MAE014 Computer and Instruments

1.1 Introduction
Example 1: Sounds of the ocean
Suppose we want to investigate the sounds that travel through the ocean.
A microphone is placed in the water and the resulting electronic signal amplied to a reasonable
level.
An analog low-pass lter is then used to remove all frequencies above 80 hertz, so that the signal
can be digitized at 160 samples per second.
After acquiring and storing several thousand samples, what next?


















































Example 2: Electronic scales
Use a weighing device called a load cell That is an aluminium alloy beam, eliminates the need for
springs, cogs, or other moving parts which can wear, break, or cause inaccuracy in mechanical
scales.
A strain gauge is bonded on the load cell. The strain gauge consists of a small piece of metal foil
which detects any bending of the beam.
When a load is placed on the platform, it causes the load cell to bend very slightly. This, in turn,
causes a change in strain, which triggers a change in the electrical resistance of the strain gauge.
As the resistance changes, so does the output voltage from the strain gauge. In short, the change
in voltage across the strain gauge is proportional to the load on the platform.





































1.2 General measurement system
A measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a physical (measured) variable.
A measurement system is a tool used for quantifying the measured variable extend the abilities
of the human senses.
Can detect and recognize different degrees of roughness, length, sound, color, and smell.
Limited and relative: not very adept at assigning specific to sensed variables.

1.2.1 The sensor
Sensor is a physical element that employs some natural phenomenon by which it senses the
variable being measured.
1.2.2 The transducer
Transducer converts this sensed information into a detectable signal, which might be electrical,
mechanical, optical, or otherwise. The goal is to convert the sensed information into a form that can
be easily quantied.
1.2.3 Signal conditioning
The signal conditioning equipment takes the transducer signal and modies it to a desired
magnitude.
1.2.4 The output stage
The output stage indicates or records the value measured.
1.2.5 The feedback feedback control stage
The control stage contains a controller that interprets the measured signal and makes a decision
regarding the control of the process.
1.3 Components of a measurement system
1.3.1 Variables
Variables are entities that inuence the test.
A variable that can be changed independently of other variables is known as an independent
variable.
A variable that is affected by changes in one or more other variables is known as a dependent
variable.
Variables that are not or cannot be controlled during measurement, but that affect the value of the
variable measured
are called extraneous variables.
1.3.2 Noise
Noise is a random variation of the value of the measured signal as a consequence of the variation of
the variables increases data scatter.
1.3.3 Interference
Interference imposes undesirable deterministic trends on the measured value. Any different from its
true behavior is interference.
1.3.4 Parameters
A parameter is dened as a functional grouping of variables.
A parameter that has an effect on the behavior of the measured variable is called a control
parameter.
Repeated measurements made during any single test run or on a single batch are called
repetitions. Repetition helps to quantify the variation in a measured variable as it occurs during any
one test or batch while the operating conditions are held under nominal control.
An independent duplication of a set of measurements using similar operating conditions is referred
to as a replication.
Replication allows for quantifying the variation in a measured variable as it occurs between different
tests, each having the same nominal values of operating conditions.
1.3.5 Calibration
A calibration applies a known input value to a measurement system for the purpose of observing
the system output value, establishing the relationship between the input and output values.
The known value used for the calibration is called the standard.
The most common type of calibration is known as a static calibration. The term static implies that
the values of the
variables involved remain constant, that is, they do not vary with time or space.
A dynamic calibration determines the relationship between an input of known dynamic behavior
and the measurement system output.
1.3.6 Random and systematic errors
Random error is a measure of the random variation found during repeated measurements of a
variable.
A system that repeatedly indicates the same wrong value upon repeated application of a particular
input would be considered to have small random error contributions regardless of its accuracy.
The repeatability of a measurement system refers its ability to indicate the same value on repeated
measurements for a
specific value of input.
The term precision is sometimes used as a measure of the repeatability of a measurement or
system.
A higher precision infers a lower random error, better repeatability, or less variation between
measurements.
The portion of the absolute error that remains constant on repeated measurements is called the
systematic error. With
systematic error, there is an offset or bias from the true value that cannot be discerned from
repeated measurements.
The slope of static calibration curve yields the static sensitivity sensitivity sensitivity sensitivity of the
measurement system.
























The accuracy of a measurement system refers to its ability to indicate a true value exactly.
Accuracy is related to absolute error.
Absolute error, $\epsilon$, is dened as the difference between the true value applied to a
measurement system and the indicated value of the system:




The precision error is a measure of the random variation found during repeated measurements.
The bias error is the difference between the average value and the true value.

1.4 Base dimensions and their units
Mass
Pound (mass) - Kg: 1lbm = 0.4535924Kg
Length
1ft = 0.3048m
1in = 0.0254m
Temperature
Celsius Kelvin


Fahrenheit - Rankine


Fahrenheit Celsius

Force (Newtons law)


where is a proportionality constant.

Energy
Joule:
Power
Watt:
Stress and pressure
Pascal:
2.1 Introduction to signals
2.1.1 Classification of waveforms
Analog describes a signal that is continuous in time.
Discrete time signal is available only at discrete points in time.
Digital signal exists at discrete values in time and the magnitude is also discrete that is determined
by a process
known as quantization at each discrete point in time. The quantization assigns a single number to
represent a range of
magnitudes of a continuous signal.
Analog-to-digital (A/D) converter is a solid-state device that converts an analog signal to a binary
number system
representation.




2.1.2 Classification of signals
A static signal does not vary with time.

A dynamic signal is dened as a time-dependent signal.
1. A deterministic signal varies in time in a predictable manner, such as a sine wave, a step
function, or a ramp
function.


A dynamic signal is dened as a time-dependent signal.
2. Aperiodic is the term used to describe deterministic signals that do not repeat at regular intervals,
such as a step
function:

A nondeterministic signal that has no discernible pattern of repetition. A nondeterministic signal
cannot be prescribed before it occurs, although certain characteristics of the signal may be known in
advance.


2.2 Signal analysis
2.2.1 Root-Mean-Square value







The average or mean value of the signal is

The power dissipated in a resistor due to the ow of a current is

The total electrical energy dissipated in the resistor from to is

Finding the magnitude of a constant effective current , that would produce the same total
energy dissipation in the resistor as the time-varying current over the time
period :

Similarly, the root-mean-square (RMS) value of any continuous analog variable over the
time is expressed as


2.2.2 Discrete-time signals
A time-dependent analog signal can be represented by values measured over the
time period from to

where

The mean and RMS value

Example 2.1
Suppose the current passing through a resistor can be described by

Calculate the mean and RMS values of the current over a time from 0 to ,
with and .
Solution



Hence


Example 2.2
The following values are obtained by sampling a time-varying signal once every 0.1s

Calculate the mean and RMS values for this discrete data.
Solution
The mean value

Calculating

The RMS value






2.3 Signal amplitude and frequency
2.3.1 Periodic signals
Consider a spring-mass system


The spring force , is the spring constant.
is the displacement.
is the mass.
By Newtons second law

The general form of the solution is

Where , , .

2.3.2 Frequency analysis
A complex signal can be represented by the addition of a number of simpler periodic functions.
Example: The separation of white light through a prism.

Any
complex signal can be thought of as made up of sines and cosines of differing periods and
amplitudes, which are added together in an innite trigonometric series Fourier series.

A function is called a periodic function if there is some positive number such that

If both and have period , then

also has period of .
A periodic function with a period is to be represented by

with known, the coefficients and are to be determined.

Taking integration from to :

Note that

Hence

Multiplying by and integrating from to we get

Similarly, multiplying by and integrating from to we obtain

Using the Euler formula for functions with arbitrary periods leads to

where and the period .

The Fourier series is given by

If (even) its Fourier series contain only cosine terms

If (odd) its Fourier series contain only sine terms

Example

Determine the Fourier series of the following function
(


Since the function is odd, the Fourier series contain only sine terms

where

For even values of , is identically zero and for odd values of

Finally


2.4 Fourier transform and the frequency spectrum
In most practical measurement applications, the input signal may not be known in functional form.

If we consider the period of the function to approach infinity, we can eliminate the constraint on
Fourier analysis that the signal be a periodic waveform. In the limit as approaches infinity the
Fourier series becomes an integral. The spacing between frequency components becomes
infinitesimal. This means that the coefficients and become continuous functions of
frequency and can be expressed as and where

Consider the complex number defined as

Alternative form

If is known or measured, we can recover the signal from (the inverse Fourier
transform)

Note that the Fourier transform is a complex number

where



2.5 Discrete Fourier transform
An approximation to the Fourier transform integral for use on a discrete data set is the discrete
Fourier transform (DFT) given by

where
, .
is the frequency resolution of the DFT.