M., and
McPherson, N. A. 2011. Techno-economic eval-
uation on the effects of alternating shielding
Q
V I
TS
=
*
*
*
1000
(4)
S
y y
k
ip ip i
o
p
p
k
=
( )
= =
2
1 1
2
(3)