429

USES OF LUNAR SULFUR

D. Vaniman, D. Pettit*, and G. Heiken
EES-1 ('2t4-9)
Los Aiamos National Laboratory
Los Aiamos NM 87545
Sulfur and sulfur compounds have a uqde range of applications for their flulc_ electric_ chemical,
and biochenu'cal properties. Although known abundances on the Moon are limited (_0.196 in mare
soils), sulfur is relatively extractable by heating. Coproduction of sulfur during oxygen extraction from
ilmozite-rich mare soils could yield sulfur in masses up to 109g of the mass of oxygen produced. Sulfur
deserves serRms consideration as a lunar resource.
INTRODUCTION
Volatile constituents such as molecular oxygen, nitrogen, water,
and hydrocarbons are rare on the Moon. The absence of such
molecules is one of the problems that confronts prolonged lunar
exploration or permanent lunar bases. The lightweight com-
pounds of the elements from hydrogen to oxygen are vital for
life, and many of these elements play important roles as fueks,
solvents, and industrial chemicals in processes that have become
the necessities of industrialized life on Earth. The scarcity of these
elements on the Moon thus raises two barriers against easy
expansion into space: one against the simple need to stay alive
and the other against easy transplantation of Earthbound industrial
processes.
With imagination this assessment need not be so bleak. Living
in space will require adaptation, but it also opens opportunities
to reassess the ways in which we live and use available resources.
Sulfur on the Moon may well prove a _tisfactory replacement for
lighter volatile elements and their compounds in some applica-
tions. It may even open new possibilities and uses that surpass
a mere duplication of what is already done on Earth.
Our present knowledge of lunar samples suggests that the best
place to collect sulfur on the Moon is from mare soils and rocks.
Although sulfur is not so abundant that it is available without
effort, it does rank eleventh in weight abundance among the
elements in average lunar mare rocks. Gibson and M_re ( 1974 )
found that the high-Ti mare basalts, in particular, have high sulfur
contents, in the range of O. 16% to 0.27% by weight. These authors
also make the important point that lunar basalts actually have
more sulfur than terrestrial basalts, which seldom have more than
0.15%.
Although terrestrial basalts are relatively low in dispersed sulfur
content, this sulfur is extracted and concentrated by circulation
of heated water. This process results in the remarkable sulfur-rich
environments at midocean spreading ridges, where base-metal
sulfides are deposited in great abundance and "unearthly" sulfur-
metabolizing organisms proliferate. Clearly, we cannot expect
heated water to have concentrated sulfur on the Moon. The
relatively high sulfur content of lunar mare basalt 12036, however,
led Gibson etal. (1977) to speculate on the possibility of Fe-FeS
liquid segregation and accumulation in some mare magmas.
Discovery of sulfur-rich ore bodies on the Moon would be a major
find that could accelerate exploitation immensely, but until their
existence is actually proven, it would be unwise to plan on their
use.
Another possible means for natural concentration of lunar sulfur
may be vapor transport and deposition; the abundance of sulfur
in volatile coatings on lunar pyroclastic glass droplets strongly
suggests that sulfur was involved as a propellant gas in fire-
fountain types of eruptions (Butler and Meyer, 1976). However,
the analyses of volatile coatings on glass droplets suggest that
significant amounts of sulfur" are lost rather than trapped on
droplet surfaces as a result of pyroclastic eruption. For example,
the sulfur contents of the famous pyroclastic "orange glass"
deposit of Shorty crater at Apollo 17 contains only 0.06-0.08%
sulfur (Gibson and Moore, 1974), whereas comparable chilled
Apollo 17 lavas retain more than 0.16% sulfur. Unless geologic
traps for volatile sulfur are found on the Moon (perhaps in vesicle
pipes or lava tubes?), there is reason to believe that lunar volcanic
gases have acted more effectively in the dispersal of sulfur than
in its concentration. The formation of soil on top of sulfur-rich
lava flows also results in decreased sulfur content, through the
combined processes of sulfur volatilization by small meteoritic
impacts and of dilution by addition of sulfur-poor highland
materials (Gibson and Moore, 1973, 1974). For practical pur-
poses, the ranking of sulfur contents presently known in lunar
samples is about as shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1. Sulfur in lunar samples.
Rock or Soil Type Sulfur Content (wt%)
High-Ti mare ha.salts (A- 17)
Low-Ti mare basalts (A-12)
High-Ti mare _iks (A- 17)
Low-Ti mare soils (A-I 5)
Highland rocks (A-16)
Highland m)ils (A-16)
0.16-0.27 (avg 0.21 )
0.06-0.15 (avg 0.11 )
0.O6-0.13 (avg O.10)
0.05-0.o6 (avg o.o5)
O.Ol-O.14 (avg 0.07)
0.03-0.09 ( av,g 0.06)
Data from Gibson and Morwe (1973, 1974), Gibson et al. (1977),
Kerridge et al. (1975), and L_PET (1972). Note that the ranges and
averages cited are for specific Apollo sites ( 12, 15, 16, and 17); the data
include possible analytical differences between lalx_ratories.
Although the richest known sources of sulfur are the high-Ti
mare basalts, extraction of this sulfur would require energy-
intensive crushing of hard rock. Most of the sulfur in the basahs
occurs as sulfide in the mineral troilite (FeS). The easiest source
of sulfur is high-Ti mare soils, which need not be crushed prior
to processing. In addition to the sulfur in troilite, some surface-
correlated sulfur can be found in soil samples. In pyroclastic soils,
surface-correlated metal sulfides probably occur (Butler aml
430 2nd Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities
Meyer, 1976; Cirlin andHousley, 1979), but sulfur may also occur
ms metal sulfates that are readily volatilized to produce SO2 (D.
McKay, personal communication, 1988). The heating experiments
of Gibson and Mxwe (1973) on Apollo 15 and 16 .samples
indicate that 12-30% of the total ,soil sulfur can be extracted at
750C, 50-70% of the total sulfur is extracted at 950C, and 85-
95% of the total sulfur is extracted at 1100C (vacuum condi-
tions, <2 10 .6 torr). Gibson and Moore (1974) suggest that the
12-30% of the sulfur extracted at 750C is surface correlated.
Most of the higher temperature sulfur is probably derived from
troilite. 11ac sulfur is given off as _)2 and H2S, which Gibson
(1973) attributes mainly to reaction between troilite and other
phases at high temperatures.
Sulfur is not the only volatile element to be won. Heating of
typical lunar ,soils will be useful in the cogener'ation of small
amounts of hydrogen (about 0.001-0.020%) helium (0.001-
0.006%), carbon (0.001-0.028%), and nitrogen (0.001-0.016%)
that are the solar-wind constituents of lunar fines ( Williams and
Jaduqck, 1980). Heating of high-q] p)Toclastic deposits to 1200C
will also provide some cogeneration of Zn (0.01-0.03%), Na, K,
CI (0.002-0.010%), F (0-0.02%), and other vapor.transported ele-
ments ( Cirlin and Housley, 1979; Butler and Meyer, 1976; Meyer
et al., 1975).
Thus, although sulfur is not richly concentrated on the M(xm,
it is present in sufficient abundance and associated with other
potentially useful elements that make the mining of lunar sulfur
worth serious consideration. However, this consideration will not
go very far if there is not a well-established set of end uses for
the sulfur and its codeposited elements. Sulfur has a broad range
of chemical and physical properties that may make it extremely
useful. Perhaps most importantly, sulfur and sulfur compounds
have the capacity to substitute for water in many aqueous-based
mechanical and chemical processes on Earth. Sulfur research is
,so broad and diverse that we cannot full)" cover its terrestrial
applications in this short paper. Moreover, we can only begin to
speculate on the possible uses of sulfur in space. Our purpose
is rather to suggest several starting points for more imaginative
studies on the uses of lunar sulfur. These starting points are
discussed below under three broad categories: (1)the use of
sulfur fluid and physical properties, ( 2 ) the use of sulfur electrical
properties, and (3)the use of sulfur chemical and biochemical
properties,
THE USE OF SULFUR FLUID
AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Pure sulfur is fluid over a broad range of temperatures.
Depending on crystal form, sulfur melts at 112.8C (orthorhom-
bic) or 119C (monoclinic; Weast, 1982). Although the liquid
does not boil until 444.6C, it begins to lose its low-temperature
fluidity and become very viscous at about 160C. Figure 1 shows
the variability, of viscosity with temperature. At average lunar day-
time temperatures (-107C) minimal heat input would maintain
sulfur as a low-viscosity liquid. At the maximum lunar equatorial
daytime temperature (123 C) no additional heat would be neces-
sary to keep sulfur molten.
Sulfur Concrete
A direct application of liquid sulfur on the Moon would be in
the production of sulfur concrete (Crow and Bates, 1970). Sulfur
concrete has found many applications on Earth and is being used
in areas where corrosion resistance is important or in extreme
100
(D
.__ 10
0
C_
Or)
0
0
1.C
120 140 160
1 I
180 200
100
I0
.0
).1
220
TEMPERATURE (C)
Fig. 1. Viscosity of liquid sulfur (gas free) as a function of temperature
(data from I_,ast, 1982).
desert environments (Sulphur Institute, 1979). Aparticular
advantage of sulfur concrete on the Moon is that it needs no water
in its production and is best poured hot at temperatures of 125
to 140C, which are only slightly higher than the average lunar
daytime temperature. Contrasted with water-based concrete,
sulfur concrete attains most of its final strength within hours
rather than weeks and has more than twice the compre_ive and
tensile strength. Weight ratios of sulfur to aggregate are
approximately 1:3, so that the amount of sulfur concrete pro-
duced could be about four times the amount of sulfur mined on
the Moon. Thermal stability is a concern; Crow and Bates (1970)
suggest that sulfur concrete be used only in buried structures on
the M(x)n where fuR-sun thermal exposure will not be a problem.
Sulfur Sealants
Lunar habitats must be capable of maintaining a pressurized
atmosphere. Some redundancy in sealants to contain the atmo-
sphere is desirable, and a method of spray-impregnating walls of
regolith or the internal surfaces of lava tubes might be useful.
Thioelastomers (thiokols) can be mixed with small amounts of
molten sulfur to make extremely tough materials (Leclercq, 1972 ).
The production requirements of hard or rubbery coatings are
presently too complex for simple extertsion to the Moon, but
imaginative use of organic waste with lunar sulfur might produce
a useful sealant.
Sulfur Dioxide for Fluid Uses
As noted in the introduction, Gibson (1973) found that most
sulfur released from lunar samples by heating in vacuum is not
released as S but as SO2 or HzS. Contrasted with pure sulfur, SO2
Vaniman et al.: l_ses of lunar sulfur 431
has a more useful range of fluid properties and has ph)3ical-
chemical properties that can fit special fluid-application require-
ments. Sulfur dioxide is liquid between -75.52(; and -10.08 C,
with corresponding _seosities between 0.0(_>8 and 0.0043 ix)i_ ,.
This liquid is a polar solvent, although its dilx)lar attractive field
is weaker than that of water. Where water is an excellent solvent
for strong dipoles, liquid SO, is a better solvent for nontxflar or
easily polarized molecules. Sulfur dioxide is a good solvent for
halogens and for olefinic and aromatic hydrocarhorts, but it is a
poor solvent for ",diphatic hydrocarbons (Burou; 1970). "llae
halogens are quite soluble in liquid SO2; metal chlorides are highly
,soluble and this property may be particularly important on the
Moon. There is strong evidence that man)' of the metals with high
boiling points (e.g., Zn and Ga) that are found on the surfaces
of lunar pyroclastic particles were translx)rted and d_3-x)sitcd as
more volatile metal chlorides (Meyer et al., 1975). If this is the
case, then the_ deposits might be easily stripped mad collected
from pyroclastic deposits using an SO2 washing process.
There are many potential u_s of SO2 as a fluid. ,_)me attractive
possibilities are in refrigerant s3,_tems, in turbines ( 'Rankine tTcle),
in heat transfer ,systems (liquid phase), in heat pipes (gas pha_se),
in slurry lines for regofith or waste transport, and in hydraulic
systerrts. Availability of SO2 will open a broad range of l_)ssibilities
for controlling energy and materials on the Moon. An important
caveat in the use of SO2, however, is its extreme toxici_ _. The
fluids in use would have to be i_flated from habitats.
THE USE OF SUL}UR
ELE_CAL PROPERTIES
Sulfur, especially in Na-S combinations, has potential use in both
solar energy collection systems and in storage batteries.
Solar Energy Conversion
There is considerable active research into Cu2S-based thin-film
solar cells and several sulfur-bearing photoelectrochemical (PEC)
cells (Chopra and Das, 1983). The thin-film solar cells employ
a heterojunction between two metal sulfides, one of which is Cu2S
(p-junction) and the other a sulfide of Cd or ZnCd (n-junction).
Such cells are still being perfected; efficiencies were around 7%
in the mid 1970s but had risen to about 10% by 1981. One
advantage of these cells is that the), are, ms the name implies, thin
films of relatively light mass. The cells are layered structures, with
layers as thin as a few tens or hundreds of angstroms dqaosited
in sequence. Total thickness of the cell would t31_ically be 5-
50 #m. The efficiency of present Cu2S/CdS cells crests at light
intensities between 20 and 120 mW/cm 2, a range that includes
the one-sun intensity of 50 mW/cm z. Although the efficiency of
this system is currently less than half that of .some advanced
photovoltaics .systems now under investigation (InP or GaAs;
Hood, 1986), there is a possible advantage in that the sulfur
would not have to be imported.
In practice, the need for some material imports (mostly Cd)
may be a potential problem in production of thin-film solar cells
on the Moon. Most of the cell mass is Zn and Cd, and Cd is critical
to efficient thin-film cells. Although there is gtx_l reason to
believe that both S and Zn occur in extractable quantities in lunar
pyroclastic deposits (0.07% S and 0.02% Zn; Gibson and Moore,
1974; Butler and Mey_, 1976), Cd is not comparably enriched.
In addition, once the cells are produced, it is not known how
well they might survive in the space envirtmment. Still, this is an
energy conversion system that is worth serious consideration. One
Ix)tentially adv-antageous aspect (ff the thin film cells is the
evidence that _cuum e_aporation is probably the Ix-st method
for cell production (Cl_pra and Das, 1983). High-vacuunl
systems should Ix: relatively ea.sT to operate in space.
An alteruative approach to the use of sulfur in solar ener_'
collection is through a phot_qectrochemical (PEC) effect. Sulfur
is important in the electrol)_e solution _ts a "hole _'avenger" at
the photoanode. A well studied PEC cell configuration u_'s a Cd_"
photoan_xle with a CdS interface ag',dnst an electrol)1e (Ct_)/rra
and Das, 1983). One practical electrolyte contains various
proportions of Na2S, S, and NaOH (R_ et aL, 1980). The cell
efficiencies observed range from 3% to 8%. Ks with the thin film
cells, a Ix)tenti'al dravtback may Ix_ the need to iml_)rt Cd and,
in this case, ,_" for lunar pr(_luction. Economic stud)' may well
show that it would Ix" more adv_antageous to fi)rm light photocells
on Earth and export them intact to the Moon, or to rely on
tx)ssiblc crude but rugged cells such as those that might bc made
out of minimally processed lunar ilmenitc (Meet et a/., 1987).
Electrical Energy Storage
The greatest payoff in the use of indigenous lunar sulfur for
electrical applications may bc in the in situ pr_x.luction of rela-
tively massive storage batteries. Sulfur-based storage batteries have
widespread applications on Earth. In addition to the ubiquitous
Pb-PhO2-H,SO_ batteD' (which, unfortunately fi)r lunar use,
requires precious water), there is active research in the
development of molten electrolyte Na-S storage cells fi)r electric
vehicles. These cells operate at alxmt 300-350C, with a two-stage
discharge that derives electrons from Na-to-Na + oxidation by
(1) 5S + 2Na -- NaeSs and (2)3NazSs + 4Na -- 5Na2S_. The dis-
charge voltage of the cell varies with the reaction stage, from alx)ut
2.08 V for rt_action ( 1 ) to 1.76 V for reaction (2) (Bagotzk)_ am/
Skumlin, 1980, pp. 320-337). The predicted cell performance for
the near future is ! 50-200 W-hr/kg. A ,_hematic cros,s section of
a Na-S storage batte D, is sho_aa in Fig. 2.
after Bagolzky and
Skundin, 1980
MOLTEN S
AND POLYSULPHIDES
ELECTROLYTE
VAPOR
Na
w CONTAINER
Fig. 2. A molten electrolyte Na-S batter 3, (after Bagotzky and .C, kumh'n,
1980).
432 2nd Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities
The electrolyte for the cell is a sodium polyaluminate (with
n = 3-11 in the formula Na20.nAlaO 3 ) that is porous to Na . This
electrolyte is formed as a ceramic and is diflhcult to manufacture
(Bagotzky and Skundin, 1980); this component and the porous
graphite positive electrode would probably have to be supplied
from Earth. The requirement for Na as well as S may be viewed
critically in terms of availability on the Moon, but there is some
evidence for Na associated with the surface-deposited volatiles of
lunar pyroclastic deposits (Cirlin and Housley, 1979). The
sodium mineralogy and abundances in these deposits are poorly
known, but the possible use in batteries justifies further study.
Should the indigenous lunar sodium be found insufficient, a useful
alternative may be to import NaOH, which could be processed
after arrival to provide Na, O2, and H20 (all of great value on
the Moon).
THE USE OF S_ CHEMICAL
AND BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The chemical uses of sulfur are ,so varied that we can only touch
on a few in this paper. The examples chosen are those that appear
to the authors to have important potential applications on the
Moon.
Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric acid usage is a common measure of industrial capacity
on Earth; this acid has so many uses that it is practically a generic
guide to productivity. A large number of potential uses on the
Moon might be considered, but these must be weighed against
the need to consume water in the production of sulfuric acid.
As one example of possible uses, the acid could be employed in
thermochemical splitting of water to produce H2 - 02 for propel-
lant or for fuel cells (see below). Avery different example of
sulfuric-acid use would be the destruction of organic waste as part
of a Closed Ecological Life Support System ("CELSS'; MacElroy
et al., 1985). Highly concentrated sulfuric acid can remove
hydrogen and oxygen from some organic compounds to prtxtuce
water; simple plant sugars might be processed in this manner.
The production of sulfuric acid on the Moon might occur as
a variant of the terrestrial contact process, in which SO 3 is made
by catalytic oxidation of SO2 (over platinum or vanadium
pentoxide) and bubbled through relatively dilute sulfuric acid to
produce concentrated acid. This process would require oxygen
input to oxidize the relatively reduced sulfur that occurs in lunar
regolith. Sulfuric acid can also be produced by electrolysis of SO2
in water (see section on thermochemical water splitting, below).
In a closed .system the depletion of water and oxygen could be
minimized, but some loss will probably be incurred and the
benefits must be weighed against this loss.
Sulfuric acid production and control is almost a necessary
adjunct industry ff oxygen is to be produced from lunar llmenite.
SuLfur is a serious contaminant in the reduction of lunar ilmenite;
H2S and sulfur-based acids would pose serious problems through
corrosion and induced electrolysis of water. The most direct way
to avoid such problems would be to extract (and use) the sulfur
before thc ilmenite concentrates are processed for oxygen.
Thermochemical Water-Splitting
Water can be split into H 2 and 02 for collection and cooling
to provide liquid rocket propellant. On a smaller scale, water
might be split for use in hydrogen fuel cells. Fuel cells may be
particularly useful if the water is reclaimed at the exhaust. There
are several options for producing H2 from water on the Moon;
extraction from waste methane and electrolysis of water are Ix)th
possible. Thermochemical splitting of water, however, would be
advantageous where reactor power is available to provide a high-
temperature heat source. Dok/ya eta/, (1979) describe both an
SO 2 hybrid cycle and a SO2-HaS cycle for thermochemical splitting
of water. The SO2 hybrid cycle uses electrolysis of SO2 + 2HaO
to produce HaSO4 + Ha, followed by thermal dissociation of the
sulfuric acid at 800 -850C to produce HaO + SOa + 1/202. The
SOa-HaS cycle requires only heat energy (830C) but has four
steps and requires input of both HaS and SO2 as well as water.
For lunar applications the SO a hybrid cycle is probably most
attractive because of its relative simplicity (two steps instead of
four) and the relative conservation of sulfur as SO a (output ideally
equals input but is limited by 70-80% conversion efficiency). The
most significant drawback of this method is the requirement for
use of electrical as well as thermal energy.
Sulfur as a Fluxing Agent
Sulfur is used terrestrially as a fluxing agent in reducing the
melting points of glasses. This use may also be practical on the
Moon, where glass production may be sought for structural uses
(Blacic, 1985). Experiments with a variety of regolith-sulfur
mixtures are needed to determine the utility of such a process.
The Brimstone Rocket
Production of rocket propellants from lunar resources would
be a major boon for expanded space exploration (National
Commission on Space, 1986). There has been considerable study
of systems to produce oxygen from lunar regolith, particularly
from concentrates of lunar ilmenite (Cutler and Kra_ 1985;
Gibson and Knudsen, 1985). Lunar sources of fuels to be
oxidized, however, are extremely scarce. Hydrogen is so rare that
extensive use for propellant may require expensive imports,
perhaps ms methane or ammonia from Earth (Fr/ed/ander, 1985).
Other fuels such as sllane (Sill4; Rosenberg 1985) might be
produced in part from lunar feedstoclcs but would still require
hydrogen imports. In contrast, sulfur might provide a truly
indigenous lunar fuel.
Some sulfur release will be an inevitable byproduct of lunar
oxygen prtxiuction. Lunar oxygen production is targeted on mare
regoliths with high ilmenite content; these are al_) the regoliths
with highest sulfur content (0.06% to 0.13%; see Table l ). In an
oxygen production plant such as Cutler and Krag (1985)
envision, the sulfur byproduct would be about 1% of the O2 mass
produced, a.ssuming 0.1% collectable Sin the ilmenite-enriched
feedstock. If the tailings from ilmenite enrichment are Mso
processed for sulfur, then the total sulfur production would be
about 10% of the 02 mass. Them prolx)rtions permit serious
consideration of a sulfur-oxygen propulsion .system (a "brimstone"
rocket).
The brimstone rocket could be fueled with liquid sulfur and
liquid oxygen, the sulfur being kept between 150 and 160C
where its viscosity is lowest and it is easiest to pump. Atomized
droplets of liquid sulfur would be introduced with gaseous
oxygen into the combustion chamber. Here the exothermic
reaction to SO 2 would liberate about 4600 kJ/kg SO 2. lsotropic
expansion would result in an ideal exhaust velocity near 3000 m/
sec, giving a specific impulse (I_) (if-v300 sec.
Vaniman et al.: Uses of lunar sulfur 433
The performance of the brimstone rocket would be sufficient
for pogosticking from one point to another on the lunar surface
or for putting payloads into lunar orbit. To place a payload into
a lO0-km ltmar orbit requires that the initial rocket mass at launch
be about 44% propellant at lift off.
The exhaust gases from the brimstone rocket would be
compatible with the lunar environment. Sulfur dioxide is a
condensable gas, which would ultimately be chemisorbed as
coatings on the regolith rather than accumulating as a gas to
increase the lunar atmosphere. In contrast, rockets based on
combustion of metals and excess oxygen will liberate large
quantities of oxygen into the lunar environment. This oxygen
might build up to a significant atmosphere and provide oxidizing
conditions that could alter the pristine state of the lunar regolith.
Sulfur for Plants, Animals, and People
Sulfur is a necessary trace element in the diets of many
organisms, including people. Powdered sulfur also has uses in
plant fertilization (Leclercq, 1972). These uses could probably be
met simply by the ttse of unprocessed lunar soil in CEL_S ,systems.
For radiation protection, however, it is worth considering the
inclusion of small-scale pharmaceutical production of sulphydryl
compounds in space for advanced CELSS systems.
Because nitrogen and other inert gases will be scarce on the
Moon, it is likely that the atmospheres in lunar habitats will be
oxygen-rich. One consequence of this may be a long-term increase
in susceptibility to sickness and biological damage from ionizing
radiation (yon Sonntag 1987). Sulphydryl compounds are the
most extensively studied and effective means of chemical pro-
phylaxis against radiation damage (yon ,Sgnntag 1987; /AEA,
1969). The action of these compounds is still incompletely
understood, but there is considerable evidence that one of their
effects is not entirely unlike the role of sulfur in photocells, where
the ability of sulfur to assume a large variety of electron shell
configurations will not abide an association with electron holes
or active charged radicals (see section on PEC photocells, "above).
Energy transfer from ionizing radiation into biological materials
produces target radicals, which will produce cellular damage if
left "unquenched." Potentially damaging hydrogen ionization
induced in a biol(moical target can release a proton, leaving a target
radical with chemical activity that may eventually result in
permanent damage. The sulphydryl compounds can ,split rapidly
to donate a replacement hydrogen before permanent damage
occurs ( t_gn &onntag 1987).
The amount of sulfur in sulphydryl compounds is actually quite
small. Glutathione, a well-studied example, has only one sulfur in
a molecule of 37 atoms (the rest being H, O, N, and C). These
comp(mnds are not heavy users of sulfur resources, and for the
near future are probably best produced on Earth even if a use
is found for them in space. On the other hand, a flurry of early
research into new sulphydryl compounds has now stagnated (trm
&mntag, 1987) but might be renewed if considered in terms of
the space environment. The advances made in .synthesizing
pharmaceuticals under microgravity conditions may be applicable
to advances in chemical protection from ionizing radiation
Ultimately, the use of lunar sulfur may play a role in expanded
human occupation of near-Earth space.
A sulfur-b_sed life cycle may prove useful on the Moon. Such
a cycle may be m_v,leled on the sulfur life cycles found in
midocean spreading ridges where sulfur-metabolizing bacteria
support a host of higher organisms including giant tube worms,
vent crabs, clams, and snails. These midoceanic life centers are
unusual in that the food chain is entirely based on sulfur
compounds released from volcanic fumaroles. Sunlight, the energy
source that was once thought to be the sole basis of life, is absent
from this deep ocean microcosm.
There are .several advantages of the use of a lunar sulfur life
cycle compared to photosynthesis. Such a cycle could uperate
without artificial light, which would be a requirement for
photosynthesis-based life systems at any nonpolar lunar base over
the 14-day lunar night. Artificial light may be a permanent
requirement for photosynthesis if life systems have to be deeply
buried for radiation shielding. The energy efficiency of making
electricity into light is poor, resulting in the release of significant
quantities of low-temperature heat. The photosynthetic efficiency
of using light energy is also poor, resulting in the release of more
low-temperature heat. Rejection of low-temperature heat on a
lunar base is troublesome because it ultimately hinges on radiation
into space. Radiation is inefficient at low temperatures, requiring
large radiation areas or the use of heat pumps to increase the
temperature of the waste heat. The heat pumps in turn will
generate 8 to 10 times the original heat load, which must also be
radiated away.
The sulfur life cycle is bxsed on hydrogen sulfide as the energy
source, which can be produced from lunar sulfur or recycled from
the biota using chemical proc-es.ses that reject waste heat at high
temperatures. The oxidation of the sulfur occurs in aqueous
solution where the chemical energy in hydrogen sulfide is
ef_ciently used by the bacteria. Subterranean lava tubes or man-
made tunnels could be sealed and flooded with aqueous solutions
necessary to support a modified low-pressure sulfur life cycle
without need for lighting. Heat transfer between the liquid
solution and the tunnel walls may be sufficient to dissipate the
small amounts of low-temperature waste heat. A lunar colony's
need for a variety of food will certainly dictate the production
of familiar photosynthetically based f(x_l chains, but the staples
required to support a lunar base could well be supplemented by
a sulfur-based .system. Bioengineering would be required to adapt
the existing high-pressure sulfur-metabolizing organisms to a Iow-
pres,sure lunar system, and to produce palatable ftxxts (unless the
lunar inhabitants devek)p a taste fi)r tulx" worms and vent crabs).
Separate lood _tems based on photos'ynthesis and sulfur would
provide a redundancy that could increase the security, or, in crisis,
ensure the survival of a large lunar colony.
PRACTICAL PRODUCTION OF SULFUR
A wide varlet3 _ of schemes could be proposed for extracting
sulfur from lunar rocks and soils, but not all may be cost effective
or practical on the Moon. Procedures requiring multiple complex
processing SttTm are probably t(x) cumbersome to be practicM--
especially if the T cannot be automated and run ms autonomous
systems. Heating lunar fecdst(x-Ics to over l IOOC is probably one
of the simplest of possible extraction procedures. Moreover, this
method has already been tested and proven. Gibson (1973) used
thermogravimetric-quadrupole m_t_s-spectrometric anal}_is to de-
termine that Apollo 14 and 15 soil .samples relca.se their sulfur a_s
SO 2 and H2S on heating to 1000 - 13(X)C. His experiments were
run at vacuum c()nditions close to thorn " that would be expected
on the Moon. These gases arc thus the sulfur products to bc
anticipated on simple heating of lunar feedstt_-tcs.
Some direct um's of S02 liquid are discussed atx)ve. Man}'
applications of sulfur, however, would require its prtxluction a.s
434 2nd Conference on Lunar Bases and .Vmce Activities
pure S. This would be particularly truc fi}r the brimstone rocket.
Fortunately, the sulfur-bearing gases that are liberated from lunar
feedstocks can be combined in the Claus reaction to produce
pure sulfur and water.
_)2 + 2H2S _ 2H20 + (3/x)_
where x varies between 2 and 8. This reaction has been studied
intensively and used in the treatment of SO 2 waste gases on Earth
(Pfeiffer, 1975). The Claus reaction is of particular interest not
only because it uses exactly those sulfur gases expected from
lunar feedstock, but also because it produces waluable water.
Since the Moon is such a different em4.ronment, it is important
to cotxsider how terrestrial processes might be perturbed on this
new industrial frontier. For example, r-adiol_is of SO 2 can produce
small amounts orS and SO._ (Rothschild, 1964). Will this effect
be a problem in SO 2 liquid management, or might it be used to
advantage in boosting the production of S from SOz? Model
industrial processes must be considered in terms of the environ-
ment where they will be used, and in many cases may require
small pilot-plant tests on the Moon before full-_ale production
is sought.
Finally, sulfur production should not be viewed as an altemativc
to the extraction and use of other gases (such as 02, H2, and
He) on the Moon. ,_hemes for extracting one of these gases will
often provide some of the others as well. Each gas has its own
set of uses, and thus a special value for exploitation in space.
Extraction schemes that combine cogcneration with multiple uses
will obtain the maximum benefit and minimum wastage of these
rare lunar resources.
CONCLUSIONS
It is fortuitous to find small but useful amounts of extractable
sulfur on the Moon. In an environment devoid of gas-forming
elements, sulfur has the potential to provide as significant an
impact on lunar development as coal and petroleum had for the
industrialization of society on Earth.
Even at its low abundance in lunar regolith, the _0.1% of sulfur
available across many thousands of square kilometers of high-Ti
mare regolith may be useful. Thermal processing of mildly crush-
ed regolith from high-Ti basaltic lava areas at 1100C could yield
about 1000 kg of sulfur from a patch {ff regolith 100 m 100 m
and 10 cm deep. Figure 3 shows the possible sears that would be
left by much more extensive mining in two types of regolith at
the Apollo 17 site. Each scar has an area of about lOkm 2, but
patchA would produce _l,0OO,OOOkg {ff sulfur from high-Ti
basaltic lava regolith, whereas patch B would produce
-700,000 kg of sulfur with cogencration of the metals and sodium
that occur on the surfaces of pyroclastic glasses. Either patch
would produce sufficient sulfur to lift a payload of several hundred
metric tons off the Moon using the brimstone rocket.
In practice these patches would not be nearly so regular or
well contained; patch A in particular would have to be gerryman-
dered to avoid large craters in the basaltic lava regolith (the
pyroclastic mantle is much smcx}ther, and crater avoidance would
be less of a problem in patch B). It is possible that these mined
areas would not leave visible sears. The most efficient extraction
N{_RTH HA_;SI F
_'ii " SCUIPTUREI) H_LL-_
'2> _ EAS[ HASS] F
Fig. 3. A simplillcd version of an albedo map {ff the Apollo 17 landing
site (modified from Muehlberger et aft., 1973). Massifs and hills of the
nonbasaltic highlands surround an embayment flooded by high-titanium,
high-sulfur basalts (light pattern); the eastern part {ff the embayment
includes a terrain of vet 3' low aibedo (dark pattern), which is attributed
by Muehlberger et al. to an extensive pyroclastic mantle. Squares A and B
show the dimensions of lO-km 2 10-cm-deep patches mined out of the
regolith; A would yield -10 3 MT of sulfur and B would _ield _7 10 2 MT.
system could be a mobile processing plant that would return
more than 99% of the processed regolith and leave no trench.
Such a system would be merely one more gardening event at the
lunar surface. The depth of excavation would be strongly process
dependent (considering plant mobility vs. plant simplicity);
shallow excavation simplifies the mining equipment at the cost
of making the plant more mobile.
If dedicated solely to sulfur and associated volatile-dement
production, the thermal energy required for this plant would be
about 0.1 MW-yr per metric ton of sulfur (assuming 100% duty
cycle). Significant energy _vings might be realized if sulfur
pr_xluction were piggybacked with oxygen production, or if low-
energy solvent extraction of sulfur were developed to replace
thermal extraction. Clearly, process development with a clear
definition of end use is necessary if lunar sulfur is to be taken
seriously as a potential resource.
Acknowledgment. This study was completed wdth the support of the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the U.S. IX:partment
of Energy. Reviews by E. Jones, W_ Field, E. Cameron, and L Taylor helped
to improve the text and the technical content {ff the paper.
EPILOGUE
Fire and Brimstone
A mechanical dragon, breathing fire and smoke,
But it lives off of sulfur instead of off coke.
It rolls down the rails of St. Lucifer's line
On a journey to a place that is far from divine.
But the fire and brimstone that makes up our hell
May some day prove useful to mankind as well,
For brimstone-based rockets reaching out into space
Could open the heavens for the human race.
DP 4/88
Vaniman et al.: Uses of lunar sulfur 435
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