I.

The History of the Atomic Bomb

A. Development (The Manhattan Project)
On August 2nd 1939, just before the beginning of World War
II, Albert Einstein wrote to then President Franklin D.
Roosevelt. Einstein and several other scientists told Roosevelt
of efforts in Nazi Germany to purify U-235 with which might in
turn be used to build an atomic bomb. It was shortly thereafter
that the United States Government began the serious
undertaking known only then as the Manhattan Project.
Simply put, the Manhattan Project was committed to
expedient research and production that would produce a viable
atomic bomb.
The most complicated issue to be addressed was the
production of ample amounts of 'enriched' uranium to sustain
a chain reaction. At the time, Uranium-235 was very hard to
extract. In fact, the ratio of conversion from Uranium ore to Uranium metal is 500:1. An
additional drawback is that the 1 part of Uranium that is finally refined from the ore
consists of over 99% Uranium-238, which is practically useless for an atomic bomb. To
make it even more difficult, U-235 and U-238 are precisely similar in their chemical
makeup. This proved to be as much of a challenge as separating a solution of sucrose
from a solution of glucose. No ordinary chemical extraction could separate the two
isotopes. Only mechanical methods could effectively separate U-235 from U-238.
Several scientists at Columbia University managed to solve this dilemma.
A massive enrichment laboratory/plant was constructed at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. H.C.
Urey, along with his associates and colleagues at Columbia University, devised a system
that worked on the principle of gaseous diffusion. Following this process, Ernest O.
Lawrence (inventor of the Cyclotron) at the University of California in Berkeley
implemented a process involving magnetic separation of the two isotopes.
Following the first two processes, a gas centrifuge was used to further separate the
lighter U-235 from the heavier non-fissionable U-238 by their mass. Once all of these
procedures had been completed, all that needed to be done was to put to the test the
entire concept behind atomic fission. [For more information on these procedures of
refining Uranium, see Section 3.]
Over the course of six years, ranging from 1939 to 1945, more than 2 billion dollars were
spent on the Manhattan Project. The formulas for refining Uranium and putting
together a working bomb were created and seen to their logical ends by some of the
greatest minds of our time. Among these people who unleashed the power of the atomic
bomb was J. Robert Oppenheimer.
Oppenheimer was the major force behind the Manhattan Project. He literally ran the
show and saw to it that all of the great minds working on this project made their
brainstorms work. He oversaw the entire project from its conception to its completion.
Finally the day came when all at Los Alamos would find out whether or not The Gadget
(code-named as such during its development) was either going to be the colossal dud of
the century or perhaps end the war. It all came down to a fateful morning of
midsummer, 1945.
At 5:29:45 (Mountain War Time) on July 16th, 1945, in a white blaze that stretched from
the basin of the Jemez Mountains in northern New Mexico to the still-dark skies, The
Gadget ushered in the Atomic Age. The light of the explosion then turned orange as the
atomic fireball began shooting upwards at 360 feet per second, reddening and pulsing as
it cooled. The characteristic mushroom cloud of radioactive vapor materialized at
30,000 feet. Beneath the cloud, all that remained of the soil at the blast site were
fragments of jade green radioactive glass. ...All of this caused by the heat of the reaction.
The brilliant light from the detonation pierced the early morning skies with such
intensity that residents from a faraway neighboring community would swear that the
sun came up twice that day. Even more astonishing is that a blind girl saw the flash 120
miles away.
Upon witnessing the explosion, reactions among the people who created it were mixed.
Isidor Rabi felt that the equilibrium in nature had been upset -- as if humankind had
become a threat to the world it inhabited. J. Robert Oppenheimer, though ecstatic about
the success of the project, quoted a remembered fragment from Bhagavad Gita. "I am
become Death," he said, "the destroyer of worlds." Ken Bainbridge, the test director, told
Oppenheimer, "Now we're all sons of bitches."
Several participants, shortly after viewing the results, signed petitions against loosing
the monster they had created, but their protests fell on deaf ears. As it later turned out,
the Jornada del Muerto of New Mexico
was not the last site on planet Earth to
experience an atomic explosion.
B. Detonation
1. Hiroshima

As many know, atomic bombs have

been used only twice in warfare. The Little Boy Fat Man
first and foremost blast site of the
atomic bomb is Hiroshima. A Uranium bomb (which weighed in at over 4 & 1/2 tons)
nicknamed "Little Boy" was dropped on Hiroshima August 6th, 1945. The Aioi Bridge,
one of 81 bridges connecting the seven-branched delta of the Ota River, was the aiming
point of the bomb. Ground Zero was set at 1,980 feet. At 0815 hours, the bomb was
dropped from the Enola Gay. It missed by only 800 feet. At 0816 hours, in the flash of
an instant, 66,000 people were killed and 69,000 people were injured by a 10 kiloton
atomic explosion.
The point of total vaporization from the blast measured one
half of a mile in diameter. Total destruction ranged at one mile
in diameter. Severe blast damage carried as far as two miles in
diameter. At two and a half miles, everything flammable in the
area burned. The remaining area of the blast zone was riddled
with serious blazes that stretched out to the final edge at a
little over three miles in diameter. [See diagram below for blast ranges from the atomic
blast.]
2. Nagasaki
On August 9th 1945, Nagasaki fell to the same treatment as Hiroshima. Only this time, a
Plutonium bomb nicknamed "Fat Man" was dropped on the city. Even though the "Fat
Man" missed by over a mile and a half, it still leveled nearly half the city. Nagasaki's
population dropped in one split-second from 422,000 to 383,000. 39,000 were killed,
over 25,000 were injured. That blast was less than 10 kilotons as well. Estimates from
physicists who have studied each atomic explosion state that the bombs that were used
had utilized only 1/10th of 1 percent of their respective explosive capabilities.
3. Byproducts of atomic detonations
While the mere explosion from an atomic bomb is deadly enough, its destructive ability
doesn't stop there. Atomic fallout creates another hazard as well. The rain that follows
any atomic detonation is laden with radioactive particles. Many survivors of the
Hiroshima and Nagasaki blasts succumbed to radiation poisoning due to this occurance.
The atomic detonation also has the hidden lethal surprise of affecting the future
generations of those who live through it. Leukemia is among the greatest of afflictions
that are passed on to the offspring of survivors.
While the main purpose behind the atomic bomb is obvious, there are many by-products
that have been brought into consideration in the use of all weapons atomic. With one
small atomic bomb, a massive area's communications, travel and machinery will grind
to a dead halt due to the EMP (Electro-Magnetic Pulse) that is radiated from a high-
altitude atomic detonation. These high-level detonations are hardly lethal, yet they
deliver a serious enough EMP to scramble any and all things electronic ranging from
copper wires all the way up to a computer's CPU within a 50 mile radius.
At one time, during the early days of The Atomic Age, it was a popular notion that one
day atomic bombs would one day be used in mining operations and perhaps aid in the
construction of another Panama Canal. Needless to say, it never came about. Instead,
the military applications of atomic destruction increased. Atomic tests off of the Bikini
Atoll and several other sites were common up until the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was
introduced. Photos of nuclear test sites here in the United States can be obtained
through the Freedom of Information Act.
4. Breakdown of the Atomic Bomb's Blast Zones
.
. .

. . .
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[1] Vaporization Point
Everything is vaporized by the atomic blast. 98% fatalities. Overpress=25
psi. Wind velocity=320 mph.
[2] Total Destruction
All structures above ground are destroyed. 90% fatalities. Overpress=17
psi. Wind velocity=290 mph.
[3] Severe Blast Damage
Factories and other large-scale building collapse. Severe damage to
highway bridges. Rivers sometimes flow countercurrent. 65% fatalities,
30% injured. Overpress=9 psi. Wind velocity=260 mph.
[4] Severe Heat Damage
Everything flammable burns. People in the area suffocate due to the fact
that most available oxygen is consumed by the fires. 50% fatalities, 45%
injured. Overpress=6 psi. Wind velocity=140 mph.
[5] Severe Fire & Wind Damage
Residency structures are severely damaged. People are blown around. 2nd
and 3rd-degree burns suffered by most survivors. 15% dead. 50% injured.
Overpress=3 psi. Wind velocity=98 mph.
Blast Zone Radii
[3 different bomb types]
______________________ ______________________ ______________________
| | | | | |
| -[10 KILOTONS]- | | -[1 MEGATON]- | | -[20 MEGATONS]- |
|----------------------| |----------------------| |----------------------|
| Airburst - 1,980 ft | | Airburst - 8,000 ft | | Airburst - 17,500 ft |
|______________________| |______________________| |______________________|
| | | | | |
| [1] 0.5 miles | | [1] 2.5 miles | | [1] 8.75 miles |
| [2] 1 mile | | [2] 3.75 miles | | [2] 14 miles |
| [3] 1.75 miles | | [3] 6.5 miles | | [3] 27 miles |
| [4] 2.5 miles | | [4] 7.75 miles | | [4] 31 miles |
| [5] 3 miles | | [5] 10 miles | | [5] 35 miles |
| | | | | |
 |______________________| |______________________| |______________________|

II. Nuclear Fission/Nuclear Fusion

A. Fission (A-Bomb) & Fusion (H-Bomb)
There are two types of atomic explosions that can be
facilitated by U-235: fission and fusion. Fission, simply
put, is a nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus
splits into fragments, usually two fragments of
comparable mass, with the evolution of approximately
100 million to several hundred million volts of energy.
[See comment.] This energy is expelled explosively and
violently in the atomic bomb. A fusion reaction is
invariably started with a fission reaction, but unlike the
fission reaction, the fusion (Hydrogen) bomb derives its
power from the fusing of nuclei of various hydrogen
isotopes in the formation of helium nuclei. Being that the
bomb in this section is strictly atomic, the other aspects
of the Hydrogen Bomb will be set aside for now.
The massive power behind the reaction in an atomic
bomb arises from the forces that hold the atom together.
These forces are akin to, but not quite the same as,
magnetism.
Atoms are comprised of three sub-atomic particles. Protons and neutrons cluster
together to form the nucleus (central mass) of the atom while the electrons orbit the
nucleus much like planets around a sun. It is these particles that determine the stability
of the atom.
Most natural elements have very stable atoms which are impossible to split except by
bombardment by particle accelerators. For all practical purposes, the one true element
whose atoms can be split comparatively easily is the metal Uranium. Uranium's atoms
are unusually large, henceforth, it is hard for them to hold together firmly. This makes
Uranium-235 an exceptional candidate for nuclear fission.
Uranium is a heavy metal, heavier than gold, and not only does it have the largest atoms
of any natural element, the atoms that comprise Uranium have far more neutrons than
protons. This does not enhance their capacity to split, but it does have an important
bearing on their capacity to facilitate an explosion.
There are two isotopes of Uranium. Natural Uranium consists mostly of isotope U-238,
which has 92 protons and 146 neutrons (92+146=238). Mixed with this isotope, one will
find a 0.6% accumulation of U-235, which has only 143 neutrons. This isotope, unlike U-
238, has atoms that can be split, thus it is termed "fissionable" and useful in making
atomic bombs. Being that U-238 is neutron-heavy, it reflects neutrons, rather than
absorbing them like its brother isotope, U-235. [See comment.]
U-238 serves no function in an atomic reaction, but its properties provide an excellent
shield for the U-235 in a constructed bomb as a neutron reflector. This helps prevent an
accidental chain reaction between the larger U-235 mass and its 'bullet' counterpart
within the bomb. Also note that while U-238 cannot facilitate a chain-reaction, it can be
neutron-saturated to produce Plutonium (Pu-239). Plutonium is fissionable and can be
used in place of Uranium-235 {albeit, with a different model of detonator} in an atomic
bomb.
Both isotopes of Uranium are naturally radioactive. Their bulky atoms disintegrate over
a period of time. Given enough time (over 100,000 years or more) Uranium will
eventually lose so many particles that it will turn into the metal Lead. However, the
process of decay can be accelerated in what is known as a chain reaction. Instead of
disintegrating slowly, the atoms are forcibly split by neutrons forcing their way into the
nuclei. A U-235 atom is so unstable that a blow from a single neutron is enough to split
it and henceforth bring on a chain reaction (by releasing further neutrons). This can
happen even when a (comparatively small) critical mass is present. When this chain
reaction occurs, the Uranium atom splits into two smaller atoms of different elements,
such as Barium and Krypton.
When a U-235 atom splits, it gives off energy in the form of heat and Gamma radiation,
which is the most powerful form of radioactivity and the most lethal. [See comment.]
When this reaction occurs, the split atom will also give off two or three of its 'spare'
neutrons, which are not needed to make either Barium or Krypton. These spare
neutrons fly out with sufficient force to split other atoms they come in contact with. [See
chart below.] In theory, it is necessary to split only one U-235 atom, and the neutrons
from this will split other atoms, which will split mor ... so on and so forth. This
progression does not take place arithmetically, but geometrically. All of this will happen
within a millionth of a second.
The minimum amount to start a chain reaction as described above is known as
SuperCritical Mass. The actual mass needed to facilitate this chain reaction depends
upon the purity of the material, but for pure U-235, it is 110 pounds (50 kilograms), but
no Uranium is ever quite pure, so in reality more will be needed. [See comment.]
Diagram of a Chain Reaction
[1] - Incoming Neutron
[2] - Uranium-235
[3] - Uranium-236
[4] - Barium Atom
[5] - Krypton Atom

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[1] [1] [1] [1] [1] [1]
B. U-235, U-238 and Plutonium
Uranium is not the only material used for making atomic bombs. Another material is the
element Plutonium, in its isotope Pu-239. Plutonium is not found naturally (except in
minute traces) and is always made from Uranium. The only way to produce Plutonium
from Uranium is to process U-238 through a nuclear reactor. After a period of time, the
intense radioactivity causes the metal to pick up extra particles, so that more and more
of its atoms turn into Plutonium.
Plutonium will not start a fast chain reaction by itself, but this difficulty is overcome by
having a neutron source, a highly radioactive material that gives off neutrons faster than
the Plutonium itself. In certain types of bombs, a mixture of the elements Beryllium and
Polonium is used to bring about this reaction. Only a small piece is needed. The material
is not fissionable in and of itself, but merely acts as a catalyst to the greater reaction.

III. The Mechanism of The Bomb

A. Altimeter
An ordinary aircraft altimeter uses a type of Aneroid Barometer which measures the
changes in air pressure at different heights. However, changes in air pressure due to the
weather can adversely affect the altimeter's readings. It is far more favorable to use a
radar (or radio) altimeter for enhanced accuracy when the bomb reaches Ground Zero.
While Frequency Modulated-Continuous Wave (FM CW) is more complicated, the
accuracy of it far surpasses any other type of altimeter. Like simple pulse systems,
signals are emitted from a radar aerial (the bomb), bounced off the ground and received
back at the bomb's altimeter. This pulse system applies to the more advanced altimeter
system, only the signal is continuous and centered around a high frequency such as
4200 MHz. This signal is arranged to steadily increase at 200 MHz per interval before
dropping back to its original frequency.
As the descent of the bomb begins, the altimeter transmitter will send out a pulse
starting at 4200 MHz. By the time that pulse has returned, the altimeter transmitter will
be emitting a higher frequency. The difference depends on how long the pulse has taken
to do the return journey. When these two frequencies are mixed electronically, a new
frequency (the difference between the two) emerges. The value of this new frequency is
measured by the built-in microchips. This value is directly proportional to the distance
travelled by the original pulse, so it can be used to give the actual height.
In practice, a typical FM CW radar today would sweep 120 times per second. Its range
would be up to 10,000 feet (3000 m) over land and 20,000 feet (6000 m) over sea,
since sound reflections from water surfaces are clearer.
The accuracy of these altimeters is within 5 feet (1.5 m) for the higher ranges. Being that
the ideal airburst for the atomic bomb is usually set for 1,980 feet, this error factor is not
of enormous concern.
The high cost of these radar-type altimeters has prevented their use in commercial
applications, but the decreasing cost of electronic components should make them
competitive with barometric types before too long.
B. Air Pressure Detonator
The air pressure detonator can be a very complex mechanism, but for all practical
purposes, a simpler model can be used. At high altitudes, the air is of lesser pressure. As
the altitude drops, the air pressure increases. A simple piece of very thin magnetized
metal can be used as an air pressure detonator. All that is needed is for the strip of metal
to have a bubble of extremely thin metal forged in the center and have it placed directly
underneath the electrical contact which will trigger the conventional explosive
detonation. Before the strip is set in place, the bubble is pushed in so that it will be
inverted.
Once the air pressure has achieved the desired level, the magnetic bubble will snap back
into its original position and strike the contact, thus completing the circuit and setting
off the explosive(s).
C. Detonating Head(s)
The detonating head (or heads, depending on whether a Uranium or Plutonium bomb is
being used as a model) that is seated in the conventional explosive charge(s) is similar to
the standard-issue blasting cap. It merely serves as a catalyst to bring about a greater
explosion. Calibration of this device is essential. Too small of a detonating head will only
cause a colossal dud that will be doubly dangerous since someone's got to disarm and re-
fit the bomb with another detonating head. (An added measure of discomfort comes
from the knowledge that the conventional explosive may have detonated with
insufficient force to weld the radioactive metals. This will cause a supercritical mass that
could go off at any time.) The detonating head will receive an electric charge from either
the air pressure detonator or the radar altimeter's coordinating detonator, depending on
what type of system is used. The Du Pont company makes rather excellent blasting caps
that can be easily modified to suit the required specifications.
D. Conventional Explosive Charge(s)
This explosive is used to introduce (and weld) the lesser amount of Uranium to the
greater amount within the bomb's housing. [The amount of pressure needed to bring
this about is unknown and possibly classified by the United States Government for
reasons of National Security.]
Plastic explosives work best in this situation since they can be manipulated to enable
both a Uranium bomb and a Plutonium bomb to detonate. One very good explosive is
Urea Nitrate. The directions on how to make Urea Nitrate are as follows:
Ingredients
[1] 1 cup concentrated solution of uric acid (C5 H4 N4 O3)
[2] 1/3 cup of nitric acid
[3] 4 heat-resistant glass containers
[4] 4 filters (such as coffee filters)
Filter the concentrated solution of uric acid through a filter to remove impurities. Slowly
add 1/3 cup of nitric acid to the solution and let the mixture stand for one hour. Filter
again as before. This time the Urea Nitrate crystals will collect on the filter. Wash the
crystals by pouring water over them while they are in the filter. Remove the crystals
from the filter and allow 16 hours for them to dry. This explosive needs a blasting cap to
detonate.
It may be necessary to make a quantity larger than the aforementioned list calls for to
bring about an explosion great enough to cause the Uranium (or Plutonium) sections to
weld together on impact.
E. Neutron Deflector
The neutron deflector is comprised solely of Uranium-238. Not only is U-238 non-
fissionable, it also has the unique ability to reflect neutrons back to their source.
The U-238 neutron deflector can serve two purposes. In a Uranium bomb, the neutron
deflector serves as a safeguard to keep an accidental supercritical mass from occurring
by bouncing the stray neutrons from the 'bullet' counterpart of the Uranium mass away
from the greater mass below it (and vice-versa). The neutron deflector in a Plutonium
bomb actually helps the wedges of Plutonium retain their neutrons by 'reflecting' the
stray particles back into the center of the assembly.
F. Uranium & Plutonium
Uranium-235 is very difficult to extract. In fact, for every 25,000 tons of Uranium ore
that is mined from the earth, only 50 tons of Uranium metal can be refined from that,
and 99.3% of that metal is U-238 which is too stable to be used as an active agent in an
atomic detonation. To make matters even more complicated, no ordinary chemical
extraction can separate the two isotopes since both U-235 and U-238 possess precisely
identical chemical characteristics. The only methods that can effectively separate U-235
from U-238 are mechanical methods.
U-235 is slightly, but only slightly, lighter than its counterpart, U-238. A system of
gaseous diffusion is used to begin the separating process between the two isotopes. In
this system, Uranium is combined with fluorine to form Uranium Hexafluoride gas. This
mixture is then propelled by low-pressure pumps through a series of extremely fine
porous barriers. Because the U-235 atoms are lighter and thus propelled faster than the
U-238 atoms, they can penetrate the barriers more rapidly. As a result, the U-235's
concentration becomes successively greater as it passed through each barrier. After
passing through several thousand barriers, the Uranium Hexafluoride contains a
relatively high concentration of U-235 -- 2% pure Uranium-235 in the case of reactor
fuel - and if pushed further could (theoretically) yield up to 95% pure Uranium-235 for
use in an atomic bomb.
Once the process of gaseous diffusion is finished, the Uranium must be refined once
again. Magnetic separation of the extract from the previous enriching process is then
implemented to further refine the Uranium. This involves electrically charging Uranium
Tetrachloride gas and directing it past a weak electromagnet. Since the lighter U-235
particles in the gas stream are less affected by the magnetic pull, they can be gradually
separated from the flow.
Following the first two procedures, a third enrichment process is then applied to the
extract from the second process. In this procedure, a gas centrifuge is brought into
action to further separate the lighter U-235 from its heavier counter-isotope. Centrifugal
force separates the two isotopes of Uranium by their mass. [See comment.] Once all of
these procedures have been completed, all that need be done is to place the properly
molded components of Uranium-235 inside a warhead that will facilitate an atomic
detonation.
Supercritical mass for Uranium-235 is defined as 110 lbs (50 kgs) of pure Uranium.
Depending on the refining process(es) used when purifying the U-235 for use, along
with the design of the warhead mechanism and the altitude at which it detonates, the
explosive force of the A-bomb can range anywhere from 1 kiloton (which equals 1,000
tons of TNT) to 20 megatons (which equals 20 million tons of TNT -- which, by the way,
is the smallest strategic nuclear warhead we possess today. {Point in fact -- One Trident
Nuclear Submarine carries as much destructive power as 25 World War II's}).
While Uranium is an ideally fissionable material, it is not the only one. Plutonium can
be used in an atomic bomb as well. By leaving U-238 inside an atomic reactor for an
extended period of time, the U-238 picks up extra particles (neutrons especially) and
gradually is transformed into the element Plutonium.
Plutonium is fissionable, but not as easily fissionable as Uranium. While Uranium can
be detonated by a simple 2-part gun-type device, Plutonium must be detonated by a
more complex 32-part implosion chamber along with a stronger conventional explosive,
a greater striking velocity and a simultaneous triggering mechanism for the
conventional explosive packs. Along with all of these requirements comes the additional
task of introducing a fine mixture of Beryllium and Polonium to this metal while all of
these actions are occurring.
Supercritical mass for Plutonium is defined as 35.2 lbs (16 kgs). This amount needed for
a supercritical mass can be reduced to a smaller quantity of 22 lbs (10 kgs) by
surrounding the Plutonium with a U-238 casing.
To illustrate the vast difference between a Uranium gun-type detonator and a Plutonium
implosion detonator, here is a quick rundown.
[1] Uranium Detonator
Comprised of 2 parts. Larger mass is spherical and concave. Smaller mass
is precisely the size and shape of the 'missing' section of the larger mass.
Upon detonation of conventional explosive, the smaller mass is violently
injected and welded to the larger mass. Supercritical mass is reached,
chain reaction follows in one millionth of a second.
[2] Plutonium Detonator
Comprised of 32 individual 45-degree pie-shaped sections of Plutonium
surrounding a Beryllium/Polonium mixture. These 32 sections together
form a sphere. All of these sections must have the precisely equal mass
(and shape) of the others. The shape of the detonator resembles a
soccerball. Upon detonation of conventional explosives, all 32 sections
must merge with the B/P mixture within 1 ten-millionths of a second.
____________________________________________________________________________
|
[Uranium Detonator] | [Plutonium Detonator]
______________________________________|_____________________________________
_____ |
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|
|
[1] = Collision Point | [1] = Collision Point
[2] - Uranium Section(s) | [2] = Plutonium Section(s)
|
|
______________________________________|_____________________________________
G. Lead Shield
The lead shield's only purpose is to prevent the inherent radioactivity of the bomb's
payload from interfering with the other mechanisms of the bomb. The neutron flux of
the bomb's payload is strong enough to short circuit the internal circuitry and cause an
accidental or premature detonation.
H. Fuses
The fuses are implemented as another safeguard to prevent an accidental detonation of
both the conventional explosives and the nuclear payload. These fuses are set near the
surface of the 'nose' of the bomb so that they can be installed easily when the bomb is
ready to be launched. The fuses should be installed only shortly before the bomb is
launched. To affix them before it is time could result in an accident of catastrophic
proportions.

IV. Diagrams of the Bombs

A. The Uranium Bomb
Gravity Bomb Model
[1] -
Tail Cone
[2] -
Stabilizing Tail Fins
[3] -
Air Pressure Detonator
[4] -
Air Inlet Tube(s)
[5] -
Altimeter/Pressure Sensors
[6] -
Lead Shield Container
[7] -
Detonating Head
[8] -
Conventional Explosive Charge
[9] -
Packing
[10] -
Uranium (U-235) [Plutonium (See other diagram)]
[11] -
Neutron Deflector (U-238)
[12] -
Telemetry Monitoring Probes
[13] -
Receptacle for U-235 upon detonation
to facilitate supercritical mass.
[14] - Fuses (inserted to arm bomb)

/\
 / \ <---------------------------[1]
/ \
_________________/______\_________________
| : ||: ~ ~ : |
[2]-------> | : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| :______||:_____________________________: |
|/_______||/______________________________\|
\ ~\ | | /
\ |\ | | /
\ | \ | | /
\ | \ | | /
\ |___\ |______________| /
\ | \ |~ \ /
\|_______\|_________________\_/
|_____________________________|
/ \
/ _________________ \
/ _/ \_ \
/ __/ \__ \
/ / \ \
/__ _/ \_ __\
[3]_______________________________ \ _|
/ / \ \ \
/ / \/ \ \
/ / ___________ \ \
| / __/___________\__ \ |
| |_ ___ /=================\ ___ _| |
[4]---------> _||___|====|[[[[[[[|||]]]]]]]|====|___||_ <--------[4]
| | |-----------------| | |
| | |o=o=o=o=o=o=o=o=o| <-------------------[5]
| | \_______________/ | |
| |__ |: :| __| |
| | \______________ |: :| ______________/ | |
| | ________________\|: :|/________________ | |
| |/ |::::|: :|::::| \| |
[6]----------------------> |::::|: :|::::| <---------------------[6]
| | |::::|: :|::::| | |
| | |::==|: :|== <------------------------[9]
| | |::__\: :/__::| | |
| | |:: ~: :~ ::| | |
[7]----------------------------> \_/ ::| | |
| |~\________/~\|:: ~ ::|/~\________/~| |
| | ||:: <-------------------------[8]
| |_/~~~~~~~~\_/|::_ _ _ _ _::|\_/~~~~~~~~\_| |
[9]-------------------------->_=_=_=_=_::| | |
| | :::._______.::: | |
| | .:::| |:::.. | |
 | | ..:::::'| |':::::.. | |
[6]---------------->.::::::' || || '::::::.<---------------[6]
| | .::::::' | || || | '::::::. | |
/| | .::::::' | || || | '::::::. | |
| | | .:::::' | || <-----------------------------[10]
| | |.:::::' | || || | ':::::.| |
| | ||::::' | |'. .'| | '::::|| |
[11]___________________________ ''~'' __________________________[11]
: | | \:: \ / ::/ | |
| | | \:_________|_|\/__ __\/|_|_________:/ | |
/ | | | __________~___:___~__________ | | |
|| | | | | |:::::::| | | | |
[12] /|: | | | | |:::::::| | | | |
|~~~~~ / |: | | | | |:::::::| | | | |
|----> / /|: | | | | |:::::::| <-----------------[10]
| / / |: | | | | |:::::::| | | | |
| / |: | | | | |::::<-----------------------------[13]
| / /|: | | | | |:::::::| | | | |
| / / |: | | | | ':::::::' | | | |
| _/ / /:~: | | | ': ''~'' :' | | |
| | / / ~.. | | |: ': :' :| | |
|->| / / : | | ::: '. .' <----------------[11]
| |/ / ^ ~\| \ ::::. '. .' .:::: / |
| ~ /|\ | \_::::::. '. .' .::::::_/ |
|_______| | \::::::. '. .' .:::<-----------------[6]
|_________\:::::.. '~.....~' ..:::::/_________|
| \::::::::.......::::::::/ |
| ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ |
'. .'
'. .'
'. .'
':. .:'
'::. .::'
'::.. ..::'
':::.. ..:::'
'::::::... ..::::::'
[14]------------------> ':____:::::::::::____:' <-----------------[14]
'''::::_____::::'''
~~~~~

B. The Plutonium Bomb

Gravity Bomb - Implosion Model
[1] -
Tail Cone
[2] -
Stabilizing Tail Fins
[3] -
Air Pressure Detonator
[4] -
Air Inlet Tube(s)
[5] -
Altimeter/Pressure Sensors
[6] -
Electronic Conduits & Fusing Circuits
[7] -
Lead Shield Container
[8] -
Neutron Deflector (U-238)
[9] -
Conventional Explosive Charge(s)
[10] -
Plutonium (Pu-239)
[11] -
Receptacle for Beryllium/Polonium mixture
to facilitate atomic detonation reaction.
[12] - Fuses (inserted to arm bomb)
 /\
/ \ <---------------------------[1]
/ \
_________________/______\_________________
| : ||: ~ ~ : |
[2]-------> | : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| : ||: : |
| :______||:_____________________________: |
|/_______||/______________________________\|
\ ~\ | : |:| /
\ |\ | : |:| /
\ | \ | :__________|:| /
\ |:_\ | :__________\:| /
\ |___\ |______________| /
\ | \ |~ \ /
\|_______\|_________________\_/
|_____________________________|
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ _______________ \
/ ___/ \___ \
/____ __/ \__ ____\
[3]_______________________________ \ ___|
/ __/ \ \__ \
/ / \/ \ \
/ / ___________ \ \
/ / __/___________\__ \ \
./ /__ ___ /=================\ ___ __\ \.
[4]-------> ___||___|====|[[[[[|||||||]]]]]|====|___||___ <------[4]
/ / |=o=o=o=o=o=o=o=o=| <-------------------[5]
.' / \_______ _______/ \ '.
: |___ |*| ___| :
.' | \_________________ |*| _________________/ | '.
: | ___________ ___ \ |*| / ___ ___________ | :
: |__/ \ / \_\\*//_/ \ / \__| :
: |______________:|:____:: **::****:|:********\ <---------[6]
.' /:|||||||||||||''|;..:::::::::::..;|''|||||||*|||||:\ '.
[7]----------> ||||||' .:::;~|~~~___~~~|~;:::. '|||||*|| <-------[7]
: |:|||||||||' .::'\ ..:::::::::::.. /'::. '|||*|||||:| :
: |:|||||||' .::' .:::''~~ ~~'':::. '::. '|\***\|:| :
: |:|||||' .::\ .::''\ | [9] | /''::: /::. '|||*|:| :
[8]------------>::' .::' \|_________|/ '::: '::. '|* <-----[6]
'. \:||' .::' ::'\ [9] . . . [9] /::: '::. *|:/ .'
: \:' :::'.::' \ . . / '::.'::: *:/ :
: | .::'.::'____\ [10] . [10] /____'::.'::.*| :
 : | :::~::: | . . . | :::~:::*| :
: | ::: :: [9] | . . ..:.. . . | [9] :: :::*| :
: \ ::: :: | . :\_____________________________[11]
'. \':: ::: ____| . . . |____ ::: ::'/ .'
: \:;~'::. / . [10] [10] . \ .::'~::/ :
'. \:. '::. / . . . \ .::' .:/ .'
: \:. ':::/ [9] _________ [9] \:::' .:/ :
'. \::. ':::. /| |\ .:::' .::/ .'
: ~~\:/ ':::./ | [9] | \.:::' \:/~~ :
':=========\::. '::::... ...::::' .::/=========:'
': ~\::./ ''':::::::::''' \.::/~ :'
'. ~~~~~~\| ~~~ |/~~~~~~ .'
'. \:::...:::/ .'
'. ~~~~~~~~~ .'
'. .'
':. .:'
'::. .::'
'::.. ..::'
':::.. ..:::'
'::::::... ..::::::'
[12]------------------> ':____:::::::::::____:' <-----------------[12]
'''::::_____::::'''
~~~~~
 The
B28 Type Thermonuclear Bomb

The B28 Bomb (revised: 1 May 1995)

This is a more detailed illustration of the Teller-Ulam configuration as used in the B28 bomb.
This example was picked because at one time it represented the backbone of US nuclear
weaponry. Also, for what ever the reason, more information seems to be available on this type
than most other modern nuclear weapons.
For a nicely executed color solid-modeled version of this conceptual design, by Paul McDonell,
click here for an internal view (110 K), or here for an external view (48 K).
Comment by Carey Sublette:
This is a speculative diagram of the design for the B-28 prepared by Richard Brown. According
to Brown this diagram depicts the features he believes the B-28 to have based on open literature
reading. Since the actual design of the B-28 is not available in the open literature, this diagram
can only be considered a speculation that illustrates of how it might be internally arranged.
Overall this design seems reasonable, though specific features may be open to question. The
color JPEGs by Paul McDonell, being derived from Brown's diagrams, are no more accurate
than Brown's despite their much greater sense of three dimensional realism .

Radiation poisoning
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Radiation poisoning, also called radiation sickness or a creeping dose, is a form of damage to
organ tissue due to excessive exposure to ionizing radiation. The term is generally used to refer
to acute problems caused by a large dosage of radiation in a short period, though this also has
occurred with long term exposure. The clinical name for radiation sickness is acute radiation
syndrome (ARS) as described by the CDC.[1][2][3] A chronic radiation syndrome does exist but is
very uncommon; this has been observed among workers in early radium source production sites
and in the early days of the Soviet nuclear program. A short exposure can result in acute
radiation syndrome; chronic radiation syndrome requires a prolonged high level of exposure.
Radiation exposure can also increase the probability of contracting some other diseases, mainly
cancer, tumours, and genetic damage. These are referred to as the stochastic effects of radiation,
and are not included in the term radiation sickness.
The use of radionuclides in science and industry is strictly regulated in most countries (in the
U.S. by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission). In the event of an accidental or deliberate release
of radioactive material, either evacuation or sheltering in place is the recommended measures.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Acute (short-term) vs chronic (long-term) effects
• 2 Exposure
○ 2.1 External vs internal exposure
 2.1.1 External
 2.1.2 Internal
○ 2.2 Nuclear warfare and bomb tests
○ 2.3 Nuclear reactor accidents
○ 2.4 Other accidents
○ 2.5 Spaceflight
○ 2.6 Ingestion and inhalation
 2.6.1 Deliberate poisoning
• 3 Prevention
 ○ 3.1 Distance
○ 3.2 Time
○ 3.3 Reduction of incorporation into the human body
○ 3.4 Fractionation of dose
• 4 Treatment
○ 4.1 Whole body vs. part of body exposure
○ 4.2 Experimental treatments designed to mitigate the effect on bone
marrow
• 5 Table of exposure levels and symptoms
○ 5.1 0.05–0.2 Sv (5–20 REM)
○ 5.2 0.2–0.5 Sv (20–50 REM)
○ 5.3 0.5–1 Sv (50–100 REM)
○ 5.4 1–2 Sv (100–200 REM)
○ 5.5 2–3 Sv (200–300 REM)
○ 5.6 3–4 Sv (300–400 REM)
○ 5.7 4–6 Sv (400–600 REM)
○ 5.8 6–10 Sv (600–1,000 REM)
○ 5.9 10–50 Sv (1,000–5,000 REM)
○ 5.10 More than 50 Sv (>5,000 REM)
• 6 Cutaneous radiation syndrome
• 7 History
• 8 References
• 9 Further reading
• 10 See also
• 11 External links

[edit] Acute (short-term) vs chronic (long-term) effects

This section requires expansion.

This section needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material
may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)

Radiation sickness is generally associated with acute (a single large) exposure.[4][5] Nausea and
vomiting are usually the main symptoms.[5] The amount of time between exposure to radiation
and the onset of the initial symptoms may be an indicator of how much radiation was absorbed.[5]
Symptoms appear sooner with higher doses of exposure.[6] The symptoms of radiation sickness
become more serious (and the chance of survival decreases) as the dosage of radiation increases.
A few symptom-free days may pass between the appearance of the initial symptoms and the
onset of symptoms of more severe illness associated with higher doses of radiation.[5] Nausea and
vomiting generally occur within 24-48 hours after exposure to mild (1-2 Gy) doses of radiation.
Headache, fatigue, and weakness are also seen with mild exposure.[5] Moderate (2-3.5 Gy of
radiation) exposure is associated with nausea and vomiting beginning within 12-24 hours after
exposure.[5] In addition to the symptoms of mild exposure, fever, hair loss, infections, bloody
vomit and stools, and poor wound healing are seen with moderate exposure.[5] Nausea and
vomiting occur in less than 1 hour after exposure to severe (3.5-5.5 Gy) doses of radiation,
followed by diarrhea and high fever in addition to the symptoms of lower levels of exposure.[5]
Very severe (5.5-8 Gy of radiation) exposure is followed by the onset of nausea and vomiting in
less than 30 minutes followed by the appearance of dizziness, disorientation, and low blood
pressure in addition to the symptoms of lower levels of exposure.[5] Severe exposure is fatal
about 50% of the time.[5]
Longer term exposure to radiation, at doses less than that which produces serious radiation
sickness, can induce cancer as cell-cycle genes are mutated. If a cancer is radiation-induced, then
the disease, the speed at which the condition advances, the prognosis, the degree of pain, and
every other feature of the disease are not functions of the radiation dose to which the sufferer is
exposed. In this case, function of dose is the probability chronic effects will develop.
Since tumors grow by abnormally rapid cell division, the ability of radiation to disturb cell
division is also used to treat cancer (see radiotherapy), and low levels of ionizing radiation have
been claimed to lower one's risk of cancer (see hormesis).

[edit] Exposure
[edit] External vs internal exposure
[edit] External
External exposure is exposure which occurs when the radioactive source (or other radiation
source) is outside (and remains outside) the organism which is exposed. Below are a series of
three examples of external exposure.
• A person who places a sealed radioactive source in his pocket
• A space traveller who is irradiated by cosmic rays
• A person who is treated for cancer by either teletherapy or brachytherapy.
While in brachytherapy the source is inside the person it is still external
exposure because the active part of the source never comes into direct
contact with the biological tissues of the person.
A diagram showing a hypothetical animal being irradiated by an external source (in
red) of radiation (shown in yellow).

One of the key points is that external exposure is often relatively easy to estimate, and the
irradiated objects do not become radioactive (except for a case where the radiation is an intense
neutron beam which causes activation of the object). It is possible for an object to be
contaminated on the outer surfaces, assuming that no radioactivity enters the object it is still a
case of external exposure and it is normally the case that decontamination is easy (wash the
surface).

A diagram showing a hypothetical animal being irradiated by radioactive

contamination (shown in red) which is present on an external surface such as the
skin, this emits radiation (shown in yellow) which can enter the animal's body

[edit] Internal
Internal exposure occurs when the radioactive material enters the organism, and the radioactive
atoms become incorporated into the organism. Below are a series of examples of internal
exposure.
 • The exposure due to 40
K present within a normal person.
• The exposure to the ingestion of a soluble radioactive substance, such as 89
Sr
in cows' milk.
• A person who is being treated for cancer by means of an open source
radiotherapy method where a radioisotope is used as a drug. A review of this
topic was published in 1999.[7] Because the radioactive material becomes
intimately mixed with the affected object it is often difficult to decontaminate
the object or person in a case where internal exposure is occurring. While
some very insoluble materials such as fission products within a uranium
dioxide matrix might never be able to truly become part of an organism, it is
normal to consider such particles in the lungs as a form of internal
contamination which results in internal exposure. The reasoning is that the
particles have entered via an orifice and can not be removed with ease from
what the lay person (non biologist) would regard as within the animal. It is
important to note that strictly speaking the contents of the digestive tract
and the air within the lungs are outside the body of a mammal.

A diagram showing a hypothetical animal being irradiated by radioactive

contamination (shown in red) which is present within its lung, this emits radiation
(shown in yellow) which can enter the animal's body

[edit] Nuclear warfare and bomb tests

Japanese woman suffering burns from thermal radiation after the United States
dropped nuclear bombs on Japan in World War II.

Nuclear warfare and bomb tests are more complex because a person can be irradiated by at least
three processes. The first (the major cause of burns) is not caused by ionizing radiation.
• Thermal burns from infrared heat radiation.
• Beta burns from shallow ionizing radiation (this would be from fallout
particles; the largest particles in local fallout would be likely to have very high
activities because they would be deposited so soon after detonation and it is
likely that one such particle upon the skin would be able to cause a localised
burn); however, these particles are very weakly penetrating and have a short
range.
• Gamma burns from highly penetrating radiation. This would likely cause deep
gamma penetration within the body, which would result in uniform whole
body irradiation rather than only a surface burn. In cases of whole body
gamma irradiation (circa 10 Gy) due to accidents involving medical product
irradiators, some of the human subjects have developed injuries to their skin
between the time of irradiation and death.
In the picture on the right, the normal clothing that the woman was wearing would have been
unable to attenuate the gamma radiation and it is likely that any such effect was evenly applied to
her entire body. Beta burns would be likely all over the body due to contact with fallout, but
thermal burns are often on one side of the body as heat radiation does not penetrate the human
body. In addition, the pattern on her clothing has been burnt into the skin. This is because white
fabric reflects more infra-red light than dark fabric. As a result, the skin close to dark fabric is
burned more than the skin covered by white clothing.
There is also the risk of internal radiation poisoning by ingestion of fallout particles.
[edit] Nuclear reactor accidents
Perhaps the first incident of a reactor meltdown occurred on Soviet submarine K-19. Radiation
poisoning was a major concern after the Chernobyl reactor accident. Thirty-one people died as
an immediate result.[8]
Of the 100 million curies (4 exabecquerels) of radioactive material, the short lived radioactive
isotopes such as 131I Chernobyl released were initially the most dangerous. Due to their short
half-lives of 5 and 8 days they have now decayed, leaving the more long-lived 137Cs (with a half-
life of 30.07 years) and 90Sr (with a half-life of 28.78 years) as main dangers.
[edit] Other accidents
Improper handling of radioactive and nuclear materials lead to radiation release and radiation
poisoning. The most serious of these, due to improper disposal of a medical device containing a
radioactive source (teletherapy), occurred in Goiânia, Brazil in 1987.
[edit] Spaceflight
During human spaceflights, particularly flights beyond low Earth orbit, astronauts are exposed to
both galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) and possibly solar proton event (SPE) radiation. Evidence
indicates past SPE radiation levels which would have been lethal for unprotected astronauts.[9]
GCR levels which might lead to acute radiation poisoning are less well understood.[10]
[edit] Ingestion and inhalation
When radioactive compounds enter the human body, the effects are different from those resulting
from exposure to an external radiation source. Especially in the case of alpha radiation, which
normally does not penetrate the skin, the exposure can be much more damaging after ingestion or
inhalation. The radiation exposure is normally expressed as a committed effective dose
equivalent (CEDE).
[edit] Deliberate poisoning
See also: Alexander Litvinenko poisoning

On November 23, 2006, Alexander Litvinenko died due to suspected deliberate poisoning with
polonium-210.[11][12][13][14][15] His is the first case of confirmed death due to such a cause, although
it is also known that there have been other cases of attempted assassination such as in the cases
of KGB defector Nikolay Khokhlov and journalist Yuri Shchekochikhin where radioactive
thallium was used. In addition, an incident occurred in 1990 at Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating
Station where several employees acquired small doses of radiation due to the contamination of
water in the office watercooler with tritium contaminated heavy water [16][17]

[edit] Prevention
See also: Radiation protection.

The best prevention for radiation sickness is to minimize the dose suffered by the human, or to
reduce the dose rate.
[edit] Distance
Increasing distance from the radiation source reduces the dose due to the inverse-square law for a
point source. Distance can be increased by means as simple as handling a source with forceps
rather than fingers.
[edit] Time
The longer that humans are subjected to radiation the larger the dose will be. The advice in the
nuclear war manual entitled "Nuclear War Survival Skills" published by Cresson Kearny in the
U.S. was that if one needed to leave the shelter then this should be done as rapidly as possible to
minimize exposure.
In chapter 12 he states that "Quickly putting or dumping wastes outside is not hazardous once
fallout is no longer being deposited. For example, assume the shelter is in an area of heavy
fallout and the dose rate outside is 400 R/hr enough to give a potentially fatal dose in about an
hour to a person exposed in the open. If a person needs to be exposed for only 10 seconds to
dump a bucket, in this 1/360th of an hour he will receive a dose of only about 1 R. Under war
conditions, an additional 1-R dose is of little concern."
In peacetime, radiation workers are taught to work as quickly as possible when performing a task
which exposes them to radiation. For instance, the recovery of a lost radiography source should
be done as quickly as possible.

[edit] Reduction of incorporation into the human body

Potassium iodide (KI), administered orally immediately after exposure, may be used to protect
the thyroid from ingested radioactive iodine in the event of an accident or terrorist attack at a
nuclear power plant, or the detonation of a nuclear explosive. KI would not be effective against a
dirty bomb unless the bomb happened to contain radioactive iodine, and even then it would only
help to prevent thyroid cancer.
[edit] Fractionation of dose
Devair Alves Ferreira received a large dose during the Goiânia accident of 7.0 Gy. He lived,
while his wife received a dose of 5.7 Gy and died. The most likely explanation is that his dose
was fractionated into many smaller doses which were absorbed over a length of time, while his
wife stayed in the house more and was subjected to continuous irradiation without a break,
giving her body less time to repair some of the damage done by the radiation. In the same way,
some of the people who worked in the basement of the wrecked Chernobyl plant received doses
of 10 Gy, but in small fractions, so the acute effects were avoided.
It has been found in radiation biology experiments that if a group of cells are irradiated, then as
the dose increases, the number of cells which survive decreases. It has also been found that if a
population of cells is given a dose before being set aside (without being irradiated) for a length
of time before being irradiated again, then the radiation causes less cell death. The human body
contains many types of cells and a human can be killed by the loss of a single type of cells in a
vital organ. For many short term radiation deaths (3 days to 30 days), the loss of cells forming
blood cells (bone marrow) and the cells in the digestive system (microvilli which form part of the
wall of the intestines are constantly being regenerated in a healthy human) causes death.
In the graph below, dose/survival curves for a hypothetical group of cells have been drawn, with
and without a rest time for the cells to recover. Other than the recovery time partway through the
irradiation, the cells would have been treated identically.
[edit] Treatment
Treatment reversing the effects of irradiation is currently not possible. Anaesthetics and
antiemetics are administered to counter the symptoms of exposure, as well as antibiotics for
countering secondary infections due to the resulting immune system deficiency.
There are also a number of substances used to mitigate the prolonged effects of radiation
poisoning, by eliminating the remaining radioactive materials, post exposure.
[edit] Whole body vs. part of body exposure
In the case of a person who has had only part of their body irradiated then the treatment is easier,
as the human body can tolerate very large exposures to the non-vital parts such as hands and feet,
without having a global effect on the entire body. For instance, if the hands get a 100 Gy dose
which results in the body receiving a dose (averaged over the entire body of 5 Gy) then the hands
may be lost but radiation poisoning would not occur. The resulting injury would be described as
localized radiation burn.
As described below, one of the primary dangers of whole-body exposure is immunodeficiency
due to the destruction of bone marrow and consequent shortage of white blood cells. It is treated
by maintaining a sterile environment, bone marrow transplants (see hematopoietic stem cell
transplantation), and blood transfusions.
[edit] Experimental treatments designed to mitigate the effect on bone marrow
Neumune, an androstenediol, was introduced as a radiation countermeasure by the US Armed
Forces Radiobiology Research Institute, and was under joint development with Hollis-Eden
Pharmaceuticals until March, 2007. Neumune is in Investigational New Drug (IND) status and
Phase I trials have been performed.
Some work has been published in which Cordyceps sinensis, a Chinese Herbal Medicine has
been used to protect the bone marrow and digestive systems of mice from whole body irradation.
[18]

Recent lab studies conducted with bisphosphonate compounds have shown promise of mitigating
radiation exposure effects. [19]

[edit] Table of exposure levels and symptoms

This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material
may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)

Annual limit on intake (ALI) is the derived limit for the amount of radioactive material taken
into the body of an adult worker by inhalation or ingestion in a year. ALI is the smaller value of
intake of a given radionuclide in a year by the reference man that would result in a committed
effective dose equivalent of 5 rems (0.05 Sievert) or a committed dose equivalent of 50 rems (0.5
Sievert) to any individual organ or tissue.[20] Dose-equivalents are presently stated in sieverts
(Sv):
[edit] 0.05–0.2 Sv (5–20 REM)
No symptoms. Potential for cancer and mutation of genetic material, according to the LNT
model: this is disputed (Note: see hormesis). A few researchers contend that low dose radiation
may be beneficial.[21][22][23] 50 mSv is the yearly federal limit for radiation workers in the United
States. In the UK the yearly limit for a classified radiation worker is 20 mSv. In Canada and
Brazil, the single-year maximum is 50 mSv (5,000 millirems), but the maximum 5-year dose is
only 100 mSv. Company limits are usually stricter so as not to violate federal limits.[24]
[edit] 0.2–0.5 Sv (20–50 REM)
No noticeable symptoms. White blood cell count decreases temporarily.
[edit] 0.5–1 Sv (50–100 REM)
Mild radiation sickness with headache and increased risk of infection due to disruption of
immunity cells. Temporary male sterility is possible.
[edit] 1–2 Sv (100–200 REM)
Light radiation poisoning, 10% fatality after 30 days (LD 10/30). Typical symptoms include
mild to moderate nausea (50% probability at 2 Sv), with occasional vomiting, beginning 3 to 6
hours after irradiation and lasting for up to one day. This is followed by a 10 to 14 day latent
phase, after which light symptoms like general illness and fatigue appear (50% probability at 2
Sv). The immune system is depressed, with convalescence extended and increased risk of
infection. Temporary male sterility is common. Spontaneous abortion or stillbirth will occur in
pregnant women.
[edit] 2–3 Sv (200–300 REM)
Moderate radiation poisoning, 35% fatality after 30 days (LD 35/30). Nausea is common (100%
at 3 Sv), with 50% risk of vomiting at 2.8 Sv. Symptoms onset at 1 to 6 hours after irradiation
and last for 1 to 2 days. After that, there is a 7 to 14 day latent phase, after which the following
symptoms appear: loss of hair all over the body (50% probability at 3 Sv), fatigue and general
illness. There is a massive loss of leukocytes (white blood cells), greatly increasing the risk of
infection. Permanent female sterility is possible. Convalescence takes one to several months.
[edit] 3–4 Sv (300–400 REM)
Severe radiation poisoning, 50% fatality after 30 days (LD 50/30). Other symptoms are similar
to the 2–3 Sv dose, with uncontrollable bleeding in the mouth, under the skin and in the kidneys
(50% probability at 4 Sv) after the latent phase.
Anatoly Dyatlov received a dose of 390 REM during the Chernobyl disaster. He died of heart
failure in 1995 due to radioactive exposure.
[edit] 4–6 Sv (400–600 REM)
Acute radiation poisoning, 60% fatality after 30 days (LD 60/30). Fatality increases from 60% at
4.5 Sv to 90% at 6 Sv (unless there is intense medical care). Symptoms start half an hour to two
hours after irradiation and last for up to 2 days. After that, there is a 7 to 14 day latent phase,
after which generally the same symptoms appear as with 3-4 Sv irradiation, with increased
intensity. Female sterility is common at this point. Convalescence takes several months to a year.
The primary causes of death (in general 2 to 12 weeks after irradiation) are infections and
internal bleeding.
[edit] 6–10 Sv (600–1,000 REM)
Acute radiation poisoning, near 100% fatality after 14 days (LD 100/14). Survival depends on
intense medical care. Bone marrow is nearly or completely destroyed, so a bone marrow
transplant is required. Gastric and intestinal tissue are severely damaged. Symptoms start 15 to
30 minutes after irradiation and last for up to 2 days. Subsequently, there is a 5 to 10 day latent
phase, after which the person dies of infection or internal bleeding. Recovery would take several
years and probably would never be complete.
Devair Alves Ferreira received a dose of approximately 7.0 Sv (700 REM) during the Goiânia
accident and survived, partially due to his fractionated exposure.
[edit] 10–50 Sv (1,000–5,000 REM)
Acute radiation poisoning, 100% fatality after 7 days (LD 100/7). An exposure this high leads to
spontaneous symptoms after 5 to 30 minutes. After powerful fatigue and immediate nausea
caused by direct activation of chemical receptors in the brain by the irradiation, there is a period
of several days of comparative well-being, called the latent (or "walking ghost") phase.[citation needed]
After that, cell death in the gastric and intestinal tissue, causing massive diarrhea, intestinal
bleeding and loss of water, leads to water-electrolyte imbalance. Death sets in with delirium and
coma due to breakdown of circulation. Death is currently inevitable; the only treatment that can
be offered is pain management.
Louis Slotin was exposed to approximately 21 Sv in a criticality accident on 21 May 1946, and
died nine days later on 30 May.
[edit] More than 50 Sv (>5,000 REM)
A worker receiving 100 Sv (10,000 REM) in an accident at Wood River, Rhode Island, USA on
24 July 1964 survived for 49 hours after exposure. Cecil Kelley, an operator at the Los Alamos
National Laboratory, received between 60 and 180 Sv (6,000 – 18,000 REM) to his upper body
in an accident on 30 December 1958, surviving for 36 hours.[25]
An episode of MythBusters exposed insects to the Cobalt-60 source at the Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory facility. At 10,000 rad, 70% of cockroaches were dead after 30 days, and
30% survived. At 100,000 rad, 90% of flour beetles were dead after 30 days, with only 10%
surviving.[26]

[edit] Cutaneous radiation syndrome

The concept of cutaneous radiation syndrome (CRS) was introduced in recent years to describe
the complex pathological syndrome that results from acute radiation exposure to the skin.[3]
Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) usually will be accompanied by some skin damage. It is also
possible to receive a damaging dose to the skin without symptoms of ARS, especially with acute
exposures to beta radiation or X-rays. Sometimes this occurs when radioactive materials
contaminate skin or clothes.[3]
When the basal cell layer of the skin is damaged by radiation, inflammation, erythema, and dry
or moist desquamation can occur. Also, hair follicles may be damaged, causing hair loss. Within
a few hours after irradiation, a transient and inconsistent erythema (associated with itching) can
occur. Then, a latent phase may occur and last from a few days up to several weeks, when
intense reddening, blistering, and ulceration of the irradiated site are visible. In most cases,
healing occurs by regenerative means; however, very large skin doses can cause permanent hair
loss, damaged sebaceous and sweat glands, atrophy, fibrosis, decreased or increased skin
pigmentation, and ulceration or necrosis of the exposed tissue.[3]

[edit] History
Although radiation was discovered in late 19th century, the dangers of radioactivity and of
radiation were not immediately recognized. Acute effects of radiation were first observed in the
use of X-rays when the Serbo-Croatian-American electric engineer Nikola Tesla intentionally
subjected his fingers to X-rays in 1896. He published his observations concerning the burns that
developed, though he attributed them to ozone rather than to X-rays. His injuries healed later.
The genetic effects of radiation, including the effects on cancer risk, were recognized much later.
In 1927 Hermann Joseph Muller published research showing genetic effects, and in 1946 was
awarded the Nobel prize for his findings.
Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicians and corporations had
begun marketing radioactive substances as patent medicine and radioactive quackery. Examples
were radium enema treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics. Marie Curie
spoke out against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body
were not well understood. Curie later died of aplastic anemia due to radiation poisoning. Eben
Byers, a famous American socialite, died in 1932 after consuming large quantities of radium
over several years; his death drew public attention to dangers of radiation. By the 1930s, after a
number of cases of bone necrosis and death in enthusiasts, radium-containing medical products
had nearly vanished from the market.
Nevertheless, dangers of radiation weren't fully appreciated by scientists until later. In 1945 and
1946, two U.S. scientists died from acute radiation exposure in separate criticality accidents. In
both cases, victims were working with large quantities of fissile materials without any shielding
or protection.
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki resulted in a large number