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Geometry is one of a developing branch of mathematics. It includes
different kinds of aspects. This is an exciting teaching aid that integrates
in a single source. The treatment of the subject material is done a
manner that would help the students not only to develop an insight
into the subject but also to secure maximum marks in the examination.
Every effort has been made to ensure that the students grasp the
geometric matter efficiently and comprehensively with minimum
effort.









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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of
shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A
mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer.
Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a body of
practical knowledge concerning , lengths, areas and volumes with
elements of formal mathematical science emerging in the West as early
as Thales (6th Century BC). By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put
into anaxiomatic form by Euclid whose treatmentEuclidean
geometryset a standard for many centuries to follow. Archimedsd
eveloped ingenious techniques for calculating areas and volumes, in
many ways anticipating modern integral calculas. The field of astronmy,
especially as it relates to mapping the positions of stars and planets on
celestial plane and describing the relationship between movements of
celestial bodies, served as an important source of geometric problems
during the next one and a half millennia. In the classical world, both
geometry and astronomy were considered to be part of the quadrivium,
a subset of the seven liberal arts considered essential for a free citizen to
master.
The introduction ofcoordinaes by Rene descarte and the concurrent
developments of algebra marked a new stage for geometry, since
geometric figures such plane curves could now be represented
analytically in the form of functions and equations. This played a key
role in the emergence ofinfinitesimal calculesus in the 17th century.
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Furthermore, the theory ofperspective showed that there is more to
geometry than just the metric properties of figures: perspective is the
origin of projective geometry. The subject of geometry was further
enriched by the study of the intrinsic structure of geometric objects that
originated with Euler and gauss and led to the creation of topology and
differential geometry..




In Euclid's time, there was no clear distinction between physical and
geometrical space. Since the 19th-century discovery of non Eucledian
geometry, the concept ofspace has undergone a radical transformation
and raised the question of which geometrical space best fits physical
space. With the rise of formal mathematics in the 20th century, 'space'
(whether 'point', 'line', or 'plane') lost its intuitive contents, so today we
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have to distinguish between physical space, geometrical spaces (in
which 'space', 'point' etc. still have their intuitive meaning) and abstract
spaces. Contemporary geometry considers manifolds, spaces that are
considerably more abstract than the familiar Eucledian space which
they only approximately resemble at small scales. These spaces may be
endowed with additional structure which allow one to speak about
length. Modern geometry has many ties to physics as is exemplified by
the links between pseudon-Riemannian geometry and general relativity.
One of the youngest physical theories, string theory is also very
geometric in flavour.

History of geometry

The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient
messopotomia and Egypt in the 2nd millennium BC. Early geometry
was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths,
angles, areas, and volumes, which were developed to meet some
practical need in surveying,construction,astronomy and various crafts.
The earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind
Papyrus (20001800 BC) and Moscow Papyrus (c. 1890 BC), the
Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322 (1900 BC). For example,
the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a
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truncated pyramid, or frustum South of Egypt the ancient Nubians
established a system of geometry including early versions of sun clocks.
In the 7th century BC, the Greek mathematician Thales of Miletus
used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of
pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with
the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving
four corollaries to Thales theorem Pythagoras established the
Pythagorean school which is credited with the first proof of the
Pythagoreanheorem though the statement of the theorem has a long
history Eudoxus (408c.355 BC) developed the method of exhaustion,
which allowed the calculation of areas and volumes of curvilinear
figures, as well as a theory of ratios that avoided the problem
of incommensurable magnitudes, which enabled subsequent geometers
to make significant advances.
Around 300 BC, geometry was revolutionized by Euclid,
whose Elements, widely considered the most successful and influential
textbook of all time, introduced mathematical rigor through the
axiomatic axiomatic method and is the earliest example of the format
still used in mathematics today, that of definition, axiom, theorem, and
proof. Although most of the contents of theElements were already
known, Euclid arranged them into a single, coherent logical framework
The Elements was known to all educated people in the West until the
middle of the 20th century and its contents are still taught in geometry
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classes today. Archimedes (c.287212 BC) of Syracuse used the
method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a
parabola with the summation of an infinite series., and gave remarkably
accurate approximations of Pi. He also studied the spiral bearing his
name and obtained formulas for the volumes of surface of revolution.
mathematicians also made many important contributions in geometry.
The Satapatha Brahmana (ninth century BC) contains rules for ritual
geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba sutras According
tothe ulba Stras contain "the earliest extant verbal expression of the
Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known
to the Old Babylonians. They contain lists of Pythagorean triples which
are particular cases of Diophantine equations In the Bakshail
manuscript, there is a handful of geometric problems (including
problems about volumes of irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript
also "employs a decimal place value system with a dot for zero."
Aryabhatas Aryabhatiya (499) includes the computation of areas and
volumes. Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical workmaa sphuta
siddhanta Brahma sphuta siddhanta in 628. Chapter 12, containing 66
Sanskrit verses, was divided into two sections: "basic operations"
(including cube roots, fractions, ratio and proportion, and barter) and
"practical mathematics" (including mixture, mathematical series, plane
figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber, and piling of grain). In the
latter section, he stated his famous theorem on the diagonals of a cyclic
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quadrilateral. Chapter 12 also included a formula for the area of a cyclic
quadrilateral (a generalization of Herons formula), as well as a
complete description of rational triangles (i.e. triangles with rational
sides and rational areas)
Contemporary geometry

Euclidean geometry


The 421polytope, orthogonally projected into the E8Lie group Coxeter plane
Euclidean geometry has become closely connected with computational
geometry, computer geometry, convex geometry incidence geometry,
finite geometry and some areas of combinatorics Attention was given
to further work on Euclidean geometry and the Euclidean groups by
Crystallography and the work of H.s.m coxeter , and can be seen in
theories of coxter groups and polytopes. Geometric group theory is an
expanding area of the theory of more general discrete groups drawing on
geometric models and algebraic techniques.
Differential geometry
Differential geometry has been of increasing importance
to mathematical physics due to Einsteins general relativity postulation
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that the universe is curved. Contemporary differential geometry
isintrinsic, meaning that the spaces it considersare smooth
manifolds whose geometric structure is governed by a Riemannian
metric, which determines how distances are measured near each point,
and not a priori parts of some ambient flat Euclidean space.
Topology and geometry


A thickening of the trefoil knot
The field of topology , which saw massive development in the 20th
century, is in a technical sense a type of transformation geometry, in
which transformations are homomorphisms This has often been
expressed in the form of the dictum 'topology is rubber-sheet geometry'.
Contemporarygeometric topology and differential topology and, and
particular subfields such as Morse theory, would be counted by most
mathematicians as part of geometry. Algebraic topology and general
topology have gone their own ways.
Algebraic geometry


Quintic CalabiYau threefold
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The field of algebraic geometry is the modern incarnation of
the Cartesian geometry of co ordinates From late 1950s through mid-
1970s it had undergone major foundational development, largely due to
work of Jean pierre and Alexander Grothendick This led to the
introduction of schemes and greater emphasis on tpological methods,
including various cohomology theories. One of seven millennium priz
problems, the Hodge conjecture, is a question in algebraic geometry.
The study of low-dimensional algebraic varieties, algebraic curves and
algebraic surfaces and algebraic varieties of dimension 3 ("algebraic
threefolds"), has been far advanced.grobner basis theory andreal raic
geometry algeb are among more applied subfields of modern algebraic
geometry.Arithmatic geometry is an active field combining algebraic
geometry and number theory Other directions of research
involve modullai spaces andcomplex geometry. Algebro-geometric
methods are commonly applied in string and brane theory.

GEOMETRIC SHAPE

A geometric shape is the geometric information which remains when
location scale, orientation and reflection are removed from the
description of ageometric object. That is, the result of moving a shape
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around, enlarging it, rotating it, or reflecting it in a mirror is the same
shape as the orioriginalannot a distinct shape.
Objects that have the same shape as each other are said to be similar. If
they also have the same scale as each other, they are said to becongruent

Many two-dimensional geometric shapes can be defined by a set of
points or vertices and lines connecting the points in a closed chain, as
well as the resulting interior points. Such shapes are called polygons and
include triangular squares, and pentagons Other shapes may be bounded
by curves such as the circle or the ellipse .
Many three-dimensional geometric shapes can be defined by a set
of vertices, lines connecting the vertices, and two-dimensional facess
enclosed by those lines, as well as the resulting interior points. Such
shapes are called polyhydrons and include cubes as well
aspyramids such as terastetrahedrons. Other three-dimensional shapes
may be bounded by curved surfaces, such as the ellipsoid and the sphere
A shape is said to be convex if all of the points on a line segment
between any two of its points are also part of the shape.

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Geometric shapes in threedimensions


Geometric shapes in two dimensions