DNS

DNS is an Internet service that translates domain names to IP addresses. Every time you query or use a
domain name, a DNS server translates the domain name into its corresponding IP address. The DNS
server uses cache to resolve queries. The server cache is a part of the memory that stores the recently
accessed information. Caching enales fast responses to the DNS queries. It also reduces net!or" traffic
ecause the DNS server can gather responses for queries from its cache, rather than sending the queries to
the other DNS servers.
The DNS server collects and stores all the information that it receives !hen a query is processed. The
server retains this information in the server cache till the specified time#period in the resource record.
This time#period is called the time#to#live $TT%& value of the returned record information.
'fter caching, the TT% value starts decreasing so that the server "no!s !hen to delete the resource
record. The record is mar"ed for deletion, !hen the TT% value reaches (ero.
Consider an e)ample. 'n organi(ation has a *,+++ machine setup !ith a domain controller, three
additional domain controllers, and fe! application servers, such as !e servers, dataase servers, and fe!
file servers. Domain controller is also a DNS server for the organi(ation. Soft!are developers access
these servers and other machines for their day#to#day !or". They notice that it ta"es a longer time to
access servers and machines !ith the machine name as compared to the time ta"en !hen they access
machines !ith the IP addresses. The reason for this is that the DNS server is loaded and therefore, it
slo!s do!n !hile resolving queries. 'fter a query is resolved, the DNS server cache gets deleted. This
can e resolved y creating a cache on another DNS server. This !ill help the DNS server to resolve
queries faster.
The TT% value indicates the time for !hich a DNS client can use a DNS record efore deletion of the
record or efore the record e)pires. ,sers can specify the TT% value for a DNS record in seconds.
The minimum default value of the TT% for records created y the DNS server is -.++ seconds. ' short
TT% value results in heavy DNS traffic. ' large TT% value causes the server to reply to queries y using
outdated resource records.
Troubleshooting DNS Server
nslookup is a command line utility that enales you to perform tests to verify !hether the resource
records are added or updated correctly or not. The nslookup command helps resolve addresses for
resources on the DNS server, performs DNS queries, and e)amines the content of (one files on the DNS
server. The command also helps diagnose and solve name resolution prolems !hen the machine name
does not get resolved !hile accessing the net!or".
Synta) ## nslookup [-Subcommand ...] [{ComputerToFind| [-Server]}]
The aove parameters are e)plained elo!/
Subcommand/ Specifies one or more nsloo"up sucommands as a command#line option such as
nslookup: exit, nslookup: in!er, nslookup: ls, nslookup: lserver
ComputerToFind/ %oo"s up for complete information such as DNS name and IP address of a
computer system y using the current default DNS name server.
Server/ Specifies to use this server as the DNS name server. If you omit Server parameter, the
default DNS name server is used.
SMTP
S0TP is a protocol that is used for sending e#mail messages. 1henever a user sends an e#mail y using
e#mail clients such as 2utloo" E)press, the client uses S0TP to transfer the e#mail to the mail server.
E#mail is routed to an intermediate mail server, !hich then delivers it to the recipient3s mail server. 4or
e)ample, a company !ith several servers has designated one server as a mail gate!ay to the Internet.
'ny e#mail sent to the company !ould arrive at the gate!ay server, and then e relayed to the
appropriate server for delivery to the recipient.
5o!ever, malicious users sometimes try to perform unauthori(ed mail relaying. 4or e)ample, a spammer
!ho has a lo!#end server and a slo! net!or" connection might use mail relaying in order to get other
company6s higher#po!ered mail server and a fast net!or" connection to send spam mail on their ehalf.
Even !orms can use some other server and net!or" to send mass mails. 0any !orm programs are used
today to send mass 7un" e#mails to distur net!or"s. Sending mass spam mails is an unla!ful activity.
The follo!ing tale lists ports aout a fe! more protocols.
PROTOCOLS PORTS
POP3 110
ftp-data 20 file transfer[default data]
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 21 file transfer [control]
HTTP 80
TE!ET 23
!a"eser#er $2
Tri#ial File Transfer (TFTP) %&
'nternet (essa)e *ccess Protocol ('(*P) 1$3
i)+t,ei)+t -irector. *ccess Protocol (-*P) 38&
Protocols and T+eir /orrespondin) Ports
Solutions to Chapter One Questions
1. %ist the functions of the application layer.
Ans.
The functions of the application layer are/
It is responsile for facilitating interaction et!een many applications li"e 111, E0'I%, 4TP,
and DNS, and servers li"e mail server and 4TP server.
It interfaces directly to and performs common application services for the application processes8 it
also issues requests to the presentation layer.
2. 1hat is DNS9
Ans.
DNS is a name resolution service that resolves host names to the IP addresses. DNS has a hierarchical
and distriuted dataase that contains mappings of host names !ith the corresponding IP addresses.
3. E)plain the !or"ing of DNS !ith an e)ample.
Ans.
DNS is a name resolution service that resolves host names to IP addresses. ' DNS server resolves host
names to IP addresses for DNS queries sent y the DNS clients. These queries can e in the form of a
name resolution query or a resource record. The resolver sends a ,ser Datagram Protocol $,DP& pac"et
to the local DNS server. The DNS server searches its tale and returns the IP address, !hich matches the
domain name. DNS has a hierarchical and distriuted dataase that contains mappings of host names !ith
the corresponding IP addresses.
:esource records are stored in a specific portion of the DNS dataase called the DNS (one. ' DNS (one
contains resource records along !ith the o!ner names.
4or e)ample, an application program calls a procedure !ith its domain name as parameter. The procedure
sends an ,DP pac"et to the local DNS server. The DNS server searches its tale and returns the IP
address !hich matches the Domain name. The program can no! estalish a TCP connection or send
,DP pac"ets.
4. 1hat is an iterative resolution9
Ans.
Iterative resolution refers to the name resolution technique in !hich a server sends ac" the information
to a client or sends the name of the server that has the information. The client then iterates y sending a
request to this referred server. This server may return the information itself or send the name of another
server. This process continues till the time the client receives the required information.
5. 1hat are the functions of the user agent in the e#mail architecture9
Ans.
In the e#mail architecture, the user agent helps users to interact !ith the e#mail systems. The functions of
the user agent in e#mail architecture are/
Composition/ It refers to !riting the mail. 5ere users type the message that they !ant to convey.
The users have to mention the recipient6s e#mail address.
Receiving/ It refers to retrieving the e#mails from the P2P- server.
Replying to messages/ It refers to replying to a received e#mail. To reply to the e#mail, the user has
to clic" reply, type the message, and send it ac".
Support manipulation o mail bo!/ It refers to customi(ation of the mail o). 5ere users can create
folders and manage the mail according to the sender.
". Discuss the sending and receiving process of e#mail.
Ans.
The prerequisites for sending and receiving an e#mail are/
;oth the sender and recipient should have an e#mail account.
The sender must provide the destination address and !rite a message.
The follo!ing is the sequence of the e#mail sending process/
*. 1hen the sender clic"s send, the machine estalishes a connection !ith the S0TP server y using
port <=.
<. 'n S0TP configured e#mail daemon>process uses this port. This daemon>process accepts incoming
connections and sends the mails to its appropriate domain. 4or e)ample if you send the mail from
yahoo.com to hotmail.com, the mail goes to the yahoo S0TP server, and then the S0TP server
sends it to the P2P- server of hotmail.com.
-. If a message cannot e delivered, an error report containing the first part of the undeliverale
message is returned to the sender.
In the implementations of P2P-, the server maintains a collection of te)t files, one for each e#mail
account. 1hen a message arrives, the P2P- server simply appends it to the ottom of the recipient3s file.
The follo!ing is the sequence of the e#mail receiving process/
*. The e#mail client connects to the P2P- server y using port **+. The P2P- server requires an
account name and a pass!ord.
<. 'fter providing a valid username and pass!ord, the user gets verified y the P2P- server.
-. If the username and pass!ord are valid, the P2P- server opens your te)t file and allo!s you to
access it.
#. 1rite a rief note on S0TP.
Ans.
S0TP is a protocol that transfers mail relialy and efficiently. S0TP is independent of a particular
transmission susystem and needs only a reliale ordered data stream channel. 'n important feature of
S0TP is its capaility to relay mail across transport service environments.
$. Discuss the !or"ing of P2P- in an e#mail system. 1hat are its limitations9
Ans.
1hen users chec" their e#mail, the e#mail client connects to the P2P- server y using port **+. The
P2P- server requires an account name and a pass!ord.
The P2P- server issues a series of commands to ring copies of user e#mail messages to user6s local
machine. ?enerally, it !ill then delete the messages from the server $unless the user chooses the not to
option in the e#mail client&.
2nce the connection has een estalished, the P2P- protocol goes through three stages in sequence/
*. 'uthori(ation
<. Transactions
-. ,pdate
The authori(ation state deals !ith the user log in. The transaction state deals !ith the user collecting
e#mail messages and mar"ing them for deletion from the mailo). The update state causes the e#mail
messages to e deleted. During the authori(ation state, at times, !hen the server is set for three pass!ords
trials, if you give the !rong pass!ord thrice, your mail o) !ill get loc"ed.
P2P- servers have certain limitations such as/
There is no folder structure for sorting e#mail messages that are saved on the P2P- server. The
server has only one folder for incoming mails, !hich is the ino).
No rules can e set at the P2P- server. 'll rules are set at the client end only. If a user6s machine
crashes, e#mail messages can only e recovered if a copy of them is left on the server.
To chec" e#mail, users have to do!nload them first and only then they can vie! their mails on the
e#mail client soft!are. ,ser cannot see mails first and then do!nload the required mails. If there are
spam e#mail messages in the ino) that can e dangerous for the computer, these !ill also get
do!nloaded and the user has to delete them.
:eference $http/>>!!!.evenmail.com>pop-.imap.html&
%. 1hat is 1119
Ans.
The 111 is a hyperte)t#ased system that provides a uniform and a user#friendly interface for
accessing the resources on the Internet. It is an information space in !hich the items of interest, referred
to as resources, are identified y gloal identifiers called ,niform :esource Identifiers $,:I&.
1&. Discuss the architecture of 111.
Ans.
The architecture of 111 is t!o tiered. It consists of the client and the server. The client $!e ro!ser&
requests for a !e page. This page is retrieved from the server. The architecture depends on three "ey
standards/ 5T0% for encoding document content, ,niform :esource %ocator $,:%& for naming remote
information o7ects in a gloal namespace, and 5TTP for staging the transfer. The follo!ing figure
sho!s the t!o#tiered architecture of 111.
C%IENT
SE:@E:
:equest
:esponse
T,o-Tier *rc+itecture of 000
If the !e pages are interacting !ith the dataase, then the architecture ecomes three#tiered, as sho!n in
the follo!ing figure.
T+ree-Tier *rc+itecture of 000
11. E)plain the client side and server side events !hen a user clic"s on a ,:%.
Ans.
The client side events !hen a user clic"s on a ,:% are as follo!s/
*. The ro!ser locates the ,:%.
<. The ro!ser as"s DNS for the IP address.
-. DNS replies !ith the IP address.
A. The ro!ser ma"es the Transmission Control Protocol $TCP& connection to Port B+ on the machine
!ith the aove IP address.
=. The ro!ser sends a request for the specific file.
.. The server sends the required file.
C. The TCP connection is closed.
B. The ro!ser displays all te)t information.
D. The ro!ser displays all images.
1hen a user clic"s on a ,:%, the server side events are as follo!s/
*. Server accepts a TCP connection from a client.
<. Server searches the file associated !ith the !e page.
-. 4ile from the dis" is retrieved.
A. The !e page is returned to the client.
=. TCP connection is released.
12. E)plain a server farm !ith an e)ample.
Ans.
' server farm is a group of net!or"ed servers that are housed in one location. ' server farm streamlines
internal processes y distriuting the !or"load et!een the individual components of the farm and
e)pedites computing processes y harnessing the po!er of multiple servers. The farms rely on load
alancing soft!are that accomplishes the follo!ing tas"s/
Trac"ing demand for processing po!er from different machines.
Prioriti(ing the tas"s.
Scheduling and rescheduling tas"s depending upon priority and demand that users put on the
net!or".
1hen one server in the farm fails, another can step in as a ac"up.
Comining servers and processing po!er into a single entity has een relatively common for many years
in research and academic institutions. Today, more and more companies are utili(ing server farms as a
!ay of handling the enormous amount of computeri(ation of tas"s and services that they require.
C%IENT
SE:@E: D'T';'SE
:equest
:esponse
Server farm, or !e farm, refers to either a !e site that runs on more than one server or an Internet
Service Provider $ISP& that provides !e hosting services y using multiple servers.
Server compute farms are ma"ing their !ay into large manufacturing environments for electronic design
automation, and to accelerate processes and complete tas"s. ' server farm accomplishes this y
harnessing computing po!er from multiple machines and comining that po!er.
E)ample of a server farm includes ?oogle. ?oogle6s services run on several server farms.
FAQs
1. 1hat is 4TP9
Ans'
4TP is a standard protocol for transferring files et!een remote computers. It uses the Internet3s TCP>IP
protocols to enale data transfer.
2. 1hat is I0'P9
Ans'
I0'P is an application layer Internet protocol used for accessing e#mail on a remote server from a local
client.
3. 1hat is the difference et!een S0TP and P2P-9
Ans'
S0TP $Simple 0ail Transfer Protocol& is used for the relaying and delivery of messages. S0TP y
default !or"s on <= port. 'n email client sends the email to S0TP server, The server accepts incoming
connections and copies message from them into the appropriate mailo)es.
If a message cannot e delivered, an error report containing the first part of the undeliverale message is
returned to the sender. S0TP is a simple 'SCII protocol.
P2P- $Post 2ffice Protocol& is used for retrieving mails from the mail server. P2P- y default !or"s on
**+ port.
P2P- egins !hen the user starts the mail client. The mail client estalishes a TCP connection !ith the
message transfer agent at port **+. 2nce the connection has een estalished, the P2P- protocol goes
through three states in sequence/
*. 'uthori(ation.
<. Transactions.
-. ,pdate.
Static Routing Vs. Dna!ic Routing
Staic and dynamic routing is compared in the follo!ing tale.
Static Routing Dynamic Routing
1tatic routin) allo,s routin) ta2les in specific
routers to 2e set up in a static "anner so t+at
t+e net,or3 routes for pac3ets are set4
-.na"ic routin) perfor"s t+e sa"e function as
static routin) e5cept it is "ore ro2ust4
Static Routing Dynamic Routing
'n static routin)6 routin) is done "anuall. in
routers4 7outers do not update routin) ta2le
t+e"sel#es in case of do,nti"e or c+an)e in
route4 'f a router on t+e route )oes do,n6 t+e
destination "a. 2eco"e unreac+a2le4
-.na"ic routin) allo,s routin) ta2les in
routers to c+an)e as t+e possi2le routes c+an)e4
T+ere are se#eral protocols used to support
d.na"ic routin) includin) 7'P and O1PF4
* net,or3 ad"inistrator "anuall. 2uilds and
updates t+e routin) ta2le and +andles t+e
pro)ra""in) of all t+e routes in t+e routin)
ta2le4 1tatic routers can ,or3 ,ell for s"all
internet,or3s 2ut t+e. do not scale ,ell for
lar)e or d.na"icall. c+an)in) inter-net,or3s
2ecause of t+e "anual ad"inistration re8uired4
-.na"ic routin) consists of routin) ta2les t+at
are 2uilt and "aintained auto"aticall. t+rou)+
an on)oin) co""unication 2et,een routers4
T+is co""unication is facilitated 2. a routin)
protocol6 a series of periodic or on-de"and
"essa)es containin) routin) infor"ation t+at is
e5c+an)ed 2et,een routers4 E5cept for router9s
initial confi)uration6 d.na"ic routers re8uire
little on)oin) "aintenance and6 t+erefore6 can
scale to lar)er internet,or3s4
7outers are not fault tolerant in case of static
routin)4 T+e lifeti"e of a "anuall. confi)ured
static route is infinite and6 t+erefore6 static
routers do not sense and reco#er fro" do,ned
routers or do,ned lin3s4
7outers are fault tolerant in case of d.na"ic
routin)4 -.na"ic routes +a#e a finite lifeti"e4 'f
a router or lin3 )oes do,n6 t+e routers sense t+e
c+an)e in t+e inter-net,or3 topolo). t+rou)+
t+e e5piration of t+e lifeti"e of t+e route in t+e
routin) ta2le4 T+is c+an)e can t+en 2e
propa)ated to ot+er routers so t+at all t+e
routers on t+e inter-net,or3 2eco"e a,are of
t+e ne, inter-net,or3 topolo).4
1tatic 7outin) :ersus -.na"ic 7outin)
Routing Protocols
:outing protocol refers to a protocol that enales routing through implementation of a routing algorithm.
' routing algorithm is an algorithm that determines the possile route through !hich data pac"ets !ould
reach the destination.
Some of the routing protocols are/
Interior ?ate!ay :outing Protocol $I?:P&
Cisco Discovery Protocol $CDP&
5ot Standy :outer Protocol $5S:P&
"#RP
I?:P is a distance vector Interior ?ate!ay Protocol $I?P&. I?:P mathematically compare routes y
using some measurements of distance. This measurement is "no!n as the distance vector. :outers send
all or a portion of their routing tale in a routing#update message at regular intervals to each of their
neighoring routers if the router is using a distance vector protocol. 's routing information propagates
through the net!or", routers can identify ne! destinations as they are added to the net!or", learn aout
the failures in the net!or", and calculate distances to all "no!n destinations.
:eference $http/>>!!!.cisco.com>univercd>cc>td>doc>cisint!">itoEdoc>igrp.htm&
CDP
CDP is a media and protocol#independent device#discovery protocol that runs on all Cisco#manufactured
equipment including routers, access servers, ridges, and s!itches. ;y using CDP, a device can advertise
its e)istence to other devices and receive information aout other devices on the same %ocal 'rea
Net!or" $%'N& or on the remote side of a 1ide 'rea Net!or" $1'N&.
$SRP
5S:P is a routing protocol that provides ac"up to a router in the event of the failure of the router.
5S:P provides net!or" redundancy for IP net!or"s. It ensures that user traffic recovers immediately
and transparently from first hop failures in net!or" edge devices or access circuits.
T"M%RS "N R"P
:IP uses three timers to support its operation/
(eriodic Timer/ The Periodic timer controls the advertising of regular update messages. 'lthough
the protocol specifies that the timer must e set to -+ seconds, the !or"ing model uses a random
numer et!een <= and -= seconds. This is to prevent any possile synchroni(ation and, therefore,
prevent overload on the net!or" if the routers update simultaneously. Each router has one periodic
timer that is set randomly to a numer et!een <= and -= seconds. 1hen the counter reaches (ero,
the update message is sent to the other routers and the timer is randomly set once again.
)!piration Timer/ The e)piration timer chec"s the validity of a route. 1hen a route receives the
update information from the other routers for a specific route, the e)piration timer is set to *B+
seconds. Every time a ne! update for the route is received, the timer is reset. In normal situations,
this occurs every -+ seconds. 5o!ever, if there is a prolem on the Internet and no update is
received !ithin the allocated *B+ seconds, the route is considered e)pired and the hop count of the
route is set to *..
*arbage Collection Timer/ 1hen the information aout a route ecomes invalid, the router does
not immediately purge that route from its tale. Instead, it continues to advertise the route !ith a
metric value of *.. 't the same time, a timer called ?arage Collection Timer is set to *<+ seconds
for that route. 1hen the count reaches (ero, the route is purged from the tale. This timer allo!s the
neighoring routers to ecome a!are of the invalidity of a route prior to purging.
Solutions to Chapter T&o Questions
1. 1hat is routing9 Differentiate et!een the t!o types of routing, direct routing and indirect routing.
Ans.
:outing is the process of moving information across an internet!or" from a source router to a destination
router. :outing occurs at the third layer of the 2pen System Interconnect $2SI& model, "no!n as the
net!or" layer. :outing protocols use metrics to evaluate !hat path !ill e the est for a pac"et to travel.
The differences et!een direct routing and indirect routing are as follo!s.
Direct Routing Indirect Routing
'n direct routin)6 pac3et deli#er. occurs ,+en t+e
source and destination of t+e pac3et is located on
t+e sa"e p+.sical net,or3 or if t+e pac3et
deli#er. is 2et,een t+e last router and t+e
destination +ost4
'n indirect routin)6 t+e pac3et )oes fro" router to
router until it reac+es t+e router connected to t+e
sa"e p+.sical net,or3 as its final destination4
'n direct routin)6 t+e address "appin) is 2et,een
t+e 'P address of t+e final destination and t+e
p+.sical address of t+e final destination4
'n an indirect routin)6 t+e address "appin) is
2et,een t+e 'P address of t+e ne5t router and t+e
p+.sical address of t+e ne5t router4
* pac3et deli#er. al,a.s in#ol#es one direct
routin)4
* pac3et deli#er. "a. or "a. not in#ol#e indirect
routin)4
-irect 7outin) :ersus 'ndirect 7outin)
2. Discuss the different approaches that are used to ma"e a routing tale more efficient.
Ans.
There are many approaches to ma"e a routing tale efficient such as/
+e!t ,op routing/ In this technique, the routing tale holds only the address of the ne)t hop instead
of holding information aout the complete route. :outing tales are therey consistent !ith each
other.
+et-or. speciic routing/ In this technique, routing tales are made smaller so that the search
process ecomes simpler. Instead of having an entry for every host connected to the same physical
net!or", !e have only one entry to define the address of the net!or" itself.
3. Discuss the various staility features of :IP.
Ans.
The staility features of :IP are/
/op0count limit/ This feature limits the numer of hops allo!ed in a path from source to
destination. The ma)imum numer of hops in a path is *=. If for some reasons the router receives a
routing update that contains a ne! or changed entry, and if increasing the metric value y * causes
the metric to e infinity $that is, *.&, the net!or" destination is considered unreachale.
/old0do-n timers/ This feature is useful in preventing routing information from flooding the
net!or" !hen net!or" lin"s are unstale.
Split ,ori1ons/ This feature prevents routing loops !ithin the net!or".
4. 1hat is the purpose of the route timeout timer9
Ans.
The purpose of the route timeout timer is to help purge invalid routes from a :IP node. :outes that are
not refreshed for a given period of time are li"ely to e invalid ecause of some change in the net!or".
Thus, :IP maintains a timeout timer for each "no!n route. 1hen a route3s timeout timer e)pires, the
route is mar"ed invalid ut is retained in the tale until the route#flush timer e)pires.
5. 1hich t!o capailities are supported y :IP< ut are not supported y :IP*9
Ans.
T!o capailities, !hich are supported y :IP< ut not y :IP*, are/
:IP* cannot increase the net!or" diameter or disseminate net!or" it mas"s needed to properly
interpret routes. Therefore, using :IP* is a poor choice for modern net!or"s. 'n updated version of
:IP*, "no!n as :IPv< $:IP<& can do this. :IP @ersion < $:IPv<& adds a Fnet!or" mas"F and Fne)t
hop addressF field to the original :IP pac"et !hile remaining completely compatile !ith :IP. Thus
:IPv< routers can coe)ist !ith :IP routers !ithout any prolems.
The other improvement that :IPv< offers over :IP* is authentication, !hich defines the pass!ord
authentication mechanism for :IPv< routers to prevent accidental updates for !rongly configured
hosts.
". 1hat is the ma)imum net!or" diameter of a :IP net!or"9
Ans.
The ma)imum net!or" diameter of a :IP net!or" is *= hops.
#. 1hen using 2SP4, can you have t!o areas attached to each other !here only one autonomous system
$'S& has an interface in 'rea +9
Ans.
Ges, you can. This descries the use of a virtual path. 2ne area has an interface in 'rea + $legal&, and the
other 'S is rought up and attached off an ';: in 'rea *, so you can call it 'rea <. 'rea < has no
interface in 'rea +, so it must have a virtual path to 'rea + through 'rea *. 1hen this is in place, 'rea<
loo"s li"e it is directly connected to 'rea +. 1hen 'rea * !ants to send pac"ets to 'rea <, it must send
them to 'rea +, !hich in turn redirects them ac" through 'rea * y using the virtual path to 'rea <.
$. 'rea + contains five routers $', ;, C, D, and E&. 'rea * contains three routers $:, S, and T&. 1hat
router does router T "no!s9 :outer S is the ';:.
Ans.
:outer T "no!s aout routers : and S only. %i"e!ise, :outer S only "no!s aout : and T, as !ell as
routers to the ';: in 'rea +. The 'S6s separate the areas so that router updates contain only information
needed for that 'S.
%. Can I;?P e used in place of an I?P $:IP, I?:P, EI?:P, 2SP4, or IS#IS&9
Ans.
,se of I;?P in place of I?P is conditional.
The ne)t#hop information from E;?P is carried into I;?P. If I;?P does not have a route to reach the
ne)t hop, then the route !ill e discarded. Typically, an I?P needs to e used to e)change routes to the
ne)t hop, ut this can e achieved y using static routes on all the routers running I;?P. So, the ans!er
is yes if you !ant to use and maintain static routes. 2ther!ise, you can not use I;?P in place of I?P.
:eference $http/>>!!!.cisco.com>univercd>cc>td>doc>cisint!">itoEdoc>gp.htm&
1&. 'ssume that a ;?P router is learning the same route from t!o different E;?P peers. The 'SEpath
information from peer * is H<-A=, B., =*I, and the 'SEpath information from peer < is H<-A., =*I. 1hat
;?P attriutes could e ad7usted to force the router to prefer the route advertised y peer *9
Ans.
1eight and local preference are t!o ;?P attriutes that ma"e ad7ustments to force the router to prefer
the route advertised y peer *. ;oth have a higher preference than 'SEpath length.
11. Can ;?P e used y Internet service providers only9
Ans.
No. ;?P can also e used to scale large enterprise net!or"s. ' large net!or" can e divided into
segments, !ith each segment running an I?P. :outing information et!een segments could then e
e)changed y using ;?P.
12. If a directly connected interface is redistriuted into ;?P, !hat value !ill the original attriute have
for the route9
Ans.
'ny redistriuted route !ill have an incomplete value of origin.
FAQs
1. 1hat are the dra!ac"s of :IP9
Ans'
The dra!ac"s of :IP are/
:IP ta"es a long time to staili(e after a router failure or lin" failure.
:IP uses more roadcasting than 2SP4 and hence requires more net!or" and!idth.
2. 1hat is the difference et!een :IP and 2SP49
Ans'
The main difference et!een :IP and 2SP4 is that :IP only "eeps trac" of the closest router for each
destination address !hereas 2SP4 "eeps trac" of a complete topological dataase of all connections in
the local net!or".
3. 1hat is a metric9 1hat are some of the metrics used y the routing protocols9
Ans'
' metric is a standard of measurement, such as path and!idth, !hich is used y routing algorithms to
determine the optimal path to a destination.
Some of the metrics used y the routing protocols are path length, reliaility, delay, and!idth, load, and
communication cost.
RTSP
The :TSP is a client#server application#level protocol that controls the delivery of data !ith real#time
properties. :TSP estalishes and controls either a single or several time#synchroni(ed streams of
continuous media, such as audio and video. :TSP uses the transport protocols such as ,ser Datagram
Protocol $,DP&, multicast ,DP, Transmission Control Protocol $TCP&, and :eal#Time Transport
Protocol $:TP& to deliver the continuous streams. It acts as a net!or" remote control for multimedia
servers. Sources of data can include oth live data feeds and stored clips.
Port Nu!bers use' b RTSP
The follo!ing ports have een registered !ith the Internet 'ssigned Numers 'uthority $I'N'&.
;;$<tcp 7T1P
;;$<udp 7T1P
8;;$<tcp 7T1P *lternate
8;;$<udp 7T1P *lternate
RTP
:TP defines a standardi(ed pac"et format for delivering audio and video over the Internet. It !as
developed y the audio and video transport !or"ing group of the Internet Engineering Tas" 4orce $IET4&
and first pulished in *DD. as :4C *BBD.
:TP does not have a standard TCP or ,DP port from !hich it communicates. The only standard that it
oeys is that ,DP communications are done on an even port and the ne)t higher odd port is used for TCP
communications. :TP uses ,DP and defines format for additional information required y an application
such as sequence numer and time stamp.
R%A()T"M% TRANSPORT CONTRO( PROTOCO( *RTCP+
:TCP is the protocol that gathers transmission statistics during the transmission of multimedia data from
a streaming server to a client machine. :TCP gathers information such as ytes sent, pac"ets sent, lost
pac"ets, 7itter, feedac", and round trip delay. To get this information, :TCP monitors data delivery
from the streaming server to the receiver6s machine and enales the receiver to detect if there is any
pac"et loss and compensates for any delay 7itter.
:TCP !or"s !ith :TP in the delivery and pac"aging of multimedia data ut does not transport any data.
It also does not provide any flo! encryption or authentication means y itself. It is used periodically to
transmit control pac"ets to participants in a streaming multimedia session. The primary function of :TCP
is to provide feedac" on the quality of service eing provided y :TP.
Open Source Strea!ing Server ) Pro'uct "n,or!ation
+ote/ ;ecause this chapter deals !ith multimedia data transmission and streaming servers, the products
availale in the mar"et have also een discussed.
'pple Computers, Inc. has developed a streaming server !hich is called Dar!in Streaming Server. This
is an open source version of streaming server technology that allo!s a user to ma"e changes according to
the requirement and to send multimedia data to clients across the Internet. Industry standard protocols
such as :TP and :TSP are used for this purpose. Dar!in Streaming Server supports a high level of
customi(aility and runs on a variety of platforms that allo!s a user to manipulate the code.
Dar!in Streaming Server can e e)tended or modified. Dar!in Streaming Server can e modified to alter
0PE?#A media and Juic"Time Streaming Server $JTSS&, !hich is 'pple3s commercial streaming
server. JTSS is delivered as a part of 0ac 2S K Server on alternative platforms such as 1indo!s,
%inu), and Solaris.
Dar!in Streaming Server =.= is the latest version availale and includes the follo!ing enhancements/
%atest security update changes
%atest -?PP release = client support
5igh#definition 5.<.A streaming
Support for automatic and!idth detection !ith Juic"Time C Player
' security update for 1indo!s
The source code of Dar!in Streaming Server =.= currently supports 0ac 2S K Server, %inu) $:ed 5at B
or higher recommended&, Solaris D, and 1indo!s <+++><++- Server. The source code of Dar!in
Streaming Server can e compiled and run on these operating systems.
Solutions to Chapter Three Questions
1. 1hat is multimedia9 ?ive e)amples of multimedia data.
Ans.
0ultimedia defines applications and technologies that manipulate te)t, data, images, and voice and full
motion video o7ects. Classic e)ample of multimedia is the games availale on CDs or songs and music
availale on sites.
2. 5o! does an audio medium differ from a video medium9
Ans.
Audio/ It deals !ith only voice. 4or e)ample, a song or a lecture on any university site.
2ideo/ It has got oth voice and live image, such as a movie, a song, or a clipping of a lecture.
3. 1hat is streaming9
Ans.
Streaming is the process of receiving stored audio>video application from a server !here they are placed.
' client egins to play either an audio or a video once the media player of the client6s PC egins
receiving the audio or video file from the server. During the process, the client !ill e playing
audio>video from one location in the file !hile it is receiving the remaining parts of the file from the
server. In other !ords, streaming avoids long do!nload times and the need to store the entire file on the
user3s computer.
4. 1hat are the dra!ac"s of the present Internet to drive the multimedia data9
Ans.
The Internet has some dra!ac"s !ith regard to multimedia data. 4or e)ample, the media player does not
communicate !ith the streaming server directly. This delay, efore play#out egins, is typically
unacceptale for audio>video clips of moderate length. 4or this reason, audio>video streaming
implementations typically have the server send the audio>video file directly to the media player process.
In other !ords, a direct soc"et connection is made et!een the server process and the media player
process.
5. 5o! can the present Internet e made to port multimedia data9
Ans.
4or ma"ing the e)isting Internet portale to multimedia data, the follo!ing modifications need to e
done/
' protocol is required that reserves and!idth on ehalf of the streaming server applications.
The scheduling policies in the router queues should e modified so that the and!idth reservations
can e done. 1ith the ne! scheduling policies, not all pac"ets get equal treatment, instead the
pac"ets from the multimedia provider sites that reserve and pay more, get more and!idth.
The applications must give the net!or" a description of the traffic that they intend to send to the
net!or".
The and!idth and s!itching capacity should e enhanced to provide satisfactory delay and pac"et
loss performance !ithin the net!or".
Caches must e installed in the net!or"s. Caches ring stored content $!e pages as !ell as stored
audio and video& closer to users, therey reducing the traffic in the higher#tier ISPs.
Content providers that pay for a Content Distriution Net!or"s $CDN& service should deliver
content faster and more effectively.
0ulticast overlay net!or"s can e deployed. ' multicast overlay net!or" consists of servers
scattered throughout the ISP net!or" and potentially throughout the entire Internet. Servers and the
logical lin"s et!een servers collectively form an overlay net!or", !hich multicasts traffic from a
source to millions of users.
". 1hy do audio and video file need to e compressed9
Ans.
Compression is required to reduce the si(e of audio and video so that they can e easily transmitted over
the Internet.
4or e)ample, a single image consisting of *+<A pi)el L *+<A pi)els, !ith each pi)el encoded into <A its
requires - 0; of storage !ithout compression. There are eight its, three each for the colors red, green,
and lue. It !ould ta"e appro)imately seven minutes to send the image over a .A "ps lin". If the image
is compressed at a modest *+/* compression ratio, the storage requirement is reduced to -++ Mytes and
the transmission time also drops y a factor of *+.
#. E)plain the audio streaming process.
Ans.
'udio streaming is the transfer of audio#encoded pac"ets that are decoded and sent to the client6s
soundcard upon reception. The host side is responsile for encoding and pac"eti(ing the audio stream.
The client side is responsile for decoding the pac"ets and sending the decoded audio to the sound card.
There are delays inherent in the overall system. These delays are contriuted y the encode>decode delay,
transfer delay, uffer delay, modem delay, sound card delay, and other delays. 's long as the delays are
"ept constant, then the audio !ill e delivered uninterrupted.
$. 1hat is a streaming server9
Ans.
Streaming servers are meant for the audio>video streaming applications. ,pon client request, a server
directs an audio or a video file to the client y sending the file into a soc"et. ;oth the TCP and ,DP
soc"et connections are used. ;efore sending the audio>video file to a net!or", the file is segmented, and
the segments are typically encapsulated !ith special headers appropriate for audio and video traffic.
Streaming servers send digital video for ne!s, entertainment, or educational content over the Internet y
using :TP>:TSP. ' multimedia file gets uploaded on the server and streaming servers encodes content in
the latest media formats including 0PE?# A $0oving Picture E)pert ?roup& and the ''C $'dvanced
'udio Coder& audio.
%. 1hat are the limitations of the est effort service9 E)plain.
Ans.
%imitations of the est effort service are/
(ac.et loss/ 's a IP datagram crosses through a net!or" over ,DP, it passes through uffers in the
routers in order to access outound lin"s. It is possile that one or more of the uffers in the route
from sender to receiver is full and cannot admit the datagram. In this case, the IP datagram is
discarded, never to arrive at the receiving application. %oss could e eliminated y sending the
pac"ets over TCP rather than over ,DP.
)!cessive end0to0end delay/ End#to#end delay is the accumulation of transmission, processing, and
queuing delays in routers, propagation delays in the lin"s, and end#system processing delays.
(ac.et 3itter/ ' crucial component of end#to#end delay is the random queuing delays in the routers.
;ecause of these varying delays !ithin the net!or", the time from !hen a pac"et is generated at the
source until it is received at the receiver can fluctuate from pac"et to pac"et. This phenomenon is
called 7itter.
1&. Discuss the features of :eal Time Protocol $:TP&.
Ans.
The features of :eal Time Protocol $:TP& are/
:TP provides end#to#end delivery services for data !ith real#time characteristics such as interactive
audio and video. 5o!ever, :TP itself does not provide any mechanism to ensure timely delivery. It
needs support from the lo!er layers of 2SI model that actually have control over resources in
s!itches and routers. :TP depends on :esource :eservation Protocol $:S@P& to reserve resources
and to provide the requested quality of service.
:TP provides timestamps, sequence numers as hoo"s for adding reliaility, flo!, and congestion
control for pac"et delivery, ut implementation is totally left to the application.
:TP is a protocol frame!or" that is delierately not complete. It is open to ne! payload formats and
ne! multimedia soft!are. ;y adding ne! profile and payload format specifications, one can tailor
:TP to ne! data formats and ne! applications.
The flo! and congestion control information of :TP is provided y :eal#Time Control Protocol
$:TCP& sender and receiver reports.
:TP>:TCP provides functionality and control mechanisms necessary for carrying real#time content.
;ut :TP>:TCP itself is not responsile for the higher#level tas"s li"e assemly and synchroni(ation.
These have to e done at the application level.
11. E)plain ho! does the helper application get data from a streaming server.
Ans.
?etting data from streaming server to helper application li"e the media player requires at least t!o
servers !here data is placed. 2ne server is the 5TTP server, and the second server is the streaming
server.
4or e)ample, !hen a user visits any songs>ne!s !e site, the !e ro!ser communicates !ith the !e
server !here the user chooses the file that has music or ne!s. The moment the user clic"s any media file8
media player requests for the media file to the streaming server and user receives the media file on the
media player.
12. E)plain :TSP.
Ans.
:TSP is a protocol that enales a media player to control the transmission of a media stream. :TSP
messages use the port numer =AA from the media stream. The :TSP specification, :4C <-<., permits
:TSP messages to e sent over TCP or ,DP.
:TSP server "eeps a trac" of the state of the client for each ongoing :TSP session. 4or e)ample, the
server "eeps trac" of !hether the client is in an initiali(ation state, a play state, or a pause state. The
session and sequence numers, !hich are part of each :TSP request and response, help the server to "eep
trac" of the session state. The session numer is fi)ed throughout the entire session8 the client increments
the sequence numer each time it sends a ne! message8 the server echoes ac" the session numer, and
the current sequence numer.
FAQs
1. 1hat is ,DP9
Ans'
The ,ser Datagram Protocol $,DP& is one of the core protocols of the Internet protocol suite. ;y using
,DP, programs on net!or"ed computers can send short messages "no!n as datagrams to one another.
5o!ever, ,DP does not provide the reliaility and ordering guarantees that TCP provides.
2. 1hat is 'T0 ''%=9
Ans'
'synchronous Transfer 0ode 'daptation %ayer Type = $'T0 ''%=& is a protocol that provides virtual
connections et!een end stations attached to the same net!or". 'T0 ''%= supports variale it rate
and delay#tolerant connection#oriented data traffic requiring minimal sequencing or error detection
support.
3. ?ive an e)ample of a streaming server availale in the mar"et today.
Ans'
0edia;o) 'S#<.+B is an emedded streaming server capale of encoding from eight different inputs of
high quality audio through roadand net!or"s at various stream rates in multiple formats/ 0PE?A,
:eal, 0P-, and @oris.
-ireless Technologies
Some of the !ireless technologies are/
4luetoot,/ It is a !ireless technology. It is a short#range communications system intended to replace
the cales connecting portale and>or fi)ed electronic devices. The "ey features of =luetoot+
technology include roustness, lo! po!er, and lo! cost.
;luetooth offers a numer of advantages. It provides a simple choice for convenient, !ire#free,
short#range communication et!een devices. It is a gloally availale standard that !irelessly
connects moile phones, portale computers, cars, stereo headsets, 0P- players, and more. It is est
suited for connecting PD' $Personal Digital 'ssistance& and cell phones.
5))) $&2.1"a 67i8A9:/ It is commonly referred to as 1i0'K or less commonly as 1ireless
0'N or the 'ir Interface Standard, IEEE B+<.*. is a specification for fi)ed roadand !ireless
metropolitan access net!or"s. It provides added support for the < to ** ?5( range.
5))) $&2.11g 67i0Fi:/ It has a frequency up to =A0ps in the <.A?5( and. Products that adhere to
this standard are considered F1i#4i CertifiedF. Products in this standard are compatile !ith B+<.**
and support *A channels availale in the <.A?5( and !ith only three non#overlapping channels.
5))) $&2.11a 67i0Fi:/ It has frequency up to =A0ps in the =?5( and. The products that adhere
to this standard are considered F1i#4i Certified.F Products in this standard have eight availale
channels. This standard is etter than B+<.** at supporting multimedia voice, video and large image
applications in densely populated user environments. It has a relatively shorter range than B+<.**
and is not interoperale !ith B+<.**.
CSMA.CA
CS0'>C' is a net!or" contention protocol that listens to a net!or" in order to avoid collisions, unli"e
CS0'>CD that deals !ith net!or" transmissions once collisions have een detected. CS0'>C'
contriutes to net!or" traffic ecause efore any real data is transmitted, it has to roadcast a signal onto
the net!or" in order to listen for collision scenarios and to tell other devices not to roadcast.
-ireless Fi'elit
1ireless 4idelity, or 1i 4i, allo!s a user to connect to the net!or" and Internet from any location
situated in a particular facility !ithout !ires. 1i#4i is a !ireless technology li"e a moile phone. It
enales computers to send and receive data indoors and out any!here !ithin the range of a !ireless
access point or a !ireless router.
Mo'ulation
0odulation is the process of varying a carrier signal in order to use that signal to convey information.
The three "ey parameters of a sinusoid are its amplitude, its phase, and its frequency. These parameters
can e modified in accordance !ith an information signal to otain the modulated signal.
' device that performs modulation is "no!n as a modulator and a device that performs the inverse
operation of demodulation is "no!n as a demodulator. ' device that can do oth operations is called a
modem.
Digital 0odulation is the process in !hich the changes in the signal are chosen from a fi)ed list. Each
entry of the fi)ed list conveys a different possile piece of information. In analog modulation, the change
is applied continuously in response to the data signal. 0odulation may e applied to various aspects of
the signal.
0odulation is generally performed to overcome signal transmission issues such as/
%o! loss, lo! dispersion propagation as electromagnetic !aves
0ultiple)ing, !hich is the transmission of multiple data signals in one frequency and, on different
carrier frequencies.
Smaller, more directional antennas
There are different modes of modulation. Each node has its advantages and disadvantages. The
different modulation modes are/
Continuous 1ave
'mplitude 0odulation
Continuous -ave *C-+
C1 is the simplest form of modulation. The output of the transmitter is s!itched on and off, typically to
form the characters of the 0orse code.
Transmission !ith C1 is simple and ine)pensive. The transmitted C1 signal occupies less than =++ 5(
of frequency space. 5o!ever, there is a disadvantage to this ecause the C1 signals is difficult to hear
on a normal receiver.
A!plitu'e Mo'ulation *AM+
In '0, the strength $amplitude& of the carrier from a transmitter is varied according to ho! a modulating
signal varies.
1hen a person spea"s into the microphone of an '0 transmitter, the microphone converts the voice
into a varying voltage. This voltage is then amplified and used to vary the strength of the transmitter3s
output. '0 adds po!er to the carrier depending on the strength of the modulating voltage.
'0 can e easily produced in a transmitter. In addition, '0 receivers are simple in design. 5o!ever,
'0 has the follo!ing disadvantages/
'out t!o#thirds of an '0 signal3s po!er is concentrated in the carrier, !hich contains signals of
lo! importance. 2ne#third of the po!er is in the sideands, !hich contain the signal3s intelligence.
2f the total po!er output of an '0 transmitter, only aout one#si)th is actually productive, useful
output.
The !ide amount of frequency space occupied y an '0 signal is vulnerale to static and other
forms of electrical noise. Despite this, '0 is simple to tune on ordinary receivers and is used for
almost all short!ave roadcasting.
Solutions to Chapter Four Questions
1. 1hat are 1%'Ns9
Ans.
1%'N is a net!or" that uses high#frequency radio !aves rather than !ires to communicate et!een
nodes. 1%'N technologies enale users to estalish !ireless connections !ithin a local area such as
!ithin a corporate or campus uilding, or in a pulic space li"e airport. IEEE approved the B+<.**
standard for 1%'Ns, !hich specifies a data transfer rate of *#< 0ps.
2. 1hat is modulation9
Ans.
0odulation is the addition of information or the signal to an electronic or optical signal carrier. There are
several reasons to modulate a signal efore transmitting signal in a medium. This includes the aility of
various users sharing a medium and ma"ing the signal properties physically compatile !ith the
propagation medium.
3. 1hat is a carrier signal9
Ans.
' carrier signal is a specific frequency in an analog communication channel that is modulated !ith an
information#carrying signal. Carrier signals are commonly used in 'mplitude 0odulation $'0&,
4requency 0odulation $40&, and other radio transmissions to differentiate among channels. Gou turn a
radio dial to select a carrier frequency. The radio then amplifies the signal carried on the selected
frequency. In '0, modulation changes the strength or amplitude of the carrier signal. In 40, the
frequency of the carrier signal is modulated.
4. Define SN:.
Ans.
SN: stands for Signal#to#Noise :atio. It is the ratio et!een the typical signal level and the softest signal
that can e produced accurately.
5. 1hat is ;19
Ans.
;1 stands for and!idth, !hich is the range !ithin a and of frequencies or !avelengths. ;1 can also
e defined as the amount of data that can e transmitted in a fi)ed amount of time. 4or digital devices,
and!idth is usually e)pressed in its per second or ytes per second $ps&. 4or analog devices,
and!idth is e)pressed in cycles per second or 5ert( $5(&.
". Compare B+<.**a, B+<.**, B+<.**g and ;luetooth.
Ans.
B+<.**a, B+<.**, B+<.**g, and ;luetooth are compared in the follo!ing tale.
Feature 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g Buetoot!
Data rate ;$->2(2ps 11(2ps ;$(2ps >21?2ps
;% ?2ps
Fre"uency ;@+A 24$@+A 24$@+A 24$@+A
#oduation OF-( -111<//? -111<P=// FH11
C!anne$ 12<8 11<3 11<3 >&
( 1(+A ,ide)
Band%idt!
&'aiabe
300 834; 834;
(22(HA per
c+annel)
834;
Po%er $0-800"0 100"0 100"0 100"0
/o"parison of 802411a6 80241126 82411)6 and =luetoot+
#. %ist out the advantages and disadvantages of 1%'N.
Ans.
The advantages of 1%'N are/
Fle!ibility/ 1ithin radio coverage, nodes can communicate !ithout further restriction. :adio !aves
can penetrate !alls, and senders and receivers can e placed any!here.
)asy to use/ The !ireless net!or"s are easy to set#up and use. Nust plug#in a ase station and equip
your laptops !ith 1%'N cards.
Robustness/ 1ireless net!or"s can survive disasters. Net!or"s requiring a !ired infrastructure !ill
rea" do!n completely some time. If one ase station goes do!n, users may e ale to physically
move their PCs to e in range of another.
The disadvantages of 1%'N are/
;uality o Service 6;oS:/ 1%'Ns typically offer lo!er quality than !ired net!or"s. The main
reasons for offering lo! quality are lo!er and!idth due to limitations in radio transmission, higher
error rates due to interference $*+
#A
instead of *+
#*+
for fier optics&, and higher delay>delay variation.
2ulnerable to intererence/ If a po!erful transmitter operating in the same and as the !ireless
net!or" is neary, the !ireless net!or" could e rendered completely useless.
Speed/ Data speeds drop as the user moves further a!ay from the access point.
<peration -it,in limited distance/ Devices !ill only operate at a limited distance from an access
point. 2stacles et!een the access point and the user such as !alls, glass, !ater, trees and leaves
can also determine the distance of operation.
Saety and security/ ,sing radio !aves for data transmission might interfere !ith other high#tech
equipment. 'dditionally, the open radio interface ma"es eavesdropping much easier in 1%'Ns than
in the case of fier optics.
$. Compare radio and infrared transmission.
Ans.
The differences et!een radio and infrared transmissions are as follo!s.
Radio Tran$mi$$ion IR Tran$mi$$ion
7adio trans"ission can co#er lar)er areas and can
penetrate ,alls6 furniture6 plants6 and so on4
'7 trans"ission cannot penetrate ,alls or
ot+er o2stacles4
7adio trans"ission does not t.picall. need a direct
line of si)+t (O1) to e5ist 2et,een t+e recei#er and
t+e sender if t+e fre8uencies are not too +i)+4
For )ood trans"ission 8ualit. and +i)+ data
rates6 t.picall. a O1 is needed 2et,een t+e
sender and t+e recei#er4
7adio trans"ission offers #er. +i)+ data transfer
rates t+an 'nfrared4 /urrent radio-2ased products
offer trans"ission rates up to 10 (2ps4
'7 trans"ission offers lo,er trans"ission
rates4 T+e products usin) t+e latest #ersion of
'7 -ata *ssociation interface support data
transfer rates up to $ (2ps4
'n t+is case6 s+ieldin) is not so si"ple4 T+erefore6
radio trans"ission can interfere ,it+ ot+er senders
and electrical de#ices can destro. data trans"ission
#ia radio4
'n t+is case6 s+ieldin) is #er. si"ple4
T+erefore6 electrical de#ices do not interfere
,it+ infrared trans"ission4
7adio trans"ission is onl. per"itted in certain
fre8uenc. 2ands4 :er. li"ited ran)es of license-free
2ands are a#aila2le ,orld,ide6 and t+ose a#aila2le
are t.picall. not t+e sa"e in all countries4
!o licenses are re8uired for infrared
tec+nolo).4
7adio trans"ission is used for ,ide area net,or3s
(0*!) suc+ as "icro,a#e lin3s and "o2ile cellular
p+ones4
'7 tec+nolo). is nor"all. used for de#ices li3e
P-*s6 laptops6 note2oo3s6 "o2ile p+ones6 and
so on4
0*! tec+nolo)ies suc+ as 'EEE 8024116
H'PE7*!6 and =luetoot+ "a3e use of t+is t.pe of
trans"ission4
Onl. 'EEE 802411 "a3es use of t+is t.pe of
trans"ission4
7adio Trans"ission :ersus 'nfrared Trans"ission
%. Discuss the architecture of 1%'N.
Ans.
1%'N architecture consists of three components/
1ireless end stations
'ccess points
;asic service sets $;SS&
The !ireless end station can e any device that can communicate using the B+<.** standard. These
devices include laptops, !or"stations, and PD's, as !ell as printers and scanners.
The access point $'P& is a device. It acts as a net!or" platform for connections et!een 1%'Ns or to a
!ired %'N and as a relay et!een stations attached to the same 'P.
;SS is the logical component of !ireless architecture. In general, it is a set of !ireless stations controlled
y a single management function and has t!o configuration options that is, Infrastructure ;SS $I;SS&
and E)tended Service Set $ESS&.
In an I;SS, the stations communicate directly to one another !ithout the need for an access point. 'n
ESS is a set of infrastructure ;SSs that appear as a single ;SS. This is important for connection
redundancy ut has some security issues that need to e addressed.
1&. ;riefly e)plain the 1%'N protocol architecture.
Ans.
In a typical 1%'N setup, the IEEE B+<.** standard 1%'N $'ccess Point& gets connected to an IEEE
B+<.- standard Ethernet $S!itch>5,;& via a ridge. The higher layers $application, TCP, IP& loo" the
same for the !ireless node as for the !ired node. The IEEE B+<.** standard only covers the physical
layer $P5G& and medium access layer $0'C& li"e the other B+<.) %'Ns do. The physical layer is su
divided into the Physical %ayer Convergence Protocol $P%CP& and the Physical 0edium Dependent Su
%ayer.
The asic tas"s of the 0'C layer comprise medium access, fragmentation of user data, and encryption.
The P%CP sulayer provides a carrier sense signal called Clear Channel 'ssessment $CC'&, and provides
a common P5G interface for the 0'C, !hich is independent of the transmission technology.
11. 1rite a note on DSSS.
Ans.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum $DSSS& is the alternative spread spectrum method, in !hich the signal
is spread over a !ide range of frequencies using a chipping code. In the case of IEEE B+<.** DSSS,
spreading is achieved y using the **#chip sequence $O*,#*,O*,O*,#*,O*,O*,O*,#*,#*,#*&, !hich is also
called the ;ar"er code.
12. Discuss the 0'C layer of 1%'N.
Ans.
0'C layer controls medium access, and also offers support for roaming, authentication, and po!er
conservation. The services offered y 0'C are mandatory asynchronous data service and an optional
time#ounded service.
FAQs
1. 1hat is an electromagnetic spectrum9
Ans'
The full range of frequencies from radio !aves to gamma rays that characteri(es light is called
electromagnetic spectrum.
2. 1hat are radio !aves9
Ans'
:adio !aves are electromagnetic radiations that have the lo!est frequency, the longest !avelength, and
are produced y charged particles moving ac" and forth. The atmosphere of the earth is transparent to
radio !aves !ith !avelengths from a fe! millimeters to aout <+ meters.
3. 1hat is !avelength9
Ans'
1avelength is the distance et!een the repeated units of a !ave pattern.
Co!puter Net&or/ Authentication an' Securit
The various methods of securing data are discussed elo!.
0erberos
Mereros is a protocol that allo!s individuals communicating over an insecure net!or" to prove their
identity to one another in a secure manner. Mereros prevents replay attac"s and ensures the integrity of
the data. Mereros !or"s on client#server model and it provides mutual authentication, oth the user and
the service verify each other3s identity. Mereros is uilt on symmetric "ey cryptography and requires a
trusted third party.
Data %ncrption Stan'ar' *D%S+
DES encrypts and decrypts data in .A#it loc"s, y using a .A#it "ey although the effective "ey strength
is only =. its. DES ta"es a .A#it loc" of plainte)t as input and outputs a .A#it loc" of cipher te)t.
DES al!ays operates on loc"s of equal si(e and uses permutations and sustitutions in the algorithm.
DES is oth a loc" cipher and a product cipher.
DES has *. rounds, !hich means that the main algorithm is repeated *. times to produce the cipher te)t.
It has een found that the numer of rounds is e)ponentially proportional to the amount of time required
to find a "ey using a rute#force attac".
Public 0e "n,rastructure *P0"+
It is a system of digital certificates, Certificate 'uthorities $C'&, and other registration authorities that
verify and authenticate the validity of each party involved in the Internet transaction. PMI is currently
evolving and there is no single PMI or even a single agreed#upon standard for setting up a PMI. 5o!ever,
users agree that a reliale PMI is necessary efore electronic commerce is !idespread.
Digital Certi,icates
' digital certificate is a digitally signed statement that inds the identifying information of a user, a
computer, or a service to a pulic or private "ey pair. ' digital certificate is commonly used in the
process of authentication and security of net!or"s. ' digital certificate is an attachment to an electronic
message used for security purposes. The most common use of a digital certificate is to verify the
identification of the user !ho is sending a message. Digital certificates also provide the receiver !ith the
means to encode a reply.
'n individual !ishing to send an encrypted message applies for a digital certificate from C'. 'n
encrypted digital certificate is issued !ith the applicant3s pulic "ey and a variety of other identification
information.
CA
C' is a trusted third#party organi(ation or company that issues digital certificates. The role of the C' in
this process is to guarantee that the individual granted the unique certificate is, in fact, !ho he or she
claims to e. ,sually, this means that the C' has an arrangement !ith a financial institution, such as a
credit card company, !hich provides it !ith information to confirm an individual3s claimed identity. C's
are a critical component in data security and electronic commerce ecause they guarantee that the t!o
parties e)changing information are really !ho they claim to e.
Public)0e %ncrption
' pulic "ey is "no!n to everyone !hile a private or secret "ey is "no!n only to the recipient of the
message. Consider an e)ample in !hich user * !ants to send a secure message to user <. ;efore sending
the message to user <, user * uses the pulic "ey of user < to encrypt the message. ,ser < then uses a
private "ey to decrypt it.
1hitfield Diffie and 0artin 5ellmann introduced the pulic "ey cryptography. Therefore, it is also called
Diffie#5ellmann encryption. It is also called asymmetric encryption ecause it uses t!o "eys instead of
one "ey $symmetric encryption&.
Private)0e %ncrption
Private#"ey encryption is an encryption system that uses t!o private "eys, one for encrypting the message
and the other for decrypting it. In this type of encryption, oth the parties must have a secret "ey to
decrypt a message encrypted y the other. The dra!ac" of this method is in the difficulty of distriuting
the private "eys.
Top Vulnerabilities in -in'o&s Sste!s
The 1indo!s 2perating system family supports a !ide variety of services, net!or"ing methods, and
technologies. 0any of these components are implemented as Service Control Programs $SCP& under the
control of Service Control 0anager $SC0&, !hich runs as Services.e)e. @ulnerailities in these services
are one of the most common targets for e)ploitation y an attac"er.
The critical vulnerailities !ere reported in the follo!ing 1indo!s Services/
0SDTC and C20O Service
Print Spooler Service
Plug and Play Service $0S+=#+AC, 0S+=#+-D&
Server 0essage ;loc" Service
E)change S0TP Service
0essage Jueuing Service
%icense %ogging Service
1INS Service
NNTP Service
NetDDE Service
Tas" Scheduler
Vulnerabilities in Microso,t O,,ice an' Outloo/ %1press
0icrosoft 2ffice is the most !idely used e#mail and productivity suite across the gloe. This
includes applications such as 2utloo", 1ord, Po!erPoint, E)cel, @isio, 4rontPage, and 'ccess.
2utloo" E)press, a asic e#mail client, is installed !ith Internet E)plorer and on all versions of
0icrosoft 1indo!s starting !ith 1indo!s D=. @ulnerailities in these products can e e)ploited
through the follo!ing attac" vectors/
The attac"er can send a malicious 2ffice document in an e#mail message.
' malicious document can e hosted on a 1e server or a shared folder y the attac"er. The attac"er
can tempt a user to ro!se the 1e page or the shared folder.
The attac"er can run a server, such as a ne!s server, to send malicious responses to trigger a uffer
overflo! in e#mail clients.
:eference/ $http/>>!!!.sans.org>top<+>&
"'enti,ing Securit Controls
Security controls are used to safeguard the net!or" infrastructure from the various ris"s that it faces, such
as unauthori(ed access and virus attac"s. Therefore, it is essential for security designers to understand the
importance of implementing these security controls. These security controls can reduce the possiility or
the impact of a ris".
Tpes o, Controls
There are different types of security controls that can help reduce ris". These are/
(,ysical controls/ These controls are not directly associated !ith the information, data, system, or
net!or" security of an organi(ation. 5o!ever, they indirectly help provide security at every level of
the organi(ation.
4or e)ample, loc"ing of rooms or restricting access to various locations !ithin an organi(ation is
part of physical controls.
Tec,nical controls/ These controls include the hard!are and soft!are !ithin the organi(ation that is
used to secure the systems and the data.
4or e)ample, an antivirus soft!are is used to detect and prevent any virus from infecting the net!or"
of the organi(ation. It is essential to update the technical controls at regular intervals to ensure that
they provide security from ne! ris"s.
Administrative controls/ These controls help in creating standards and guidelines to provide a
secure net!or" environment !ithin the organi(ation. These controls include elements such as
policies and procedures.
4or e)ample, for implementing authentication of resources and information, an organi(ation may use
the pass!ord policy. 's per this policy, !ea" pass!ords, such as name of the user, irth dates, and
vehicle numers, should not e used. This policy can e implemented y using ?roup Policy 27ects
in 1indo!s <++- Server.
Solutions to Chapter Five Questions
1. 1hat is cryptography9
Ans.
Cryptography is the science of using mathematics to encrypt and decrypt data. Cryptography enales us
to store or transmit sensitive information across insecure net!or"s $li"e the Internet& so that unauthori(ed
users e)cept the intended recipient cannot read it.
2. E)plain cryptographic algorithms.
Ans.
' cryptographic algorithm, also referred to as cipher, is a mathematical function used in the encryption
and decryption process. ' cryptographic algorithm !or"s in comination !ith a "ey. The "ey may e a
!ord, numer, or phrase used to encrypt the plain te)t, also called a message. The plain te)t encrypts to
cipher te)t !ith different "eys. The security of encrypted data is entirely dependent on the strength of the
cryptographic algorithm and the secrecy of the "ey.
3. E)plain different types of attac"s.
Ans.
'ttac"s are of t!o types. The types are/
(assive attac./ In this attac", the goal of the unauthori(ed user is to otain information that is eing
transmitted. Passive attac"s have t!o sutypes, release of message contents and traffic analysis.
The release of message contents includes conversation over the phone or through email or
transferring a file from one place to another, !hich might contain sensitive information.
The traffic analysis is more delicate. Suppose that !e had a !ay of mas"ing the contents of
messages or other information traffic so that unauthori(ed users could not e)tract the
information from the message. The common technique for mas"ing contents is encryption. If !e
had encryption protection in place, an opponent might still e ale to oserve the pattern of
these messages. The opponent could determine the location and identity of communication
hosts, and could oserve the frequency and length of messages eing e)changed. This
information might e useful in guessing the nature of the communication that !as ta"ing place.
Passive attac"s are very difficult to detect ecause they do not involve any alteration of the data. The
emphasis in dealing !ith passive attac"s is to prevent the attac" rather than to detect it.
Active attac.s/ These attac"s involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false
stream. These attac"s are divided into four categories such as masquerade, replay, modification of
messages, and denial of service $DoS&.
8as=uerade/ It ta"es place !hen an entity pretends to e different than the other entity. This
includes one of the other forms of an active attac", !hich is modification of messages or denial
of service.
Replay/ It involves the passive capture of a data unit and its susequent retransmission to
produce an unauthori(ed effect.
8odiication o messages/ It implies that some portion of the message is altered or messages
are delayed or reordered to produce an unauthori(ed effect.
>oS/ It prevents or inhiits the normal use or the management of communications facilities.
This type of attac" has a specific target. 4or e)ample, an entity may suppress all messages
directed to a particular destination. 'nother form of DoS is the disruption of an entire net!or",
either y disaling the net!or" or y overloading it !ith messages to degrade the performance
of the net!or".
'ctive attac"s posses opposite characteristics than that of passive attac"s. 'ctive attac"s are difficult
to prevent ecause physical protection of all communications facilities and paths at all times is
required. Instead, the goal is to detect active attac"s and to restore the net!or" from any disruption
or delays caused y them.
4. ;riefly e)plain security mechanisms.
Ans.
0echanisms that ensure security of an organi(ation are "no!n as security mechanisms. Encryption or
encryption li"e transformations of information is the most common means of providing security.
There are certain common information integrity functions to secure net!or">data li"e identification,
validation, authori(ation, time of occurrence, signature, authenticity, concurrence, o!nership, receipts,
registration, endorsement, privacy, access, and endorsement.
5. E)plain the conventional encryption model9
Ans.
;efore the development of pulic "ey encryption, the conventional encryption $single#"ey encryption&
!as availale to secure the net!or"s.
There are t!o types of encryption, classical encryption and modern encryption techniques. These are "ey
ased algorithms "no!n as symmetric and pulic "ey algorithms.
In conventional algorithms, the encryption "ey can e calculated from the decryption "ey. 'lternatively,
the decryption "ey can e calculated from the encryption "ey. In these algorithms, the encryption "ey and
the decryption "ey are same. These algorithms are also called secret "ey algorithms, or the one "ey
algorithm. In this encryption technique, the sender and receiver agree to use a "ey efore they
communicate securely. The security of the symmetric algorithm rests in the "ey. The "ey allo!s users to
encrypt and decrypt messages y using any encryption and decryption algorithms.
". 1hat is Steganography9
Ans.
Steganography is a technique that is used to hide the secret message in other messages.
' fe! e)amples of steganography are/
C,aracter mar.ing/ Selected letters of printed or type !ritten te)t are over!ritten in pencil. The
mar"s are ordinarily not visile unless the paper on !hich te)t is printed or type !ritten is held at an
angle to right light.
5nvisible in./ ' numer of sustances can e used for !riting ut the in" leaves no visile trace
until heat or a specific chemical is applied to the paper.
(in punctures/ Small pin punctures on selected letters are ordinarily not visile unless the paper is
held up in front of a light.
Type-riter correction ribbon/ This is a lac" rion used et!een typed lines typed. The results of
typing !ith the correction tape are visile only in good light.
FAQs
1. 1hat are the advantages of cryptography9
Ans'
Cryptography is all aout increasing the level of privacy of individuals and groups. It not only protects
the confidentiality of any company6s information ut also allo!s anyone to order a product over the
Internet !ithout the fear of the credit card numer eing intercepted y any malicious attempt. 4or
e)ample, cryptography is often used to prevent forgers from counterfeiting !inning lottery tic"ets. Each
lottery tic"et can have t!o numers printed onto it, one plainte)t and the other its corresponding cipher.
2. 1hat is the disadvantage of a transposition cipher9
Ans'
The disadvantage of a transposition cipher is that such ciphers are consideraly more laorious and error
prone than simpler ciphers.
3. 1hat is cryptology9
Ans'
The study of oth cryptography $enciphering and deciphering& and cryptanalysis $rea"ing a code
system& together is called cryptology.