Natural ventilation: a new method based on the Walton model applied to cross-

ventilated buildings having two large external openings

Alain BASTIDE
1
, Francis ALLARD
2
and Harry BOYER
1
1
Laboratoire de Pysi!"e d" B#ti$ent et des Syst%$es,
&', A(en"e de So)eto, *+&1' Saint Pierre, Re"nion Island, France
2
Laboratoire d,Et"de des P-no$%nes de Trans.ert A//li!"-s,
A(en"e 0icel 1REPEA2, 1+'&2 La Rocelle 1ede3 1, France
Abstract
In order to /ro(ide co$.ort in a lo) ener4y cons"$/tion b"ildin4, it is /re.erable to "se nat"ral (entilation
rater tan H5A1 syste$s6 To acie(e tis, en4ineers need tools tat /redict te eat and $ass trans.ers
bet)een te b"ildin4,s interior and e3terior6 Tis article /resents a $etod i$/le$ented in so$e b"ildin4
so.t)are, and te res"lts are co$/ared to 1FD6 Te res"lts so) tat te 7no)led4e $odel is not s"..iciently
)ell8described to identi.y all te /ysical /eno$ena and te relationsi/s bet)een te$6 A $odel is
de(elo/ed )ic introd"ces a ne) b"ildin48de/endent coe..icient allo)in4 te "se o. 9alton,s $odel, as
e3tended by Roldan to lar4e e3ternal o/enin4s, and )ic better re/resents te t"rb"lent /eno$ena near
lar4e e3ternal o/enin4s6 Te .or$"lation o. te $ass .lo) rates is in(ersed to identi.y $odelin4 /roble$s6 It
a//ears tat te discar4e coe..icient is not te only or best /ara$eter to obtain an indoor static /ress"re
co$/atible )it 1FD res"lts, or to calc"late $ore realistic $ass .lo) rates6
Key words: Natural ventilation, CF, Walton model, large external opening, indoor pressure
!" #ntroduction
:at"ral (entilation is "s"ally "sed d"rin4 s"$$er or
ot seasons; d"rin4 te cold season b"ildin4s are
closed to /reser(e ener4y6 Te )orld ener4y conte3t
re!"ires te /rediction o. bot te seasonal eat
/rod"ction and te seasonal cold /rod"ction o(er
one year to 4i(e a reliable esti$ation o. ener4y
e3/endit"re, and to li$it te
CO
2
/rod"ction o.
acti(e syste$s6
Tis article .oc"ses on te $ass trans.ers .or nat"ral
(entilation and /assi(e coolin4 d"rin4 te s"$$er
season, by o/enin4 te b"ildin46 To acie(e a )ell8
(entilated and co$.ortable b"ildin4, arcitects o"4t
to a(e tools tat .orecast and i$/ro(e te ener4y
cons"$/tion by a b"ildin4, and te eat and $ass
trans.ers tro"4 lar4e e3ternal o/enin4s6 Tese
tools a(e to inte4rate dyna$ic ter$o8aera"lic
/redictions <Boyer et al, 1***= and (ario"s scenarios
to co(er te entire year in one si$"lation and to try
and a(oid te o(er8di$ensionin4 o. acti(e air
treat$ent syste$s6
O"r $etodolo4y is to "se te si$"lation res"lts o.
detailed $odels and to ada/t te$ to te
discreti>ation le(el 4enerally in "se in te ter$al
st"dy o. b"ildin4s, in order to calc"late te $ass
.lo) rate and eat trans.er bet)een ter$al >ones6
9e cose te 9alton $odel <9alton, 1*?&=
$odi.ied by Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@ and Allard, 1**2=
.or lar4e e3ternal o/enin4s, and co$/ared te
n"$erical res"lts )it tose /rod"ced by te
RNGk
$odel <Ya7ot, 1*?A=6 9alton
/ro/oses a $etodolo4y <9alton, 1*?*= .or st"dyin4
te /roble$ o. a b"ildin4 )it an air.lo) net)or7
co$/osed o. in.iltrations and lar4e o/enin4s6
Te 9alton $odel <9alton, 1*?*= is attracti(e .or
te .ollo)in4 reasons B
Te i$/le$entation is easy )en te dyna$ic
si$"lation so.t)are incl"de crac7s;
Te ne"tral a3is is not re!"ired to calc"late te
$ass trans.er tro"4 te o/enin4 and so te
co$/"tational /ro4ra$,s al4orit$ is less co$/le3
b"t e..icient;
Te n"$ber o. constants to .i3 is red"ced to oneB
te discar4e coe..icient .or eac 7ind o. o/enin46
Te .lo) e3/onent is '6@, )ic corres/onds to
t"rb"lent air .lo)6
Te 9alton $odel 4i(es a 4ood /rediction o.
4ra(itational .lo)s tro"4 internal lar4e o/enin4s
in steady8state conditions <Bastide, 2''&= co$/ared
to $odels based on ne"tral a3is deter$ination6
Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@= /ro/osed to $odi.y tis
$odel .or lar4e o/enin4s /laced on a .acade6 He
added a ter$ in te /ress"re calc"lation to ta7e into
acco"nt te e3ternal /ress"re, and to lin7 it to te
internal /ress"re6
Te $ain di..erence bet)een crac7 .lo) $odels and
(ertical lar4e o/enin4s lies in te trans.or$ation o.
te 7inetic ener4y into static /ress"re6 In crac7 .lo)
$odels, te $ass .lo) rate is only 4o(erned by te
/ress"re di..erence and te $ain ass"$/tion is tat
te 7inetic ener4y is totally dissi/ated6 For lar4e
o/enin4 $odels, strea$lines cross te b"ildin46 Te
i$/ortant conse!"ence o. tis is tat a lar4e /art o.
te 7inetic ener4y is trans/orted tro"4 te
b"ildin4, )ito"t trans.errin4 7inetic ener4y into
static /ress"re6
In tis article, te $odel de.ined by 9alton <9alton,
1*?&= and ada/ted by Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@= is
i$/ro(ed to ta7e into acco"nt te /ysics o. te
air.lo) tat 4oes tro"4 a cross (entilated b"ildin46
Te res"ltin4 $odel /redicts te $ass .lo) tat
crosses te b"ildin4 )it 4ood acc"racy relati(e to
1FD /redictions6 Te relati(e internal /ress"re o.
eac $odel is co$/ared and disc"ssed6

$" Numerical investigation and modeling o% the
mass %low rate through large openings
$"!" &urbulence modeling
2.1.1. Single zone building model
Te co$/"tational do$ain is /resented in Fi4"re 16
All $eas"re$ents are di$ensionless6 Te b"ildin4
$odel is at te center o. te 4ro"nd,s s"r.ace6 Te
(al"e o. te /ara$eter L is + $eters6
Figure 1: Three-dimensional physical domain
Te b"ildin4 $odel so)n in Fi4"re 2 is cross8
(entilated6 T)o o//osite o/enin4s are located at
ei4t =1$6 Te areas o. tese t)o identical
o/enin4s are @6A$
2
6
Figure 2: The cross-!entilated building model and the
orientation con!ention "or each "acade #$ast and %est&
2.1.2. 'ntroduction to CF( modeling
E(ola and Po/o( <E(ola and Po/o( 2''A= co$/are
te 1FD /redictions o. .o"r t"rb"lence $odels )it
e3/eri$ental obser(ations6 Te n"$erical res"lts
obtained "sin4 te R:C $etod <Ya7ot, 1*?A=
so) 4ood a4ree$ent )it te e3/eri$ental data6
Te discre/ancy bet)een te calc"lated and
e3/ected (entilation rates is "nder 1'D6 Te R:C
$odel can be considered a "se."l tool .or te st"dy
o. air.lo) inside and aro"nd a b"ildin4 )en dealin4
)it )ind8dri(en nat"ral (entilation6 Te Lar4e
Eddy Si$"lations <LES= $odel $ay be /re.erable
.or ad(anced .l"id dyna$ics tat re!"ire i4er
/recision6
2.1.). Turbulence models
Te air is treated as an inco$/ressible .l"id )it
constant /ysical /ro/erties6 Te steady state
e!"ations o. $ass conser(ation and $o$ent"$ are
4i(en belo), a//lyin4 te Reynolds deco$/osition
in a tensorial .or$B
*
+
,
+
=' <1=

,
i
(*
i
*
+
)=
1
j
p
,
+
+

,
i
|
+
(
*
+
,
i
+
*
i
,
+
)
u
i
-
u
+
-

<2=
Tese e!"ations incl"de te ter$ , u
i
-
u
+
-
)ic
re/resents te Reynolds stresses6 Tis ter$ $odels
t"rb"lent /eno$ena6 Te !"ality o. te res"lts
de/ends on te coice o. te class o. $odel, and tis
de/ends on te set o. e!"ations "sed to sol(e te
/ysical /roble$6
Te Reynolds stress ter$s )ere $odeled )it te
e3/ression belo), "sin4 te Bo"ssines! ass"$/tion
o. t"rb"lent (iscosity +
t
6 Tis a//roac ass"$es
tat te t"rb"lent Reynolds stresses are lin7ed to te
set o. a(era4ed .lo) /ro/ertiesB
u
i
-
u
+
-
=+
t
(
*
i
,
+
+
*
+
,
i
)
2
E
. 6
i+
<E=
+
t
=C
j
.
2
e
<&=
Tese e!"ations introd"ce t)o ter$s . and e tat
are res/ecti(ely te t"rb"lent ener4y and te
t"rb"lent ener4y dissi/ation rate6 T)o clos"re
e!"ations a(e to be de.ined based on te trans/ort
o. tese !"antities6
Se(eral clos"re $odels a(e been de(elo/ed in
recent decades to close te syste$ o. e!"ations
res"ltin4 .ro$ te Reynolds deco$/osition, s"c as
te . e $odel <La"nder and S/aldin4, 1*+&= and
te Bo"ssines! ass"$/tion6 Ho)e(er, te
Bo"ssines! ass"$/tion "sed by $any t"rb"lence
$odels is not al)ays e..icient6 Te conce/t o.
t"rb"lent (iscosity as been e3tended to try and
$odel te anisotro/y o. t"rb"lent .lo)s6 F"adratic
and c"bic $odels o. t"rb"lent (iscosity a(e been
de(elo/ed6 Bastide <Bastide 2''&= establised tat
tis 7ind o. $odel does not brin4 any si4ni.icant
i$/ro(e$ent in .lo) /redictions o(er a closed bl"..
body <0artin">>i, 1**E, Rodi, 1**+ and La7eal
1**+= co$/ared to te /01. e $odel, b"t te
res"lts are better tan te standard . e $odel6
5orte3 and reattac$ent >ones are eiter non8
e3istent, "nder8/redicted or o(er8/redicted by te
standard . e $odel6
2.1.2. The turbulence model o" the renormalization
group: /01. e
Te t)o clos"re e!"ations are )idely i$/le$ented
in co$/"tational .l"id dyna$ics so.t)are6 Te
/01. e $odel /resents a do"ble ad(anta4e
co$/ared to all te RA:S $odels6 Te /01. e
$odel is desi4ned to /redict .l"id .lo) .or i4 and
lo) Reynolds n"$bers, )ereas te oter RA:S
$odels are desi4ned .or eiter i4 or lo) Reynolds
n"$bers6 Tese t)o .lo) re4i$es are obser(ed in an
o/ened b"ildin4, and so it a//ears necessary to
a//ly a $odel s"c as /01. e 6
Te t)o clos"re e!"ations o. te /01. e are
4i(en by te .ollo)in4 e3/ressionsB
*
+
.
,
+
=

,
+
|
(
++
+
t
c
.
)
.
,
+

+3
.
e
<@=
*
+
e
,
+
=

,
+
|(
++
+
t
c
e
)
e
,
+

+
C
e1
e
. 3
.

C
e 2
e
2
. +/ <A=
Te $odi.ication o. te $ate$atic str"ct"re
co$/ared )it te . e $odel is located in te
trans/ort e!"ation o. te dissi/ation rate o. t"rb"lent
7inetic ener4y e 6 An ne) ter$ / is added to
red"ce te in.l"ence o. te ter$
C
e 1
e
. 3
.
and to tri$
do)n te t"rb"lent 7inetic ener4y /rod"ction .or
j>j
'
6 Te /rod"ction ter$
3
.
is calc"lated .ro$
4radient /rod"cts6
3
.
=+
t
(
*
i
,
+
+
*
+
,
i
)
*
i
,
+
<+=
/=
C
j
j
E
(1
j
j
'
)
1+Xj
E
e
2
.
<?=
)it j=2
(
3
.
+
t
)
1
2 .
e
Te constants introd"ced in tese e!"ations a(e
been calc"lated $ate$atically, "nli7e te
traditional . e $odels )ere tey are deter$ined
.ro$ (ario"s e3/eri$ents .or di..erent .lo)
str"ct"res and re4i$es6
C
e 1
C
e 2
C
j
j
'
X c
.
c
e
16&2 16A? '6'?@ &6E? '6'12 '6+1* '6+1*
Table 1: /01. e model coe""icients
2.1.4. 5oundary conditions and 6all treatment
Te bo"ndary conditions are described in Fi4"re 16
At te inlet, a lo4 /ro.ile is set to $odel te
at$os/eric bo"ndary layer6 Te (al"e o. te
(elocity re.erence at a ei4t o. 1'$ abo(e te
4ro"nd is 26*A m.s
1
6
So$e si$"lations )ic incl"ded a t)o layer
t"rb"lence $odel ardly i$/ro(ed te res"lts .or te
$ass .lo) rate, des/ite "sin4 $"c calc"lation ti$e6
Te near )all cells are t"s treated by a standard
)all la) "sin4 te ass"$/tion tat te )alls are
s$oot .or te b"ildin4 $odel and sli4tly ro"4 .or
te 4ro"nd6 Te )all la) "ses te .ollo)in4
coe..icientB $=* 6 Te ro"4ness coe..icient .or te
)all,s lo4 la) is z
'
='6'E* 6
2.1.7. 1rid independence test
Tree 4rids a(e been de.ined to (eri.y tat te
obser(ed res"lts are 4rid8inde/endent6 Acc"rate
res"lts and a $ini$al n"$ber o. cells )ere obtained
at te end o. te 4rid inde/endence test6 A 4rid o.
&11,''' cells )as cosen to carry o"t all te
n"$erical in(esti4ations6
$"$" 'ur%ace (ressure calculations
Figure ) : %ind6ard and lee6ard sur"ace pressure
coe""icients
Te 4lobal /ress"re coe..icient .or di..erent incident
an4les and .or a .acade is e(al"ated .ro$ 1FD
si$"lations6 Te b"ildin4 $odel is closed and is
so)n in Fi4"re E6
Te local s"r.ace /ress"re coe..icients are calc"lated
)it te .ollo)in4 e!"ation B
C
p
=mean
(
3
sur"
( z)3
'
3
dyn
( z
'
)
)
<*=
C
p
is a di$ensionless coe..icient6 It is te a(era4e
s"r.ace /ress"re trans.or$ed into a relati(e /ress"re
di(ided by te dyna$ic /ress"re /redicted at ei4t
z
'
6 Tese coe..icients are calc"lated .ro$ 1FD
/redictions .or a closed b"ildin46 Fi4"re E so)s, as
a ."nction o. so$e incident an4les, te s"r.ace
/ress"re coe..icient e(al"ated .or te )ind)ard and
lee)ard .acades e3cl"din4, in te calc"lation o. te
a(era4e, te ed4e /ress"res6 Te /ress"re di..erence
bet)een tese t)o o//osite .acades is al)ays
/ositi(e6 Te $ass .lo) )ill ten be in a sin4le
direction6
$")" *ass trans%er through large openings
Te $ass trans.er calc"lation is /er.or$ed .or te
0 cells )ic are distrib"ted in te enclos"re o. te
b"ildin4 or .or te area considered in te enclos"re6
Te net $ass .lo) at an o/enin4 is e(al"ated by B
m
opening
=
i
0
m
i
6 m
i
is te $ass .lo) rate tat 4oes
tro"4 one cell6
$"+" *ass trans%er though internal large openings
Te ter$al bea(ior o. b"ildin4s is a (ery co$/le3
/roble$6 Di..erent $odes o. eat and $ass trans.er
a//ear in co$/le3 (ol"$es and te interactions
bet)een di..erent /ysical /eno$ena are
si4ni.icant6 Detailed analysis, by 1FD .or e3a$/le,
o. te air.lo) /attern tro"4 te crac7s is
inco$/atible )it te co$/"tation o. ener4y
cons"$/tion o(er a eatin4 andGor a coolin4 /eriod6
To st"dy te 4lobal bea(ior o. b"ildin4s, )e need
so$e si$/le and reliable $odels ca/able o.
correctly /redictin4 indoor te$/erat"res and air
!"ality6
5ario"s $odels o. eat and $ass trans.er air.lo)
tro"4 an internal b"ildin4 o/enin4 a(e been
based on te Berno"lli e!"ation B see Allard and
2ts"$i <Allard, 1**2= or 9alton <9alton, 1*?&=6
Tese $odels ado/t te .ollo)in4 /rinci/al
ass"$/tions B te .lo) is considered la$inar, te
.lo) is steady state, air is a non8(isco"s .l"id, and
t"rb"lence and .l"3 constrictions are re/resented
res/ecti(ely by t)o coe..icientsB te discar4e
coe..icient and te air.lo) e3/onent6
1lassical $odels de(elo/ed to calc"late eat and
$ass trans.ers tro"4 lar4e o/enin4s .ind te
location o. te ne"tral a3is, alto"4 te $odel
de(elo/ed by 9alton does not "se tis $etodolo4y6
Tis $odel can be considered as an inter$ediary
$etod, so$e)ere bet)een te crac7 .lo) $odels
and te classical $odels based on .indin4 te ne"tral
a3is to /redict te $ass trans.er tat 4oes tro"4
internal lar4e o/enin4s6
Figure 2 : The locations o" nodes # 8 & and pressure
di""erences # A3 & respecti!ely in and bet6een thermal
zones
9alton a//lied te $etods o. di$ensional analysis
0u/ 3r =C.1r/ E to te eat and $ass trans.ers
tro"4 lar4e o/enin4s6 He concl"ded tat te
air.lo) tro"4 a lar4e o/enin4 can be $odeled by
t)o s$all o/enin4s <Fi4"re &= /laced at t)o s/ecial
/ositions in a lar4e o/enin46 Tese /ositions are
res/ecti(ely located at @/1? and 1E/ 1? o. te
o/enin4 ei4t6 For non8>ero ter$al 4radients
bet)een t)o ter$al >ones, te air.lo) bet)een te
to/ and te botto$ o. te o/enin4s is 4o(erned by
te 4radient o. te ydrostatic /ress"res < j g z and
j=j
'
T
'
T
= at te o/enin4s6 Te ass"$/tion is tat te
density is "ni.or$ or linear in a ter$al >one and te
air density in a ter$al >one is de.ined by its o)n air
te$/erat"re6
In te /resence o. a density di..erence bet)een t)o
lin7ed ter$al >ones, te air.lo) is bi8directional at
an o/enin46 Te net $ass .lo) rate is de.ined belo)B
m= m
@/ 1?
+ m
1E/ 1?
<1'=
For eac s$all o/enin4 <i=, te $ass .lo) rate is
4i(en by te .ollo)in4 e3/ressionB
m
i
=jC
d 9 i
S
2
sign(A3
i
)A3
i

1/ 2
<11=
Te discar4e coe..icient in
C
d
cl"ded in tis
de.inition re/resents t)o e..ects6 Te .irst e..ect is
d"e to te .riction bet)een te air and te )alls o.
te o/enin4 .ra$e, and te intensity o. tis .riction
de/ends on te .l"id (iscosity6 Te second e..ect is
d"e to te sa/e o. te o/enin46 Te (al"e o. te
discar4e coe..icient
C
d
tends to one in te case o.
te o/enin4 area bein4 al$ost e!"al to te )all area6
Tis coe..icient is (alid .or an air $o(e$ent d"e to
a ter$al di..erence6
9alton obtained a discar4e coe..icient e!"al to .or
'6+? an indoor o/enin4 se/aratin4 t)o identical and
closed ter$al >ones6 Flo"rent>o" <Flo"rent>o" et
al, 1**?= e(al"ated a discar4e coe..icient close to
'6A' .or an e3ternal lar4e o/enin4 and .or an in situ
e3/eri$ent in te absence o. )ind6 In IEA Tas7 2'
<5an der 0ass, 1**2=, an e3/eri$ent in a closed cell
test co$/osed o. t)o ter$al >ones and a lar4e
o/enin4 bet)een te$ so)ed tat te a(era4e
(ertical discar4e coe..icients de/end on te .lo)
str"ct"re at te o/enin46 Te C
d
( z) (ary bet)een
'6' and '6AA 6 9it re4ard to tis /oint, te
C
d
( z)

a(e been obser(ed to not a(e locally constant
(al"es at te o/enin4 <Hara(a1, 2''&=6 Te (al"e o.
te discar4e coe..icient is s"bIect to a lar4e de4ree
o. "ncertainty6 Ho)e(er, )e need to de.ine a set o.
constants tat are co$/atible )it te 7no)led4e
$odel and )it te s/ace di$ension6 In te 7ind o.
$odel described ere, an a(era4e (al"e o. te
discar4e coe..icient as to be .i3ed and adI"sted on
a case8by8case basis to )ell8re/resent te $ass .lo)
rate at an o/enin46
$"," Application o% the Walton model to large
external openings
Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@ and Allard, 1**2= /ro/osed to
a//ly te 9alton $etod to lar4e e3ternal o/enin4s6
In te absence o. )ind, tis $odelin4 a//lied to an
e3ternal lar4e o/enin4 is coerent )it te
ass"$/tions $ade by 9alton6 Ho)e(er, i. te )ind
is /resent )itin te b"ildin4, te /ress"re .ield
can4es aro"nd and in te b"ildin4, and so Roldan
added a /ress"re ter$ in te /ress"re di..erence to
ta7e acco"nt o. te e3ternal /ress"re .ield to /redict
te /ress"re in te b"ildin46 He /ro/osed a
$odi.ication to te discar4e coe..icient incl"ded in
tis relation, in order to adI"st te $odel to
obser(ations or to n"$erical /redictions6
Te 9alton $odel o. bi8directional air.lo) across an
o/enin4 is 4i(en by te .ollo)in4 e3/ressionB
m=jC
d
S
2
sign
(
A3
@
1?
h
)
A3
@
1?
h
1/ 2
+
<12=
jC
d
S
2
sign
(
A3
1E
1?
h
)
A3
1E
1?
h
1/ 2
<1E=
Te /ress"re 4radients are .or t)o ter$al >ones
:T1 and :T2 B
A3
@
1?
h
=3
:T1
3
:T2
g
(
+h
@
1?
)
|
j
:T1
j
:T2 <1&=
A3
1E
1?
h
=3
:T1
3
:T2
g
(
+h
1E
1?
)
|
j
:T1
j
:T2 <1@=
e "n7no)n .actors o. te /roble$ are te /ress"re
3
:T1
and
3
:T2
calc"lated by a iterati(e al4orit$
li7e :e)ton8Ra/son $etod6
In tis article, tis $odel is co$/ared to 1FD
/redictions and a ne) a//roac is de(elo/ed to
o/ti$i>e te Roldan $odel6
2.4.1. 'n"luence o" the e,ternal pressure distribution
on mass "lo6 rate
Te /ress"re di..erence bet)een te lee)ard and
)ind)ard .acades de/ends on te 4eo$etrical
as/ects o. te b"ildin4, te at$os/eric bo"ndary
layer /ro.ile, te incident an4le and te intensity o.
te re.erence (elocity6 Te (elocity and /ress"re
.ield aro"nd te b"ildin4 can4e s/atially6 Te
/ress"re .ield aro"nd a b"ildin4 is 4enerally
caracteri>ed by re4ions o. o(er8/ress"re on te
)ind)ard .acades, and "nder8/ress"re on te
.acades /arallel to te air strea$ and on te lee)ard
side6 9en te b"ildin4 is o/ened, te /ress"re
di..erence ind"ces a $ass .lo) tro"4 te b"ildin46
Tis $ass .lo) is de/endent on te /ress"re
di..erence .ield aro"nd te b"ildin46
2.4.2. The streamline de"ormation near the building
Oba et al <Oba, 2''1= 4i(e a correction to te
incident an4le6 Te res"ltin4 an4le incor/orates te
de.or$ation o. strea$line t"bes d"e to te "/strea$
air.lo) co$/le3ity6 Te .or$ o. te strea$line t"bes
close to te e3ternal o/enin4 is in(esti4ated by H"l
et al <H"l, 2''@&6 Te strea$lines do not .ollo) te
.or)ard incident an4le close to te )all, b"t de/end
on te .or$ o. te b"ildin4, te sa/e and te
con.i4"ration o. te b"ildin4 o/enin4s and te
incident an4le6 Te air.lo) direction tro"4 te
)ind)ard o/enin4 can4es and te e..ecti(e area
,seen, by te strea$line t"bes can4es too6 Oba et
al <Oba, 2''1= /ro/ose correctin4 te incident
an4le o. te )ind "sin4 te .raction
;
;
'
)ere
;=
1
j
m
<
p
,
;=
=
<
and )er <
p
e is te /enetratin4
(elocity and

m te $ass .lo) rate6 Te 7ey /oint o.

tis $etod e3/osed by Oba et al <Oba, 2''1= is
to $eas"re te (elocity <
p
at te central /osition
close to te inlet o. te b"ildin4 and to s"//ose tat
tis (elocity re/resents te $ean (elocity at te
inlet6 2sin4 n"$erical .l"id dyna$ics, te e..ecti(e
area can be calc"lated .ro$ te discreti>ation o. te
(ol"$e o/enin46 Te e..ecti(e area is 4i(en by te
$ean (elocity B
<=
1
0

i
*
i
6 Te ne) e..ecti(e area
isB
;=
i
S
i
*
i
/
1
0

i
*
i
6
Te ne) e3/ression .or te e..ecti(e area 4reatly
increases te n"$ber o. (elocities and te acc"racy
o. te $ean (elocity and te $ass .lo) rate, )ic
i$/ro(es te /recision o. te $ean (elocity (al"e6
B"t te res"lts are too .ar .ro$ te res"lts obtained
by "sin4 te /enetratin4 (elocity located at te
center o. o/enin46 Tis $etodolo4y based on te
strea$line /attern as not been incl"ded in te
$odel o. $ass .lo) rate .or$"lated in tis article
beca"se te discar4e coe..icient is considered e!"al
or /ractically e!"al .or lar4e o/enin4s and a ne)
ter$ is incl"de in o"r syste$ o. e!"ations6
2.4.). 'n"luence o" the CF( modeling on predicted
pressure distribution and mass "lo6 rate
predictions
Res"lts obtained by n"$erical si$"lations a(e to
be acc"rate .or te t)o /ysical !"antities m and 6
3 Te $ass .lo) and /ress"re di..erences are
obser(ed and "sed to de.ine ne) 7no)led4e $odels6
Te t"rb"lence $odelin4 in.l"ences te !"ality o.
te 1FD /redictions6 E(ola and Po/o( <E(ola and
Po/o( 2''A= so) tat te /redictions and e$/irical
(al"es are close to te $ean (entilation rate tro"4
a cross8b"ildin46 Te R:C $odel /redicts te $ass
.lo) rate )it an error lo)er tan 1'D, )ereas te
standard $odel o(er8/redicts te $ass .lo) rate <by
$ore tan 1@D=6 Te LES $odel as a relati(e error
o. A6@D co$/ared to e3/eri$ents6 Te e3/ected
$ean /ress"re coe..icients are "nder 1'D .or te
)ind)ard and lee)ard .aces6 Te /01. e
$odel see$s to be a 4ood co$/ro$ise )it re4ard
to te co$/"tational ti$e and te !"ality o. te
/redictions .or tis 7ind o. /roble$6
H" et al so) tat te str"ct"re o. (entilatin4 .lo) is
better re/resented )it te SST . o $odel tan
)it LES <9ilco3, 1**? and 0enter, 1**&=6 Te
/ress"re distrib"tion on .aces, te /ress"re e3tre$a
and te caracteristic len4ts are analy>ed by Endo
et al <Endo, 2''@=6 Tey concl"de tat te
SST . o $odel is not acc"rate .or tese tree
!"antities6 /01. e is a 4ood co$/ro$ise
bet)een te RA:S $odels .or /redictin4 $ass .lo)
rate and /ress"re distrib"tion6
Figure 4 : 8ass "lo6 rate through the 6ind6ard opening
predicted "rom three turbulence models.
Te $ass .lo) rates tro"4 te b"ildin4 are so)n
in Fi4"re E6 Tree RA:S t"rb"lence $odels a(e
been e$/loyed B . e , /01. e and
SST . o 6
Te $ass .lo) rates .or an incident an4le in te
ran4e | E'*' are si$ilar .or te t)o $odels
. e and /01. e 6 Else)ere, te . e res"lts
a(e better resid"als tan tose .ro$ te
/01. e $odelin46 Te . e standard $odel
4i(es 4ood a4ree$ent, b"t as Endo et al <Endo,
2''@= .o"nd, te /redicted /ress"re distrib"tion is
/oor6 Te $ass .lo) is o(er8/redicted, and te
/ress"re distrib"tion /oorly /laced by te
SST . o $odel6 Tese res"lts de$onstrate tat
te /01. e $odel see$s to be e..ecti(e in te
s/eci.ic case o. $ass .lo) $odelin46
2.4.2. The model proposed by /oldan : an
adaptation o" the %alton model "or e,ternal large
openings
Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@= /ro/osed a $odi.ication o.
te $ate$atical .or$"lation o. te /ress"re
di..erence incl"ded in te 9alton $odel6 He
incl"ded te static )ind8ind"ced /ress"re on a
.acade in te /ress"re di..erence6
Figure 7 : 8ass "lo6 rate calculated by the detailled
model #CF(& and by the model de!eloped by /oldan
Te /ress"re di..erence lin7s te internal /ress"re
and te e3ternal /ress"re on .acade6 Roldan
s"44ested adI"stin4 te discar4e coe..icient too6
Preser(in4 te $ass .lo) $odel o. e!"ation 11 , te
$ass balance o. te ter$al >one is calc"lated
ass"$in4 tat eac /ress"re $odel .or eac node is
as 4i(en in Table 26
Nodes Roldan modifications
8
@
1?
h9 T:1 3
8T:1
=3
1
j g
|
+
@
1?
h

8
@
1?
h9 out
3
8out
=3
out
j g
|
+
@
1?
h

+
1
2
jC
p
<
out
2
(
+
@
1?
h
)
8
1E
1?
h9 T:1 3
8T:1
=3
1
j g
|
+
1E
1?
h

8
1E
1?
h9 out
3
8out
=3
out
j g
|
+
1E
1?
h

+
1
2
jC
p
<
out
2
(
+
1E
1?
h
)
Table 2: nodes and their corresponding models in
/oldan-s model9 a"ter the %alton model.
Te $odel o. /ress"re nodes $entioned abo(e does
not incl"de te .act tat a /art o. te 7inetic ener4y
4oes tro"4 te b"ildin4 )ito"t trans.errin4 a
.raction o. its ener4y into 7ine$atic /ress"re6 In te
"n7no)n /ress"re
3
1
, a static /ress"re and a
dyna$ic /ress"re is calc"lated6 B"t )e do not 7no)
te .raction o. tis dyna$ic /ress"re tat is
con(erted into 7ine$atic /ress"re or static /ress"re6
Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@= /ro/osed adI"stin4 te
discar4e coe..icient to i$/ro(e te $odel, b"t tis
coe..icient is 4enerally "sed to ta7e t"rb"lence
e..ects and .lo) constriction into acco"nt6 An
ada/tation o. tis $odel is t"s needed6
In Fi4"re A, )e obser(e tat te res"lts obtained by
te Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@= $odel are eiter E'D
lo)er, or t)ice as lar4e as te (al"es tat res"lt
calc"lated "sin4 te 1FD $odel6 Te t)o sets o.
/oints are not o$otetic, and so tis /roble$
cannot be settled by adI"stin4 a sin4le discar4e
coe..icient6
$"-" #nclusion o% the predicted physical
parameters to modi%y and improve the
.oldan model
2.7.1. 'ntroduction
Air.lo) tro"4 lar4e o/enin4s in(ol(es a n"$ber
o. di..erent /ysical /eno$ena, incl"din4 steady8
state 4ra(itational .lo)s, .l"ct"atin4 .lo)s res"ltin4
.ro$ )ind t"rb"lence, and re8circ"lation .lo)s
ca"sed by bo"ndary layer e..ects6 Te co$/le3ity o.
tis /roble$ as to be incl"ded in te 7no)led4e
$odel6 Te Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@= $odel adds to
te 9alton <9alton, 1*?&= $odel te e3ternal
/ress"re di..erences b"t te /rediction o. $ass .lo)
rate does not re/rod"ce te 1FD /redictions6 Te
$odel /resented by Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@= is
tere.ore $odi.ied to ta7e all te e..ects $entioned
into acco"nt6 An arti.icial /ress"re is e(al"ated "sin4
te in(ersion o. te 7no)led4e $odel and incl"ded
to /redict te $ass .lo) rate and te relati(e
/ress"re in te b"ildin4 $odel6
2.7.2. Formulation o" an arti"icial pressure
di""erence by applying the in!erse problem
Te /ress"re di..erence A3 calc"lated .ro$ te
e3ternal )ind and e3ternal static /ress"re does not
/rod"ce te e3/ected /redictions <Fi4"res + and ?=6
Te $odel is not s"..iciently detailed to s"itably
/redict te $ass e3can4es tro"4 lar4e e3ternal
o/enin4s6 9e /ro/ose to in(erse te /roble$ and
t"s to create an arti.icial /ress"re di..erence
6 3
CF(

in order to identi.y te $odelin4 /roble$s in
Roldan,s $odel6
Te $ass .lo) rate m is 4i(en by 1FD /redictions6
Te in(erse /ress"re di..erence is 4i(en by te
e!"ationB
6 3
CF(
=sign
( m
CF()
(
2 m
CF(
C
d
jS
)
2
<1A=
Figure > : $ast opening9 pressure di""erences determined
"ollo6ing the in!erse problem "or the t6o small openings
using the %alton model and the pressure di""erences
calculated 6ith the /oldan model
Figure ? :%est opening9 pressure di""erences determined
"ollo6ing the in!erse problem "or the t6o small openings
using the %alton model and the pressure di""erences
calculated 6ith the /oldan model
6 3
CF(
res"lts .ro$ a $ate$atical constr"ction tat
de/ends on te $ass .lo) rate /redicted by te 1FD
$odel and de/ends on te discar4e coe..icient
deter$ined .or a 4ra(itational .lo) )ito"t static
/ress"re /rod"ced by te )ind6
Te slo/e .or$ed <Fi4"re += by te (al"es o.
6 3
CF(9 $ast 9 top
is stee/er tan te (al"es o.
6 3
CF(9 $ast 9 bottom
6 Tis di..erence is d"e to te sa/e o.
te at$os/eric bo"ndary layer and to a tree8
di$ensional recirc"lation /resent abo(e te 4ro"nd
on te )ind)ard .acade6 Te air.lo) t"s /asses
<Fi4"re + and ?= $ainly tro"4 te o/enin4 at te
to/6 Te sa$e di..erences are obser(ed .or
A3
/oldan

b"t te /ress"re di..erences are not si4ni.icant .or an
incident an4le lyin4 bet)een '@ and &@@ 6
In te ran4e |'@ ,&@@ <Fi4"re += te res"lts are
si$ilar beca"se te air.lo) /attern is $odi.ied by
te b"ildin4 $odel6 Belo) &@@ , te strea$lines
.ollo) te b"ildin4 .acade6 Air.lo) enters te
b"ildin4 )it a s/eci.ic sa/e 4o(erned $ainly by
te /ress"re di..erences d"e to te air $otion, )ic
is orto4onal to te nat"ral air dis/lace$ent tro"4
a )ind)ard e3ternal lar4e o/enin46
In Fi4"re ?, bet)een 2' @ and *'@
6 3
CF(
te are
/ractically linear6 For *'@ , te /ress"re di..erences
are close to >ero6 Tere is no di..erence in bea(ior
bet)een te to/ and botto$ o. te lee)ard o/enin4
beca"se te $otion is $ainly d"e to static /ress"re
di..erences bet)een te interior and te e3terior6 Te
sit"ation ere could be $odeled as an air.lo)
tro"4 a lar4e internal o/enin46
Ho)e(er, te (al"es deter$ined by Roldan,s $odel
.ollo) a /arabolic sa/e <Fi4"re ?=6 Tis is ca"sed
by te /redicted indoor /ress"re in tis $odel tat
incl"des a dyna$ic /ress"re6
2.7.). 8odeling o" the building pressure coe""icient
C
5
"or each small opening in the %alton sense
Tan7s to te /ress"re di..erence 6 3
CF(
calc"lated
abo(e, a b"ildin4 /ress"re coe..icient C
5
is
de.ined6 Tis coe..icient $odels te /art o. 7inetic
ener4y tat crosses one small opening o. an e3ternal
lar4e o/enin46 Te $ate$atical .or$"lation,
described belo), res"lts .ro$ allo)in4 .or te
s"r.ace /ress"re o. te .acade <
C
3
= and te $ass
.lo) rate tro"4
6 3
CF(
6
C
59 top
=
6 3
CF(9 top
1
2
j<
out
2
(
+
1E
1?
h
)
+C
p
<1+=
C
59 bottom
=
6 3
CF(9 bottom
1
2
j<
out
2
(
+
@
1?
h
)
+C
p
<1?=
Tese non8di$ensional coe..icients are incor/orated
into te $odel de(elo/ed by Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@=
to constit"te a ne) $odel <Table E= to /redict te
$ass .lo) rate tro"4 cross b"ildin4 $odels6 Tis
$odel can be easily incl"ded in classical ener4y
b"ildin4 so.t)are li7e te crac7 $odels6
Nodes New formulation
8
@
1?
h9 T:1
3
8T:1
=3
1
j g
|
+
@
1?
h

+
1
2
jC
59 top
<
out
2
(
+
@
1?
h
)
8
@
1?
h9 out
3
8out
=3
1
j g
|
+
@
1?
h

+
1
2
jC
p
<
out
2
(
+
@
1?
h
)
8
1E
1?
h9 T:1 3
8T:1
=3
1
j g
|
+
1E
1?
h

+
1
2
jC
59 bottom
<
out
2
(
+
1E
1?
h
)
8
1E
1?
h9 out
3
8out
=3
1
j g
|
+
1E
1?
h

+
1
2
jC
p
<
out
2
(
+
1E
1?
h
)
Table ): The ne6 "ormalisation o" the pressures including
the pressures deduced 6ith the in!erse problem
E!"ations 1+ and 1? 4i(e, res/ecti(ely, e3/ressions
.or te b"ildin4 coe..icient o. te o/enin4 /laced at
te to/ and at te botto$ o. te o/enin46
Figure A : 5uilding coe""icients C
5
"or each small
opening in the %alton sense
Te (al"es o. te $ass .lo) rates .or eac bo"ndary
condition o. te n"$erical e3/eri$ents and .or eac
s$all o/enin4 o. tese coe..icients are /lotted in
Fi4"re *6 Follo)in4 e!"ations 1+ and 1?, te
b"ildin4 /ress"re coe..icients act on te /ress"re
di..erence at o/enin4s6 For te East e3ternal o/enin4
and te s$all o/enin4 /laced on to/, )e notice tat
te b"ildin4 /ress"re coe..icients are $"c i4er
tan te s"r.ace /ress"re on te lee)ard .acade6
Tese coe..icients are t"s /resent to increase te
$ass .lo) tro"4 an e3ternal lar4e o/enin46
Te res"ltin4 $odel and tese o"t/"ts <Fi4"re 1'=
so) tat te i$/ro(e$ent o. te 7no)led4e $odel
de(elo/ed by Roldan <Roldan, 1*?@= a(e allo)ed
te /ysical /eno$ena to be better re/resented6
Te $ass .lo) rate ded"ced by tis ne) .or$"lation
o. /ress"re di..erences is close to te n"$erical
e3/eri$ents6
Figure 1B: 8ass "lo6 rates calculated "or each
.no6ledge model described abo!e
Figure 11: 'ndoor .inematic pressure calculated "or each
model
Fi4"re 11 so)s te /ress"re calc"lated .or te
$odels detailed in tis article6 9e note tat te
7ine$atic /ress"re calc"lated by Roldan,s $odel
<Roldan, 1*?@= di..ers 4reatly .ro$ te n"$erical
e3/eri$ental res"lts6 Te sa/e o. te c"r(e and te
$odel detailed in Table 1 so) tat te /ress"re
deter$ined by tis $odel incl"des a dyna$ic
/ress"re6 Tis dyna$ic /ress"re s7e)s te /roble$
beca"se te /ress"re P de.ined by 9alton <9alton,
1*?&=, )ic /artially crosses te b"ildin4 is static,
and not dyna$ic6 Te /ress"re $odel de(elo/ed by
Roldan cannot be i$/le$ented to e(al"ate /ress"res
in b"ildin4s6
A $aIor i$/lication is tat i. te Roldan $odel is
e$/loyed to analy>e eat and $ass trans.ers in a
co$/le3 b"ildin4 or $"lti>one b"ildin4 ten eat
trans.ers, $ass trans.ers and ter$al co$.ort )ill be
/oorly /redicted6 On te oter and, in te absence
o. )ind te 9alton $odel )ill correctly calc"late
eat and $ass trans.ers6
)" Conclusion
0ass .lo) rate /redictions tro"4 lar4e e3ternal
o/enin4s ded"ced .ro$ te 9alton8Roldan $odel
di..er 4reatly .ro$ 1FD res"lts6 Te 7no)led4e
$odel de(elo/ed by Roldan /ro/oses to incl"de te
s"r.ace /ress"re ind"ced by )ind in te /ress"re
di..erence bet)een te interior and te e3terior6 He
e3/lains tat it is ten necessary to set te discar4e
coe..icient .or eac incident an4le6 Ho)e(er, te
indoor /ress"re calc"lated by tis $etod incl"des a
dyna$ic /ress"re tat corres/onds to te 7inetic
ener4y tat crosses te b"ildin4 )ito"t trans.errin4
all tis .or$er ener4y into 7ine$atic /ress"re6 Te
/roble$ co"ld not be "nderstood as a crac78.lo)6
B"ildin4 coe..icients are ten introd"ced to ta7e into
acco"nt tis 7inetic ener4y tat /asses tro"4, and
to i$/ro(e te $odel i$/le$ented by Roldan6
Ener4y /resent in te strea$ t"be de(elo/ed at te
)ind)ard o/enin4 can no) /artly 4o tro"4 te
b"ildin4 and trans.er a /art o. its ener4y into
/otential ener4y tro"4 7ine$atic /ress"re6
Res"lts o. tese $odi.ications so) tat indoor
/ress"res are close to te n"$erical e3/eri$ental
res"lts, $ass .lo)s are better /redicted and
discar4e coe..icients are not can4ed6 Te
discar4e coe..icient is 7e/t to te (al"e de.ined .or
a $odelin4 /roble$ )ito"t )ind6
Te indoor /ress"re e(al"ated by sol(in4 te $ass
balance is no) 7ine$atic, and not a dyna$ic
/ress"re /l"s a static /ress"re6 Tis $odel can no)
be co"/led to a crac78.lo) $odel tat needs a static
/ress"re6
+" .e%erences
Boyer H6, La"ret A6 P6, Adelard L6 and 0ara T6 A6B <1***=6
JB"ildin4 (entilationB a /ress"re air.lo) $odel co$/"ter
4eneration and ele$ents o. (alidationK6 $nergy and
5uildings, 5ol"$e 2*, Iss"e E, Pa4es 2?E82*2
9alton C6:6B <1*?&=6 JA co$/"ter al4orit$ .or
/redictin4 in.iltration and inter8roo$ air.lo)sK, ;S/;$
Transactions, *'B1, A'1LA1'6
Roldan A6B <1*?@=6 JEt"de ter$i!"e et a-ra"li!"e des
en(elo//es de b#ti$ent6 In.l"ence des co"/la4es
int-rie"rs et d" $"lti>ona4eK P6D6 Tesis, I:SA Lyon,
France
Allard F6, and Y6 2ts"$iB <1**2=6 JAir Flo) tro"4
Lar4e O/enin4s,K $nergy and 5uildings, 1?, 1EE81&@
9alton C6:6B <1*?*=6 MMAir.lo) net)or7 $odels .or
ele$ent8based b"ildin4 air.lo) $odelin4,NN6 ;S/;$
Transactions *@B2, //6 A1E8A2'6
Bastide A6B <2''&=6 JEt"de de la (entilation nat"relle a
l,aide de la $-cani!"e des .l"ides n"$-ri!"e dans les
b#ti$ents a 4randes o"(ert"res; A//lication a" con.ort
ter$i!"e et O l,a$-lioration de $od%les a-ra"li!"es
noda"3K6 PD Tesis6 La R-"nion, Indian Ocean, France6
Ya7ot, 56, and Ors>a4, S6A6B <1*?A=6 JRenor$ali>ation
4ro"/ analysis o. t"rb"lence P IB Basic teoryK, C.
Scienti"ic Computing, 1, //6 1L@16b
La"nder, B6E6, and S/aldin4, D6B6B <1*+&=6 JTe
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