The mathematical and physical concept of 4-vectors in space-time .

The hidden harmony is superior to the apparent.Heraclitus

George Mpantes, mathematics teacher
mpantes_2@yahoo.gr
Introduction
The physical principle
The geometrical nature of space-time
The transformations of coordinates
The geometrical structure of space-time , the four vectors
The 4-velocity vector
hysical results of 4-velocity
introduction
This article is a continuation of "the mathematical and philosophical concept of
vector (//www.academia.edu/8188816 which referred to vectors of !uclidean space" we will
now consider the vectors in the "world" of #in$ows$i. %e will see that the four&vector in
relativity is a'ain a mathematical form of nature&as in classical physics& which resulted from
deeper surveys and thinner e(periments in areas that were not in our immediate o)servation"
and even caused our intuition.
1
1
Technically we say that the discovery )y Herman #in$ows$i was that the modified
theory of space and time on which *l)ert !insein had founded the relativistic electrodynamics
of movin' )odies" was non other than the theory of invariants of a definite 'roup of linear
transformations of +
,
" namely the -orent. 'roup
1
/ut here these ,&vectors" do not only perform a simple mathematical destination" this
of simplicity and economy in writin' e0uations" namely the 'eometrical unification of
immova)le reference systems. The ,&vectors unify geometrically, moving reference
systems, so discoverin' hidden natural unifications of ma'nitudes and principles" which
were invisi)le to the world of 1&vectors. (e0uivalence of mass and ener'y
2
The physical principle
The physical principle of )e'innin' the investi'ation of ,&vectors is the second
postulate of !instein" in the foundations of relativity3
The velocity of light in empty space is the same in all reference frames and is
independent of the motion of the emitting body.
!
This a(iom" however violates common
sense since two o)servers count everyone at
the same speed of a wave" while movin'
)etween them.
/ased on this a(iom and the
ima'inary e(periments " !instein was a)le to
reconcile all the e(perimental results with the
theory"so today is a cornerstone of natural laws.

4or our theme we will see the conse0uences of this a(iom.
-et (4i'ure 1" two rectan'ular 5artesian inertial movin' parallel in the (&a(is with their
ori'ins" 6 and 67 coincide for t 8 t7 8 9 (standard confi'uration and a li'ht emission from a
common principle" in the same time . *n o)server at rest in the : receives a li'ht si'nal at
time t" at a point # ((" y" . of a sphere of radius ct" while an o)server in system : ;receives
the si'nal at point #< ((<" y< " .< of the correspondin' sphere at time t;.
:ince the speed of li'ht is the same in )oth systems" the followin' relations hold
(
2
= y
2
= .
2
&c
2
t
2
8 9
and
(<
2
= y<
2
= .7
2
>c
2
t<
2
8 9
2
) . .from now on the ideas of space and time as independent concepts shall
disappear and only a union of the two shall )e retained as an independent concept
Min"o#s"i "-ecture 'iven in 5olo'ne " :ept.21 1?98
3
*t the time it was made (the a(iom " was a very )old step " for the e(perimental
evidence in favor of this was not then overwhelmin' " as it is today. Then "as now " it was
contrary to the common sense" this a(iom accepted the e(perimental evidence as fact. @t left it
open the need to e(plain the parado( of the li'ht spheres*l)ert :hadowit. p.?
2
or in 'eneral" )y lettin' the li'ht emission occur at an ar)itrary point" and not in time t8t<89
then holds
,
3
(A2&A1
2
=(y2&y1
2
=(.2& .1
2
&c
2
(t2 >t1
2
8(A<2&A<1
2
=(y<2&y<1
2
=(.<2& .<1
2
&c
2
(t<2 >t<1
2
"
hence coordinate transformations lin$in' the two systems should left unchan'ed the amount
s
2
8$
2
%y
2
%&
2
-c
2
t
2
(1 .(for dinstances from ori'in
or ds
2
'd$
2
%dy
2
%d&
2
-cdt
2
(differential form
The invariance of s
2
is the mathematical e(pression for the constant velocity of li'ht in
vacuum for all the o)servers non accelerated with respect to each other
the geometrical nature of space-time
#in$ows$i immediately reco'nised in the mathematical form of this invariant (1 the
e(pression of a s0uare of a distance in a four dimensional continuum. This distance was
termed the (insteinian interval or simply the interval. The invariance of all such distances
implied the a)solute character of the metric relations of this four&dimentional continuum"
re'ardless of our motion " and there)y implied the a)solute nature of the continuum itself. The
continuum was neither space nor time " )ut it pertained to )oth" since a distance )etween
two of its points could )e split up in space and time distances in various ways " Bust as a
distance in ordinary space can )e split up into len'th ")reath and hei'ht " also in various
ways. 4or these reasons it was called space-time. The 'eometry of this space&time )ased
upon the metric (1 will )e called 'eometry of #in$ows$i or M-geometry. This metric 'ives
us the "distance" for all o)servers" of events li$e one in *thens today and another tomorrow
in CarisD
This interval was a discovery of 'reat importance to the history of natural philosophy.
@t was an invariant " representin' the s0uare of the spatial distance covered )y a )ody in any
Ealilean frame " minus c
2
times the s0uare of the duration re0uired for this performance (the
duration )ein' measured of course" )y the standard of time of the same frame. @t may )e
positive" ne'ative or .ero (for events on a li'ht ray" and this creates a classificassion in
intervals" and later in ,& vectors . This contri)ution of si'ns" ma$es us )e careful not to thin$
of the world #in$ows$i as a strai'htforward 'enerali.ation of ordinary !uclidean 1&space to
four dimensions" with time as Bust one more dimension. The space&time has no isotropic
properties" in star$ contrast with the !uclidean space with it7s positive definite metric.
)*.+indler p.,!
*s we saw" in interval " the distance of two events is correlated with the distance
which li'ht can travel in the time )etween the two events.
4
FGHGIJKJLMNOJ PQRAQSG" &TUVWOGQNX UYQ.28?
1
:o the interval is a operationally defined ma'nitude " with instrumentation cloc$s"
solid rods and li'ht rays. The metric of spacetime is an operational metric" as the metric
performed with solid rods in three&dimensional !uclidean space.
this does not mean , however that space and time lose their specific individual
differences , for, clearly , clocks and measuring rods are quite different types of measuring
instruments. This union of space and time , therefore , preserves their specific properties
(Reinhenbach p.1
%hat is the role of the li'ht rayZ This ma$es the conceptual union of space and time"
an operational union. This union has it7s 'enesis in the li'ht ray that will lin$ the two events"
since the motion of the li'ht created the interval(the second postulate of relativity. The li'ht
ray creates the union" Boinin' the two measurements of the rod and the cloc$" ma$in' the li'ht
prota'onist of the universal metric. Hence the presence of space&time continuum )e'an to
)e distin'uished" as physics proceeded to study the world of hi'h speeds.
The ne(t pro)lem is to determine the 'eometry of this mysterious continuum.
@n the first place " it may appear stran'e that measurements with cloc$s can )e co&
ordinated with measurements with rods. This difficulty " need not arrest us [ for althou'h dt is
a time which can )e measured with a coc$" yet cdt " )ein' the product of a velocity )y a time "
is a spatial len'th since it represents the spatial distance covered )y li'ht in the time dt. 4or
this reason we may consider our four&dimensional continuum to possess the 0ualifications of
an e(tensional space.
@n tensor calculus we learn that $nowin' the metric tensor of a reference system"
which is characteristic for each system" we can e(tract all the 'eometric features of the space
and to esta)lish the analytic 'eometry of the system" the metric tensor is a function that
shows us how to calculate the distance between two points in a given space. @n flat spaces
with rectilinear coordinate systems the metric tensor is independent of the position of points.
@n curved spaces (curvilinear coordinates a metric tensor is a function of position" it
determines the metric in an infinitesimal re'ion around it" the 'eometry )ecomes differential .
@n our reference system" it is easy to see (from the metric element 1 that the metric tensor is
:o we have a \flat space" and rectilinear coordinates.
The only flat continuum which is now $nown" is the !uclidean space" )ut space&time
althou'h it is flat" it is not strictly !uclidean3 the coefficient of c
2
t
2
is &1 instead of 1 that we
would have in a four&dimensional !uclidean space. Thus" space&time was characteri.ed ()y
the terminolo'y of Hil)ert as a pseudo-(uclidean and measured )y means of pseudo-
,
) 2 ...( ..........
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

=
mn
g
(uclidean metric" which is the 'eometry of the flat space&time" the M)in"o#s"ian-
-geometry.
The transformations of coordinates .
The invariance of the interval in all frames of reference means that the
transformations of coordinate of systems" should 'uarantee this )ehavior.
4ortunately" there is a uni0ue transformation that satisfies the a)ove condition while
maintainin' the linarity of the relations )etween the coordinates (space homo'eneous and
isotropic" homo'eneous time" called "-orent. transformation"
The -orent. transformations (are the correspondin' of ortho'onal linear
transformations of !uclidean 'eometry are essential in the theory of relativity" which could )e
called "theory of -orent. transformations] (:yn'e.
The first service is that su)stitutin' in (1 the coordinates of (1 we have that

^et the appearance of the space&coordinate ( " in the transformation of the time is the
mathematical e(pression of the relativity of simultaneity" etc.
/ut a $ey 'eometrical feature is that they connect space&time systems with a
common ori'in. @t means that in # >'eometry" the -orent. transformation descri)e a "rotation"
of the space&time system" unli$e Ealilean transformations descri)in' a translation of systems
in the !uclidean space. This difference in the form of transformations" converts the invariance
of _ewton;s laws in covariance of relativistic laws. The 'eometry is the deeper reality.
The geometrical structure of space-time, the 4- vectors
@f there is not somethin' inconceiva)le" )eyond phenomena (OG`aOGULG " )ut all were
sensi)le " we would not have science for any thin'" e(cept only if one says that the sense is science.
(.ristotle, Metaphysics /// 0 1
This phenomenon of the space&time linear element" #in$ows$i has incorporated into an
ele'ant calculus of a new 'eometry. The need of transition to a new 'eometry for the
physical description comes from the first a(iom of relativity3 all inertial frames are
e2uivalent for the formulation of all physical la#s.
Hence all physical laws should )e written in vector lan'ua'e )ut now the "space" of
phenomena was space&time. That is the new 'eometry would )e four&dimensional . This is
the 'eometry of #in$ows$i.
/ut ,& vectors have a deeper 'eometrical characteristic with physical meanin'3 via
these" the natural laws that are independent of motion are produced" thus we can reco'ni.e
b
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
' ' ' ' s t c z y x t c z y x = + + = + +
) 3 ( , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ),
c
x'
(t' t , z' z , y' y ), ' ' (
2

+ = = = + = t x x
)y their form alone whether a 'iven or proposed law is -orent. invariant without havin' to
apply a transformation. This has 'reat heuristic value. #oreover " )y automatically com)inin'
such entities as space and time" momentum and ener'y" electric and ma'netic field" etc. the
formalism illuminates some profound physical interconnections. :o the production of ,&
vectors precedes the e0uation of the law. The production of ,&vectors in #in$ows$i space is
the entire course of the theory of relativity.
How can we e(plain this factZ The 'eometry of space time produce new physical
phenomenaD /ut we have seen this situation in 'eometry of 1&space. *s in evolution of
'eometry of ordinary space" we had new truths for this space" now we have new theorems
in 'eometry of space&time. 4or e(ample in !uclidean 'eometry we have the theorem of
Eauss that \there is not an upper limit in the area of a triangle . @t is a profound geometrical
interconnection in space7s structure" a new truth. @n the evolution of 'eometry of space&time"
we have new ,&'eometrical discoveries" )ut now they are physical events.
!ventually relativity )ecame a 'eometric theory" "the 'eometry of flat space&time."
The formalism of tensor calculus in 'eometry remains" althou'h intuition is lost in four&
dimensional world.
The -orent.ian ,&vectors are the )asic mathematical o)Bects of this 'eometry. :o far
we have met the metric tensor 'mn" the relative position vector (
r
" and the displacement vector
d(
r
.Their essence as the $nown 1&vectors" is that they can )e defined independently from
any system (now of spatio&temporal coordinates.
4or space&time" as for the static !uclidean space" the vector is an oriented line
se'ment (arrow . There is the initial and terminal point" it7s ma'nitude" sense " direction" and
all $nown concepts from the vector 'eometry. :till" in connection with the linear spatio&
temporal reference systems" we should define four num)ers" each 'ives the len'th of the
proBection of the arrow in the respective a(is of the system. These four num)ers form the ,&
vector. The three of them refer to spatial directions and the fourth in the "direction" of time" all
referred in this reference system. @f the ma'nitude of this ,&vector is invariant with respect to
-orent. transformations" then it is an ori'inal 'eometric o)Bect in #in$ows$i spacetime" as a
1&vector in !uclidean 1&space.
@n order to understand the new vectorial reality in #& space we will proceed as
follows3
@n connection with an event 6 as an ori'in of the coordinate system" the world of facts ((" y"
." t" can )e divided in a -orent.ian invariant way into two parts " which are characteri.ed )y
s
2
34 (past and future (*
s
2
5 4 (intermediate re'ion (/
These re'ions are separated )y the cone
$
2
% y
2
% &
2
-c
2
t
2
' 4 (li'ht cone (5
on which the world lines of the li'ht rays lie..
6
@f one lets the startind point of a vector coincide with the ori'in of the coordinate
system " the vector is called space 6li"e if its end point lies in world re'ion (/ " time- li"e if it
is in (*. @t is called a null vector (vector of ma'nitude .ero if it lies on the cone (5.
:pace&li$e events can not influence the o)server directly" as never happens (c ct"
these events do not happen in the reality of our world (are located elsewhere" . The re'ion
occupied )y events of type (/ do not stand in an a)solute temporal relationship with 6" so
these events can not have a causal connection
with the ori'in.
:till" if we consider that the speed of li'ht
is ma(imum in nature" then the path of )ody with
mass" must )e time&li$e" that is the cosmic line
)e located entirely inside the li'ht cone. 6nly
world points in the re'ion (* can have causal
connections with the ori'in.
*ll these are shown in fi'ure of the cone
of li'ht in the system (( 6" ct" who is analy.ed in every )oo$ of relativity
7
. %e will
simply note that the dia'ram of the cone is the (uclidean model of the pseudo&
!uclidean metric. %e illustrate the space&time 'eometry (#&'eometry with !uclidean
shapes (!&'eometry. Their relationship points us an analo'y as"
the vector geometry in +
1
was an invariant theory of ortho'onal transformations"
now the # &'eometry is an invariant theory of -orent. transformations"
The events in space-time are points in dia'ram" the cosmic )ody lines are strai'ht
lines" the locus of points with constant #& distance from the ori'in is !&hy)er)olas"
the 8orent& transformations (in the fi'ure can not )e loo$ed upon as a rotation of
the coordinate system " )ut as a transformation of one system of conBu'ate diameters of the
hyper)oloid (
2
= y
2
= .
2
& (ct
2
8 constant" into another
6
" the #&rotation"
the M-orthogonal directions (6*"6/ in fi'ure form !&e0ual an'les with the null
lines" etc.
The 4-velocity vector.
*s an e(ample of composition of a four vector referrin' to the world of motion" we shall
define the ,&vector of velocity" the ,&velocity or the cosmic velocity. :uch a vector in a
chan'e in the Ealilean system must to transform as the coordinates (-orent. )ut still )e
lin$ed (mar'inally with $nown three&vector u" the 1& velocity of the particle. The process of
b
4or easy visuali.ations of four dimensions" two space coordinates are often
suppressed
6
This interpretation of the -orent. transformation "and also the terminolo'y employed
here " occur first in #i$ows$i7s wor$ (Cauli)
d
'enerali.in' a $nown 1&vector )y a sli'ht modification "if necessary" of its three components
and the addition of a fourth to form a ,&vector is a most fruitful way of discoverin' si'nificant
,&vectrors " and throu'h them" the relativistically valid laws of physics.(+indler
The natural solution is to divide the ,&vector d+ 8 (dr" cdt with the differential
element dL of proper time" which is an invariant in the #in$ows$i space&time as the dt in
classical spacetime. 4or this ratio" is easily proven that satisfies the -orent. transformations
in a chan'e of system" in #&space.
/ut from time dilation we $now that proper time )etween successive positions is associated
with the coordinate time t of the system with the relationship

This description 'ives

@t is apparent from the fore'oin' description that this is the desired ,&vector speed"
transformed as d + in a chan'e of the reference system" and it is time&li$e vector as its
ma'nitude is >c
2
.
hysical results of 4-velocity
%hen a particle in a system is at rest (u 8 9" it7s cosmic speed is (9"9"9" c" that is parallel
to the time a(is and has a len'th e0ual to one unit of time. :o even when we sleep" we "run"
in the direction of time" with speed c. @t;s what we say that time never stops.
/ut revelations of the cosmic speed are deeper.
%ith increasin' space velocity u of a mo)ile" increase the temporal dimension of
cosmic speed. %hat does this meanZ that the fraction cdt /dL )ecomes lar'er so the ratio
dt /dL increases. This means in turn that the proper time of the mo)ile )ecomes increasin'ly
smaller relative to the coordinate time system" i.e. the flow of time )ecomes increasin'ly
slower for the mo)ile" relative to the system" thus the mo)ile is "a'in'" later . Clacin' these in
our daily e(perience" we say that the faster we run" the more slowly a'e with respect to the
whole of life on earth.
/ut the findin's continue towards a new $inematics3 this is a new type of addition of
velocities which ta$es us completely outside of our traditional perceptions.
-et a )ody in inertial system : with velocity u" we find the velocity in the inertial
frame : ; in the positive direction of the 6(. %e should not confuse e(u of the cosmic speed
with e(W of the -orent. transformations" u is the $nown speed of a mo)ile in our system. W
is the relative velocity of the two systems"
*pplyin' for the ,& velocity -orent. transformations we have for the first component
8
d u
c
u
d dt ). (
1
1
.
2
2
=

=
) 4 )......( , )( ( ) , ( ) ( c u u ct r
dt
d
u
d
dR
U

= = =

(b is the well&$nown formula for the addition of velocities in relativity. 6)serve that if
we put c in place of u( we have u( 8 c ie $nown proposal for the constancy of the speed of
li'ht in all systems (second principle of relativity.
The formula (b differs from the correspondin' classical formulae )y the presence of
the denominators. The classical model can )e recover" as mi'ht )e e(pected " )y lettin' c f
g.
!ven the new formula produce the effect of limitin' the speed of li'ht in the universe.
:peeds measured in the same system" are added as in classical theory" with the rule
of the parallelo'ram. 4or the o)server of another system" the rule of the parallelo'ram
ceases to 0e valid.
The ,&speed will run its course in relativity" producin' new ,&vectors which in turn will
chan'e the entire landscape of _ewtonian mechanics.
0oo"s I read
1. @ntroduction to vector and tensor analysis9 :over ;.<) +o0ert =. *rede-
2. :pecial relativity3>liver and ;oyd (dim0urg"( *. +indler-
!. The meanin' of relativity3.rinceton ?niversity ress(.l0ert (instein-
4. +elativity and 'eometry3 .:over @.<.(+o0erto Torreti-
7. +elativity3 the special theory3 @orth-Aolland pu0lishing =ompany ...
(Bynge-
,. YSUGehei ULVj LGjWULSOk QVeSUKk C.DEFGHIJ
http9KK###.scri0d.comKdocK2!4422L22
M. l `YhMRG LJX UAYLSOkLJLGX ULV mnOYSV C. DEFGHIJ
http3//www.scri)d.com/doc/228?6bdb6
8. the philosophy of :pace and time :over, Aans +eichen0ach
George Mpantes, mathematics teacher
mpantes_2@yahoo.gr
?
) 5 .( ..........
1
'
2
c
u
u
u
x
x
x

=
19