EE 435- Electric Drives Dr. Ali M.

Eltamaly

Chapter 1
Review of Power Electronics Converters

1.1. Definition Of Power Electronics
Power electronics refers to control and conversion of electrical power by power semiconductor
devices wherein these devices operate as switches. Advent of silicon-controlled rectifiers,
abbreviated as SCRs, led to the development of a new area of application called the power
electronics. Once the SCRs were available, the application area spread to many fields such as
drives, power supplies, aviation electronics, high frequency inverters and power electronics
originated.
Power electronics has applications that span the whole field of electrical power systems, with
the power range of these applications extending from a few VA/Watts to several MVA / MW.
"Electronic power converter" is the term that is used to refer to a power electronic circuit that
converts voltage and current from one form to another. These converters can be classified as:
Rectifier converting an AC voltage to a DC voltage,
Inverter converting a DC voltage to an AC voltage,
Chopper or a switch-mode power supply that converts a DC voltage to another DC.
Cycloconverter and cycloinverter converting an AC voltage to another AC voltage.

1.2 Rectification
Rectifiers can be classified as uncontrolled and controlled rectifiers, and the controlled rectifiers
can be further divided into semi-controlled and fully controlled rectifiers. Uncontrolled rectifier
circuits are built with diodes, and fully controlled rectifier circuits are built with SCRs. Both
diodes and SCRs are used in semi-controlled rectifier circuits.
There are many applications for rectifiers as in variable speed DC drives, battery chargers, and DC power
supplies and Power supply for a specific application like electroplating

1.3 DC-To-AC Conversion
The converter that changes a DC voltage to an alternating voltage, AC is called an inverter.
Earlier inverters were built with SCRs. Since the circuitry required turning the SCR off tends to
be complex, other power semiconductor devices such as bipolar junction transistors, power
MOSFETs, insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) and MOS-controlled thyristors (MCTs) are
used nowadays. Currently only the inverters with a high power rating, such as 500 kW or higher,
are likely to be built with either SCRs or gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs). There are many inverter
circuits and the techniques for controlling an inverter vary in complexity. Some of the
applications of an inverter are emergency lighting systems, AC variable speed drives,
uninterrupted power supplies, and, frequency converters.

1.4 DC-to-DC Conversion
When the SCR came into use, a DC-to-DC converter circuit was called a chopper. Nowadays, an
SCR is rarely used in a DC-to-DC converter. Either a IGBT or a power MOSFET is normally
used in such a converter and this converter is called a switch-mode power supply. A switch-
mode power supply can be one of the types listed below:
Step-down switch-mode power supply(Buck converter),
Step-up chopper (Boost converter),
Fly-back converter, and ,
Resonant converter.
Chapter One 2
The typical applications for a switch-mode power supply or a chopper are DC drive, battery
charger, and, DC power supply.
1.5 AC-TO-AC Conversion
A cycloconverter or a Matrix converter converts an AC voltage, such as the mains supply, to
another AC voltage. The amplitude and the frequency of input voltage to a cycloconverter tend to
be fixed values, whereas both the amplitude and the frequency of output voltage of a
cycloconverter tend to be variable specially in Adjustable Speed Drives (ASD).

1.6 Harmonics
The invention of the semiconductor controlled rectifier (SCR or thyristor) in the 1950s led to
increase of development new type converters, all of which are nonlinear. The major part of power
system loads is in the form of nonlinear loads too much harmonics are injected to the power
system. It is caused by the interaction of distorting customer loads with the impedance of supply
network. Also, the increase of connecting renewable energy systems with electric utilities injects
too much harmonics to the power system.
There are a number of electric devices that have nonlinear operating characteristics, and when
it used in power distribution circuits it will create and generate nonlinear currents and voltages.
Because of periodic non-linearity can best be analyzed using the Fourier transform, these
nonlinear currents and voltages have been generally referred to as Harmonics. Also, the
harmonics can be defined as a sinusoidal component of a periodic waves or quality having
frequencies that are an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.

1.7.2 Harmonic Standards
The IEEE standard 519-1992 is a recommended practice for power factor correction and
harmonic impact limitation for static power converters. It is convenient to employ a set of
analysis tools known as Fourier transform in the analysis of the distorted waveforms. In general, a
non-sinusoidal waveform f(t) repeating with an angular frequency can be expressed as in the
following equation.
( )

=
+ + =
1
0
) sin( ) cos( ) (
n
n n
t n b t n a a t f
(1.1)
where

2
0
) ( cos ) (
1
t d t n t f a
n
, and

2
0
) ( sin ) (
1
t d t n t f b
n
(1.2)
Each frequency component n has the following value
) ( sin ) ( cos ) ( t n b t n a t f
n n n
+ = (1.4)
) (t f
n
can be represented as a phasor in terms of its rms value as shown in the following equation
n j n n
n
e
b a
F

2
2 2
+
= where
n
n
n
a
b
=
1
tan (1.5)
The amount of distortion in the voltage or current waveform is qualified by means of a Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD). The THD in current and voltage are given as shown in (1.7)
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
* 100 * 100
s
n
sn
s
s s
i
I
I
I
I I
THD

= , and
1
2
1
2
1
2
* 100 * 100
s
n n
sn
s
s s
v
V
V
V
V V
THD

=
(1.7)
Where THD
i
& THD
v
The Total Harmonic Distortion in the current and voltage waveforms.
Current and voltage limitations included in the update IEE 519 1992 are shown in Table(1.1) and
Table(1.2) respectively.
Introduction 3
Table (1.1) IEEE 519-1992 current distortion limits for general distribution systems (120 to 69kV) the
maximum harmonic current distortion in percent of
L
I

Individual Harmonic order (Odd Harmonics)
L SC
I I / n<11 11 n<17 17 n<23 23 n<35 35<n THD
<20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
SC
I is the maximum short-circuit current at the point of common coupling (PCC).
L
I is the maximum demand load current at the point of common coupling (PCC).
Table (1.2) Voltage distortion limits
Bus voltage at PCC Individual voltage distortion (%)
v
THD (%)
69 kV and blow 3.0 5.0
69.001 kV through 161kV 1.5 2.5
161.001kV and above 1 1.5
1.8 Semiconductors Switch types
At this point it is beneficial to review the current state of semiconductor devices used for high
power applications. This is required because the operation of many power electronic circuits is
intimately tied to the behavior of various devices.

1.8.1 Diodes
Fig.1.1 shows the i-v characteristics of the silicon
diode and germanium diode. As shown in the figure
the diode characteristics have been divided into three
ranges of operation for purposes of description. Diodes
operate in the forward- and reverse-bias ranges.
Forward bias is a range of 'easy' conduction, i.e., after
a small threshold voltage level ( 0.7 volts for silicon)
is reached a small voltage change produces a large
current change. In this case the diode is forward bias or
in "ON" state. The 'breakdown' range on the left side of the figure happened when the reverse
applied voltage exceeds the maximum limit that the diode can withstand. At this range the diode
destroyed. On the other hand if the polarity of the voltage is reversed the current flows in the
reverse direction and the diode operates in 'reverse' bias or in "OFF" state. The theoretical reverse
bias current is very small.
Peak Inverse voltage (PIV): Is the maximum voltage that a diode can withstand only so
much voltage before it breaks down. So if the PIV is exceeded than the PIV rated for the
diode, then the diode will conduct in both forward and reverse bias and the diode will be
immediately destroyed.
Maximum Average Current: Is the average current that the diode can carry.

Fig.1.1 The diode iv characteristics
Chapter One 4
1.8.2 Thyristor
The thyristor is the most important type of the power semiconductor devices. They are used in
very large scale in power electronic circuits. The thyristor are known also as Silicon Controlled
Rectifier (SCR). The thyristor has been invented in 1957 by general electric company in USA.
The thyristor consists of four layers of semiconductor materials (p-n-p-n) all brought together
to form only one unit. Fig.1.2 shows the schematic diagram of this device and its symbolic
representation. The thyristor has three terminals, anode A, cathode K and gate G as shown in
Fig.1.2.The anode and cathode are connected to main power
circuit. The gate terminal is connected to control circuit to
carry low current in the direction from gate to cathode.
The operational characteristics of a thyristor are shown in
Fig.1.3. In case of zero gate current and forward voltage is
applied across the device i.e. anode is positive with respect to
cathode, junction J
1
and J
3
are forward bias while J
2
remains
reverse biased, and therefore the anode current is so small
leakage current. If the forward voltage reaches a critical limit,
called forward break over voltage, the thyristor switches into
high conduction, thus forward biasing junction J
2
to turn
thyristor ON in this case the thyristor will break down. The
forward voltage drop then falls to very low value (1 to 2 Volts). The thyristor can be switched to
on state by injecting a current into the central p type layer via the gate terminal. The injection of
the gate current provides additional holes in the central p layer, reducing the forward breakover
voltage. If the anode current falls below a critical limit, called the holding current I
H
the thyristor
turns to its forward state.
If the reverse voltage is applied across the thyristor i.e. the anode is negative with respect to
cathode, the outer junction J
1
and J
3
are reverse biased and the central junction J
2
is forward
biased. Therefore only a small leakage current flows. If the reverse voltage is increased, then at
the critical breakdown level known as reverse breakdown voltage, an avalanche will occur at J
1

and J
3
and the current will increase sharply. If this current is not limited to safe value, it will
destroy the thyristor.
The gate current is applied at the instant turn on is desired. The thyristor turn on provided at
higher anode voltage than cathode. After turn on with I
A
reaches a value known as latching
current, the thyristor continuous to conduct even after gate signal has been removed. Hence only
pulse of gate current is required to turn the Thyrstor ON.

Fig.1.3 Thyristor v-i characteristics

Fig.1.2
Introduction 5
AK
V Gate Pulse
1
J
2
J
3
J State
+ve +ve Forward Forward Forward ON
+ve 0 Forward Reverse Reverse OFF
+ve -ve Forward Reverse Reverse OFF
-ve +ve Reverse Forward Reverse OFF
-ve 0 Reverse Reverse Reverse OFF
-ve -ve Reverse Reverse Reverse OFF

1.8.3 Thyristor types:
There is many types of thyristors all of them has three terminals but differs only in how they can
turn ON and OFF. The most famous types of thyristors are:
1. Phase controlled thyristor(SCR)
2. Fast switching thyristor (SCR)
3. Gate-turn-off thyristor (GTO)
4. Bidirectional triode thyristor (TRIAC)
5. Light activated silicon-controlled rectifier (LASCR)
The electric circuit symbols of each type of thyristors are shown in Fig.1.4.
In the next items we will talk only about the most famous two types :-

Gate Turn Off thyristor (GTO).
A GTO thyristor can be turned on by a single pulse of positive gate current like conventional
thyristor, but in addition it can be turned off by a pulse of negative gate current. The gate current
therefore controls both ON state and OFF state operation of the device. GTO v-i characteristics is
shown in Fig.1.5. The GTO has many advantages and disadvantages with respect to conventional
thyristor here will talk about these
advantages and disadvantages.
The GTO has the following
advantage over thyristor:
1- Elimination of commutating
components in forced
commutation resulting in
reduction in cost, weight and
volume,
2- Reduction in acoustic and
electromagnetic noise due to the
elimination of commutation
chokes,
3- Faster turn OFF permitting high
switching frequency,
4- Improved converters efficiency,
and,
5- It has more di/dt rating at turn ON.
The thyristor has the following advantage over GTO.
1- ON state voltage drop and associated losses are higher in GTO than thyristor,
2- Triggering gate current required for GTOs is more than those of thyristor,
3- Latching and holding current is more in GTO than those of thyristor,
Chapter One 6
4- Gate drive circuit loss is more than
those of thyristor, and,
5- Its reverse voltage block capability is
less than its forward blocking
capability.

Bi-Directional thyristor (TRIAC).
TRIAC are used for the control of power in
AC circuits. A TRIAC is equivalent of two
reverse parallel-connected SCRs with one
common gate. Conduction can be achieved
in either direction with an appropriate gate
current. A TRIAC is thus a bi-directional
gate controlled thyristor with three
terminals. The terms anode and cathode are
not applicable to TRIAC. Fig.1.6 shows
the i-v characteristics of the TRIAC.
DIAC
DIAC is like a TRIAC without a gate terminal. DIAC conducts current in both directions
depending on the voltage connected to its terminals. When the voltage between the two terminals
greater than the break down voltage, the DIAC conducts and the current goes in the direction
from the higher voltage point to the lower voltage one. The following figure shows the layers
construction, electric circuit symbol and the operating characteristics of the DIAC. Fig.1.8 shows
the DIAC construction and electric symbol. Fig.1.8 shows a DIAC v-i characteristics.
The DIAC used in firing circuits of thyristors since its breakdown voltage used to determine
the firing angle of the thyristor.

Fig.1.8 DIAC construction, electric symbol and v-i characteristics.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Power bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) play a vital role in power circuits. Like most other power devices, power transistors are
generally constructed using silicon. The use of silicon allows operation of a BJT at higher currents and junction temperatures, which
leads to the use of power transistors in AC applications where ranges of up to several hundred kilowatts are essential.
The power transistor is part of a family of three-layer devices. The three layers or terminals of a transistor are the base, the collector,
and the emitter. Effectively, the transistor is equivalent to having two pn-diode junctions stacked in opposite directions to each other.
The two types of a transistor are termed npn and pnp. The npn-type transistor has a higher current-to-voltage rating than the pnp and
is preferred for most power conversion applications. The easiest way to distinguish an npn-type transistor from a pnp-type is by virtue
of the schematic or circuit symbol. The pnp type has an arrowhead on the emitter that points toward the base. Figure 1.36 shows the
Fig.1.6 Operating characteristics of TRIAC.
Introduction 7
structure and the symbol of a pnp-type transistor. The npn-type transistor has an arrowhead pointing away from the base. Figure 1.37
shows the structure and the symbol of an npn-type transistor.
When used as a switch, the transistor controls the power from the source to the load by supplying sufficient base current. This small
current from the driving circuit through the baseemitter, which must be maintained, turns on the collectoremitter path. Removing
the current from the baseemitter path and making the base voltage slightly negative turns off the switch. Even though the base
emitter path may only utilize a small amount of current, the collectoremitter path is capable of carrying a much higher current.




The Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a BJT
The volt-ampere characteristics of a BJT are shown in Fig. 1.38. Power transistors have exceptional characteristics as an ideal switch
and they are primarily used as switches. In this type of application, they make use of the common emitter connection shown in Fig.
1.39. The three regions of operation for a transistor that must be taken into consideration are the cutoff, saturation, and the active
region. When the base current (IB) is zero, the collector current (IC) is insignificant and the transistor is driven into the cutoff region.
The transistor is now in the OFF state. The collectorbase and baseemitter junctions are reverse biased in the cutoff region or OFF
Chapter One 8
state, and the transistor behaves as an open switch. The base current (IB) determines the saturation current. This occurs when the base
current is sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation. During saturation, both junctions are forward-biased and the transistor acts
like a closed switch. The saturation voltage increases with an increase in current and is normally between 0.5 to 2.5 V. The active
region of the transistor is mainly used for amplifier applications and should be avoided for switching operation. In the active region,
the collectorbase junction is reversed-biased and the baseemitter junction is forward-biased.

FIGURE 1.38 BJT V-I characteristic.


FIGURE 1.39 Biasing of a transistor.

BJT Biasing
When a transistor is used as a switch, the control circuit provides the necessary base current. The current of the base determines the
ON or OFF state of the transistor switch. The collector and the emitter of the transistor form the power terminals of the switch.
The DC load line represents all of the possible operating points of a transistor and is shown in Fig. 1.40. The operating point is where
the load line and the base current intersect and is determined by the values of VCC and RC.
In the ON state, the ideal operating point occurs when the collector current IC is equal to VCC /RC and VCE is zero. The actual operating
point occurs when the load line intersects the base current at the saturation point. This occurs when the base current equals the
saturation current or IB = IB(sat). At this point, the collector current is maximum and the transistor has a small voltage drop across the
collectoremitter terminals called the saturation voltage VCE(sat).
Introduction 9
In the OFF state, or cutoff point, the ideal operating point occurs when the collector current IC is zero and the collectoremitter
voltage VCE is equal to the supply voltage VCC. The actual operating point, in the OFF state, occurs when the load line intersects the
base current (IB = 0). At the cutoff point, the collector current is the leakage current. By applying Kirchoff s voltage law around the
output loop, the collectoremitter voltage (VCE) can be found.
The operating points between the saturation and cutoff constitute the active region. When operating in the active region, high power
dissipation occurs due to the relatively high values of collector current IC and collectoremitter voltage VCE. For satisfactory
operation, a slightly higher than minimum base
current will ensure a saturated ON state and will result in reduced turn-on time and power dissipation.

1.10 Power MOSFET
The power MOSFET has two important advantages over than BJT, First of them, is its need to
very low operating gate current, the second of them, is its very high switching speed. So, it
is used in the circuit that requires high turning ON and OFF speed that may be greater than
100kHz. This switch is more expensive than any other switches have the same ratings. The
power MOSFET has three terminals source, drain and gate. Fig.1.13 shows the electric symbol
and static characteristics of the power MOSFET.

Fig.1.13 The electric symbol and static characteristics of power MOSFET.

1.11 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
IGBTs transistors introduce a performance same as BJT but it has the advantage that its very
high current density and it has higher switch speed than BJT but still lower than MOSFET. The
normal switching frequency of the IGBT is about 40kHz. IGBT has three terminals collector,
emitter, and, gate.
Fig.1.14 shows the electric circuit symbol and operating characteristics of the IGBT. IGBT used
so much in PWM converters and in adjustable speed drives.

Fig.1.14 IGBT v-i transfer characteristics and circuit symbol: