ELT Methodology

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING

KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language
acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language
learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also
makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:
define the nature of language
describe the language learning process in early childhood
list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning
differentiate between language acquisition and language learning
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
1
Language
A!u"#"$"%n
an& Lea'n"ng
Ke( C%ne)$#
an& I##ue#
Language
A!u"#"$"%n
an& Lea'n"ng
Ke( C%ne)$#
an& I##ue#

Na$u'e %*
Language

Na$u'e %*
Language
Language
Lea'ne'
Language
Lea'ne'
A!u"#"$"%n
+e'#u#
Lea'n"ng
A!u"#"$"%n
+e'#u#
Lea'n"ng
Language
Lea'n"ng
P'%e##
Language
Lea'n"ng
P'%e##
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
1.2 Language A!u"#"$"%n an& Lea'n"ng Ke( C%ne)$# an& I##ue#
It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and
an understanding 1 language development in children. !our understanding of
what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large e"tent, your
philosophy of education, and how you teach #nglish: your teaching style, your
approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the
nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach
your learners to learn a second language more effectively.
1.2.1 Na$u'e %* Language
E,e'"#e 1- W.a$ "# (%u' &e*"n"$"%n %* /anguage0
$rite down in twenty%five%words%or%less a definition of language.
&hare your definition with another friend or in a small group.
'ompare differences and similarities.
$hat is anguage( There are many ways in which we could describe language.
!our definition of language )in the above* probably yield something that sounds
similar to the following composite definition- + language is considered to be a
system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in
e"pressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many
forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using
e"pressions through body language.
2
anguage is defined as ,a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings
by the use of conventionali-ed signs, sounds, gestures or marks having
understood meanings., )$ebster .ew International /ictionary of the #nglish
anguage, 012*, and ,is a tool for communication, )#mmet, 33*. In most
common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a
way that they may communicate ideas or feelings.
There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language.
'ommonly, three different views are e"plicitly or implicitly reflected in current
approaches to language learning. They are:
The structural view of language
The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally
related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are
usually described as:
phonological units )phonemes*
grammatical units )phrases, clauses, sentences*
grammatical operations )adding, shifting, 4oining or transforming
elements*
le"ical items )function words and structure words*
The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of
elements of this system.
The communicative view of language
The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle
for the e"pression of functional meaning. The semantic and
communicative dimensions of language are more emphasi-ed than the
grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target
of language learning is to learn to e"press communication functions and
categories of meaning.
3
The interactional view of language
The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means
for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for
performing social transactions between individuals. The target of
language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and
maintain conversations with other people.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1-
anguage can be likened to an ocean. ike the ocean, language is never still. It
has many moods and shapes. It seems to be endless. It carries people and their
goods. 'an you suggest another metaphor to describe language(
W.a$ "# (%u' "2age %* /anguage0
5ake a simple sketch or drawing of your image of language.
Then, write down all the ways in which language reflects the image you
see.
&hare your image with a friend.
.ote features of your images which you have in common.
.ote significant differences between your images.

N%34 $a1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)".
4
1.2.2 Language Lea'n"ng P'%e##
'hildren go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the
earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce
comple", multi%word sentences.
6a55/"ng
first stage of language development
known as the pre%linguistic, babbling or cooing stage
period typically lasts from the age of three to nine months
babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa
by five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant
sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma or da-da-da.
S"ng/e W%'&#
second stage is known as the one%word or holophase stage of language
development
around the age of 16 to 17 months
children will begin to produce their first real words
only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, but important
to reali-e that they are able to understand considerably more
infants begin to comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able
to produce it
T3% W%'&#
third stage begins around the age of 18 months
children begin to use two word sentences
5
sentences usually consist of 4ust nouns and verbs
#.g. 9$here daddy(:
,;uppy big<,
Mu/$"73%'& Sen$ene#
around the age of two
children begin to produce short, multi%word sentences that have a sub4ect
and predicate
#.g. a child might say ,5ommy is nice,
or ,$ant more candy9
+s children age, they continue to learn more new words every day. By the time
they enter school around the age of five, children typically have a vocabulary of
16,666 words or more.
De+e/%)2en$a/ Se!uene#
/evelopmental sequences reflect linguistic elements in children=s
cognitive understandings
#"amples
>rammatical 5orphemes
.egations
?uestions
G'a22a$"a/ M%').e2e#
@oger Brown=s longitudinal study )1AB7*
;resent progressive Cing
;lurals Cs
Irregular past forms
possessive =s
'opula
6
+rticles the and a
@egular past Ced
Third person singular simple present Cs
+u"iliary be
A!u"#"$"%n %* G'a22a$"a/ 2%').e2e#
e.g., 9wug test: C
i. Dere is a wug. .ow there are two of them. There are two EEEEEE.
ii. Fohn knows how to bod. !esterday he did the same thing.
!esterday, heEEEEEEE.
Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the
formation of plural and simple past in #nglish.
By generali-ing these patterns to words they have never heard before,
they show that their language is not 4ust a list of memori-ed word pairs
such as GbookHbooks= and GnodHnodded=.
A!u"#"$"%n %* Nega$"%n
ois Bloom=s study )1AA1* C four stages
7
&tage 1: Gno= C e.g., 9.o go:. 9.o cookie.:
&tage 3: sub4ect I no C e.g., 9/addy no comb hair.:
&tage 7: au"iliary or modal verbs )doHcan* I not
)!et no variations for different persons or tenses*
e.g., 9I can=t do it 9, 9De don=t want it.:
&tage 2: correct form of au"iliary verbs )didHdoesn=tHisHare* I not
e.g., De didn=t go. &he doesn=t want it.
But sometimes double negatives are used
e.g., I don=t have no more candies.
A!u"#"$"%n %* Que#$"%n#
By the age of 2:
5ost children are able to ask questions, give commands, report real
events, and create stories about imaginary ones with correct word order
and grammatical markers most of the time.
They have mastered the basic structures of the language or languages
spoken to them in these early years.
They begin to acquire less frequent and more comple" linguistic structures
such as passives and relative clauses.
They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening social
environment.
The si" stages of children=s question%making can be illustrated as follows:
&tage 1: using single words or single two% or three%word sentences with
rising intonation
)95ommy book(: 9$here=s /addy(:*
&tage 3: using the word order of the declarative sentence )9!ou like this(:
9$hy you catch it(:*
8
&tage 7: 9fronting: % putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence
)9Is the teddy is tired(: 9/o I can have a cookie(:*
&tage 2: sub4ect%au"iliary inversion in yesHno questions but not in wh%
questions
)9/o you like ice cream(: 9$here I can draw(:*
&tage 1: sub4ect%au"iliary inversion in wh%questions, but not in negative
wh%questions
)9$hy can he go out(: 9$hy he can=t go out(:*
&tage 0: overgenerali-ing the inverted form in embedded questions
)9I don=t know why can=t he go out.:*
9
T
hen, share
your thoughts
with a friend.

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1.2.8 Language Lea'ne'
+ lot of research has been carried out into what makes a good language learner.
Dere is a brief summary of the latest theories:
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' thinks about how she is learning. &he tries to
find out what works for her and what doesnJt. If she doesnJt understand the
purpose of a particular e"ercise, she asks the teacher.
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is willing to e"periment and take risks. Kor
e"ample, she will try out different ways of learning vocabulary until she
finds the way that suits her best. &he is also not afraid of making
mistakes, because she knows that these will help her.
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is realistic. &he knows that it will take time
and effort to become proficient in #nglish, and that there will periods
where she does not seem to be making much progress.
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is independent. &he does not e"pect to learn
#nglish 4ust by sitting in the classroom, and does not rely on the teacher to
totally direct her learning.
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is organi-ed and active. &he uses her time
to learn #nglish sensibly, and is always looking for opportunities to
develop her language both inside and outside of the classroom.
10
@eflect on your own language learning e"perience
Kirst 7 years
;re%school years
&chool years
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' has a balanced concern for communication
and accuracy. &ome students are e"perts at communicating their thoughts
but do not care that they make many mistakes in doing so. The good
language learner, on the other hand, is concerned with both
communicating and doing so as accurately as possible.
+lthough these are the qualities that have been found in the most efficient
language learners, there are still many other factors that influence how quickly a
child will learn #nglish.
S%u'e- L 'opyright ;aul &hoebottom )1AA0%3611* The Good Language
Learner. @etrieved 8 /ecember 3611, from http:HHesl.fis.edu
Fa$%'# a**e$"ng /anguage /ea'n"ng
There are various factors that affect successful language learning. They could
stem from the learner=s own mind )internal factors* or from the environment he
lives in )e"ternal factors*.
Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or
her to the particular learning situation, for e"ample, age of the learner,
personality, motivation, e"periences, cognition abilities and his native language.
#"ternal factors are those that characteri-e the particular language learning
situation,some of which include the curriculum in use, mode of instruction, and
the opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the
classroom.
11

E,e'"#e 2
The following are some factors that are known to affect second language
acquisition and learning. /etermine whether each factor is related mainly to the
student, to the family or to the environment of the second culture. Mse the
following code:
& N factors primarily in the student
K N factors primarily in the family
# N factors primarily in the environment of the second culture
1. +ge EEEEEEE
3. &ocioeconomic status EEEEEEE
7. 'lassroom culture EEEEEEE
2. 'ognitive development in 1 EEEEEEE
1. Kamily support EEEEEEE
0. $hether environment provides adequate 3 input EEEEEEE
12
B. iteracy level EEEEEEE
A. Opportunities for language use in school EEEEEEE
11. 5otivation EEEEEEE
11. ;roficiency in the home language EEEEEEE
1B. @ole models in the community EEEEEEE
1A. ;ersonality EEEEEEE
36. $hether student has enough opportunities to use #nglish EEEEEEE
32. Teacher=s e"pectations EEEEEEE
31. ;referred learning styles EEEEEEE
+dapted from 5aitland, P. )1AAB*. +dding #nglish: Delping #& earners &ucceed. >ood +pple.
I&B. 1%1021B%A67%0.
.ow check your answers below.
An#3e'#-
1&, 3K, 7#, 2&, 1&, 0#, BK, 8#, A&, 16&, 11#, 13&, 17#, 12#, 11&
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1-
In your e"perience, as an #nglish learner:
i. +re there personal characteristics that make you more successful than
another learner(
ii. $hich characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with
success in 3 acquisition(
Iii, &hare your opinion with your group members. Kind three most important
and three least important learner characteristics.
In&"+"&ua/ D"**e'ene#
@esearch findings reveal that every person has a learning styleQ therefore, there
is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all
learners. earning styles are also value%neutralQ that is, no one style is better
13
than others. earning styles e"ist on wide continuums, although they are often
described as opposites. earners should therefore be encouraged to 9stretch:
their learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning
situations.
+ge is only one of the characteristics which affects the learner=s 3 learning. The
opportunities for learning )i.e., conte"t % both inside and outside the classroom*,
the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude ,
personality , and learning styles have also been found to be important
determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning.
1.2.9 A!u"#"$"%n +e'#u# Lea'n"ng
It is sometimes thought that acquisition and learning refer to the same processes.
+ccording to linguists there is an important distinction between language
acquisition and language learning.
Language A!u"#"$"%n
+cquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning.
#"perts suggest there is an innate capacity in every human being to acquire
language. anguage acquisition in children 4ust seems to happen. 'hildren do
not need e"plicit instruction to learn their first languages but rather seem to 4ust
Gpick up= language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk.
anguage acquisition, therefore, is the process whereby children acquire their
first language. +s you may well have noticed, children acquire their mother
tongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that surrounds
them. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to take
place. rather seem to 4ust Gpick up= language in the same way they learn to roll
over, crawl and walk.
14
Language Lea'n"ng
+s opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through
e"plicit instruction and education. anguage learning is the process whereby
humans past the critical period learn second languages. In other words, older
children and adults need e"plicit teaching to learn their second languages. It is
the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. In language learning,
students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that
knowledge. Dowever, studies have shown that knowing grammar rules does not
necessarily result in good speaking or writing.
$e should not ignore the differences between language acquisition and
language learning. $hile all children before the critical period can innately
acquire their first languages, most older children and adults past the critical
period must learn second languages through e"plicit education and instruction.
1 and 3 acquisition are quite complicated processes. To understand these
processes will enable the language teacher to be more sensitive to the factors
involved. $hile 1 and 3 acquisition reveal some similarities, they also show
differences. &imilarities in Kirst and &econd anguage +cquisition theories are of
great interest to teachers and learners as they can be utili-ed to improve
language teaching and learning methods.

Na$u'e +# Nu'$u'e
5uch debate has taken place concerning the importance of nature )what is
innate* and nurture )environmental factors* in the acquisition of language. Is
language acquisition and development innate or taught( The debate about
nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony from
both sides.
The following chart compares nature and nurture in language acquisition.
15
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1-
C%2)a'"ng F"'#$ an& Se%n& Language A!u"#"$"%n
A$"+"$( 1-
There are similarities and differences in first and second language acquisition. It
is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a baby
acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for
learning. anguage teachers must have theoretical knowledge of how
languages are acquired.
Dow is learning a second language like learning a first(
Dow is it different(
Dow will this knowledge help you plan classroom e"periences(
$rite a paper )2%0 pages* citing at least four research articles to support
te"t reading.
A$"+"$( 2-
16
.ature
Informal
;arents R &ociety
#"periences
#nvironment
#"posure
+cquisition
.urture
Kormal
Teachers
&yllabus
'lassroom
&ystematic
earning
+s teachers, it is our duty to make sure that our students Gacquire= rather than
Glearn= the language. /iscuss.
TOPIC 2 T:EORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
2.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 3 provides you with an overview of four influential learning theories that underlie the
instruction of a teacher=s classroom practice. 5ore specifically, it e"amines in detail the key
principles of Behaviourism, 'ognitivism, &ocial 'onstructivism and Dumanistic orientations
to language learning.
By the end of this Topic, you will be able to:
define terms relevant to some theories of language learning
e"plain the main principles of each language learning theory
distinguish the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and
humanist principles in the classroom
17
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
2.2 T.e%'"e# %* Language Lea'n"ng
The main goal of any teaching is to bring about learning. >enerally, we
have not been able to say with certainty how people learn languages although
a great deal of research has been done into this sub4ect. Sarious theories have
emerged over the years to study the process of language acquisition. The four
main schools of thought which provide theoretical paradigms in guiding the
course of language acquisition are: behaviourism, cognitivism, social
constructivism and humanism.
2.2.1 6e.a+"%u'"#2
The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the
philosophic traditions of +ristotle, /escartes and ocke. The founders and
proponents include Fohn B. $atson in the early 36
th
century, Ivan ;avlov,
B.K.&kinner, #.. Thorndike, Bandura and others. They argued that behavior can
18
be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating and
giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. 5otivation to
learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punish.
>eneral perception is that there is no difference between the way one
learns a language and the way one learns to do anything else. +ccording to the
psychologist &kinner, language is a Gconditioned behaviour=: the stimulus
response process )&timulus @esponse Keedback @einforcement*. The popular
view is that children start out as clean slates and language learning is the
process of getting linguistic habits printed on these slates through positive and
negative reinforcement or punishment. Both positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior
will happen again. On the other hand, punishment decreases the likelihood
that the antecedent behavior will happen again.
earners are essentially viewed as passive and learn language step by
step, i.e. Imitation % @epetition % 5emori-ation % 'ontrolled drilling %
@einforcement. They learn to speak by imitating the utterances heard around
them and strengthen their responses by the repetitions, corrections, and other
reactions that adults provide. Therefore, language is practice based. The
main focus is on inducing the child to behave with the help of mechanical drills
and e"ercises. earning is controlled by the conditions under which it takes
place and that, as long as individuals are sub4ected on the same condition,
they will learn in the same condition. In summary, the behaviourist is not
concerned with how or why knowledge is obtained, but rather if the correct
response is given. earning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of
new behaviour.
The following is a list of behaviourist principles quite often applied in
teaching and learning in the classroom:
Mse a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning.
19
;rovide immediate and frequent feedback for comple" and difficult
concepts
;rovide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts
Break down comple" task into smaller and manageable subskills
&equence material from simple to more difficult to enhance
understanding
5odel the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations
when necessary
@einforce when students demonstrate the modeled behaviour
&tate the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and
students
#stablish a contract with students on the work to be done and what
rewards will be given
'ritics of behavioural methods point to two basic problems that may arise in
the classroom. &ome teachers fear that rewarding students for all learning will
cause students to lose interest in learning for its own sake. Msing a reward
system or giving one student increased attention may have a detrimental effect
on other students in the classroom. +lso, another problem with this view of
learning includes the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real%life
situations. earners are continually required to form sentences they have
never previously seen. + finite number of pre%practiced sentences are not
enough to carry on a conversation.
#,e'"#e 1
$hich of the behaviourist principles listed in the above do you think are widely
practised in the classrooms( >ive specific e"amples.

20

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2.2.2 C%gn"$"+"#2
In the 1A16=s there was a reali-ation that behaviourism did not fully e"plain
human learning. +lthough behaviourism emphasi-ed learning that was
observable and measurable, they did not account for what goes on in the minds
of the learner when he or she is learning or thinking. 'ognitivists felt that it was
necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn even
though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure ob4ectively.
The term cognitivism refers to a group of psychological theories which
draw heavily on the work in linguistics of .oam 'homsky. It replaced
behaviourism in 1A06=s as a dominant paradigm. 'ognitive theories of learning,
based on empirical evidence, indicate that learning is a multi%faceted, comple"
and dynamic process. 'ognitivism focus on the mind or Gblack bo"= and attempt
to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled.
+ccording to the cognitivists, people are not Gprogrammed animals= that
merely respond to environmental stimuli. ;eople are rational beings that require
active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of
thinking. 'hanges in behaviour are observed, but only as an indication of what is
occurring in the learner=s head. 'ognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as
computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain
outcomes.
'ognitivists view learning is as a process of relating new information to
previously learned information, In other words, learning is defined as a change in
the learners= schemata. earning is most likely to occur when an individual can
21
associate new learning with previous knowledge. Mnlike in behaviourism,
learners are not passive receivers of environmental conditions. @ather, they are
actively involved in the learning process and can have control over their own
learning. #rrors are also accepted as part of the learning process.
In contrast to behaviourism, the cognitivst perspective focus more on the
learner as an active participant in the teaching%learning process. It believes that
teachers can be more effective if they know what prior knowledge the student
already possesses and how information is processed and structured in the
learner=s mind. Therefore, it is important that teachers provide effective
instruction to help the learner acquire knowledge more effectively by teaching
students how to learn, remember, think and motivate themselves.
The following is a list of cognitivist principles quite often applied in
;resent information in an organi-ed manner
% &how a logical sequence to concepts
% >o from simple to comple" when presenting new material
Bring to mind relevant prior learning
;rovide for review and repetition of learning
;rovide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information, e.g.
inquiry%oriented pro4ects
Delp students process information in meaningful ways so that they can
become independent learners )&taged scaffolding*
ike Behaviourism, 'ognitivism is also not without its critiques. It has
been critici-ed for not accounting enough for individuality and for giving little
emphasis on the affective characteristics of the learners.
The following table sums up very briefly what we have discussed so far:
22
6e.a+"%u'"#$ +#. C%gn"$"+"#$
F%u# 6a.a+"%u'"#$ C%gn"$"+"#$
Siew about the
mind
+ blank slate.
Basically alike=
+n active organi-er.
Saried, with multiple
intelligences and learning
styles.
&%T @oles
Teacher plans and sets
goals for learning.
One Gbest= way of
teaching.
&tudents participate in
planning and goal%setting.
Teacher teaches with variety.
5otivation @eward is motivation. earning is a motivator.
'urriculum 'ontent
&tudents are taught Gwhat=. &tudents are taught Gwhat=
and Ghow=
+ssessment
Teacher assess.
;roduct is important.
&tudents are involved in peer
and self%assessment.
;roduct and process are
important
S%u'e- /ia-%@ico, .)3668*. Strategies for Teaching English Learners, )3
nd

edn.* Boston: ;earson #ducation, Inc.
#,e'"#e 2
$hich of the cognitivist principles listed in the above do you think are being
practiced in the classrooms( >ive specific e"amples.
CONTENT
SESSION TWO (3 Hours)
23
2.2.8 S%"a/ C%n#$'u$"+"#2
Fust as 'ognitive earning ;sychology began replacing the predominant
Behavioural ;sychology in the 1AB6=s, 'onstructivist earning ;sychology has
been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1AA6=s. + reaction to didactic
approaches, constructivism states that learning is an active, conte"tuali-ed
process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. 'onstructivism is a
perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, ;iaget and
Sygoysky. It is Sygotsky=s social development which is one of the foundations for
constructivism.
'onstructivists emphasi-e that learning is a social activity. They believe
that often it is social e"periences rather than what is taught in schools which
accounts for much of the variation in student learning. 'ooperative, collaborative
and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs and
values with their peers and teachers. They also argued that the responsibility of
learning resides with the learner. earners interpret what they hear, read and
see based on their previous learning, habits and e"periences. &tudents who do
not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to to accurately Ghear=
or Gsee= what is before them. Mnlike previous educational viewpoints where the
responsibility rested with the teacher to teach and where the learner played a
passive role, social constructivism emphasi-es the importance of the learner
being actively involved in the learning process with the teacher playing the role
as facilitator. earning is enhanced when students learn how to learn, engage in
serious discussion, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to
new situations.
$hat does this mean for classroom learning( +s active learners e"ploring
and going beyond the information given, thus students should be provided with
authentic and challenging pro4ects that encourage them to work together with
one another. +uthentic settings would provide learners with opportunities to see
24
a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions
through sharing and e"change of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners
assume responsibilities for their own learning. The aim is to create a situation
more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.
The following is a list of constructivist principles quite often applied in
#ncourage student autonomy and initiative
% &tudents take responsibility for their own learning
% @espect students= ideas and encourage independent thinking
;romote higher order thinking amongst students
% +sk questions that will influence student response
% 'hallenge students to analy-e, 4ustify and defend their ideas
#ngage students in meaningful learning
% ;rovide students opportunity to e"press their ideas
% Involve students in real%world situations
The main critique of &ocial 'onstructivism is that it is often seen as
being less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.
#,e'"#e 8
/iscuss some problems related to implementing constructivist principles in the
classroom. /escribe with specific e"amples.

N%34 $a1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)".
25
2.2.9 :u2an"#2
Dumanism refers to a movement in psychology which emerged in the
1A06=s and 1AB6=s. Dumanism has its roots in counseling psychology and
focuses its attention on how individuals acquire emotions, attitudes, values and
interpersonal skills. ;erhaps the most well%known applications of humanism in
#T are those of >attegno )1AB3* and 'urran )1AB0*.
Dumanistic psychologists believe that how a person feels about learning is
as important as how the person thinks or even behaves. They describe
behaviour not from the viewpoint of the teacher as do behaviourists but rather
from the vantage point of the student who is performing the activity.
Dumanists, led by such famous authors as +braham 5aslow and 'arl
@ogers, are especially concerned with the idea of self%actuali-ation, the growth of
a person to achieve whatever degree of individual satisfaction they are capable
of achieving. earning is not an end in itself: it is the means to progress towards
self%development. + student learns because he or she is inwardly driven )self%
motivation*, and derives his or her reward from the sense of achievement that
having learned something affords. Dence, much of a humanist teacher=s effort
would be put into developing a student=s self%esteem. This form of education,
known as student%centred, is typified by the student taking responsibility and
owning their learning.
The humanist teacher is a facilitator and not a disseminator of knowledge.
De or she creates an educational environment that fosters self%development,
cooperation, positive communications, and personali-ation of information. In
particular, the humanist teacher needs to have a thorough grasp of both how
26
students learn and what motivates them to learn. ;articipatory and discovery
methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism. +s well as the
student=s academic needs the humanist teacher is also concerned with the
student=s affective or emotional needs. Keeling and thinking are very much
interlinked. Dumanists believe that feeling positive about oneself facilitates
learning.
The following are some principles in the classroom based on humanistic
principles:
#stablish a warm, democratic, positive and non%threatening environment
for the students to work in.
;rovide learning e"periences that will lead to the development of habits
and attitudes that teachers want to foster.
Teachers should be role models and set good e"amples for students to
emulate.
&tudents are given choices )with limitations* and freedom )with
responsibilities* to plan and carry out activities.
Teacher facilitates the learning process and share ideas with students.
earning is based on life e"periences, discovery, e"ploring and
e"perimenting.
@espect student=s feelings and aspirations.
;rovide opportunity for success.
/e%emphasi-e rigorous, performance%oriented, test%dominated
approaches.
&tudents are allowed to set their own goals and follow their own pace
#"periential learning is encouraged.
#,e'"#e 9
27
To what e"tent do you think schools give attention to the affective )emotions,
feelings* aspects of learning( /iscuss by citing specific e"amples.
Su22a'(.
$hat conclusions can we draw from this discussion of various theories of
learning( Instructional learning theories are centred on the ma4or schools of
educational psychology. Krom these so%called schools have evolved modern
thinking and practice about how learning occurs and how your instruction in the
classroom ultimately affects that learning. #ach has its own merits and each has
shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations.
!our understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism,
'ognitivism, 'onstructivism and Dumanism is critical to your approach to
classroom teaching. Dowever, looking back over the current practices in our
classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many
different theories we have learnt.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four ma4or theoretical
perspectives e"plaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teacher, state
your personal beliefs about the teaching%learning process.
28
TOPIC 8 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING T:EORIES ;I<
KRAS:EN=S MONITOR MODEL
8.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 7 provides input on a predominant &econd anguage earning Theory
called Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel. There are five components or hypotheses
which form the basis of the model. These are Input Dypothesis, +ffective Kilter
Dypothesis, +cquisition earning Dypothesis, 5onitor Dypothesis and .atural
Order Dypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for
teaching.
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. demonstrate an understanding of Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel
3. e"plain the five hypothesis of the 5onitor 5odel
7. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis of the 5onitor 5odel
2. e"plain the implications of this model for teaching.
29
CONTENT
SESSION THREE (6 Hours)
8.2 K'a#.en=# M%n"$%' M%&e/
&econd language acquisition theory seeks to e"plain how and by what
processes individuals acquire a second language. + predominant theory of
second language acquisition was developed by &teven Prashen from the
Mniversity of &outhern 'alifornia. Prashen is a specialist in language acquisition
and development and his influential theory is widely accepted in the language
learning community.
30
The following are some quotes from Prashen )1A83* about language
acquisition.
"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill."
"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language -
natural communication - in hich s!ea"ers are concerned not ith the
form of their utterances but ith the messages the# are conve#ing and
understanding."
$The best methods are therefore those that su!!l# %com!rehensible in!ut%
in lo anxiet# situations, containing messages that students reall# ant to
hear. These methods do not force earl# !roduction in the second
language, but allo students to !roduce hen the# are %read#%,
recogni&ing that im!rovement comes from su!!l#ing communicative and
com!rehensible in!ut, and not from forcing and correcting !roduction."
"'n the real orld, conversations ith s#m!athetic native s!ea"ers ho
are illing to hel! the acquirer understand are ver# hel!ful."
Prashen e"plains five fundamental components % which he calls
hypotheses % as the basis for his language teaching model. #ach of the
components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The
five components are as follows:
1. The Input Dypothesis
3. The +ffective Kilter Dypothesis
7. The +cquisition earning Dypothesis
2. The 5onitor Dypothesis
1. The .atural Order Dypothesis
31
3.2.1 In)u$ :()%$.e#"#
Prashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language u#e
but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most
useful form of input has to be un&e'#$an&a5/e and it should be 4ust a little
beyond the learnerJs present capacity. If it is too far beyond, the learner will not
pay attention to the input, and if it is not far enough, the learner will learn nothing.
The learner improves and progresses along the Jnatural orderJ when heHshe
receives second language JinputJ that is one step beyond hisHher current stage of
linguistic competence. If a learner is at a stage JiJ, acquisition takes place when
heHshe is e"posed to Jcomprehensible inputJ that belongs to level Ji I 1G. Dere 9i:
refers to the current language level the learners are at. 9i I 1: means a level
higher than the level the students are at or the ne"t level along the natural order.
.atural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, thus ensuring
that each learner will receive some Ji I 1J input that is appropriate for hisHher
current stage of linguistic competence.
Parshen suggests that teachers should give rough%tuned input an& a 3"&e
+a'"e$( %* 2a$e'"a/#4 #u))%'$e& 5( +"#ua/ ue# an& 'ea/"a 3.". g"+e# "$ a
%n$e,$ 3"$."n 3.". $.e /ea'ne' 2a( gue## a$ $.e %n$en$. +s such,
language teachers must make input comprehensible by conte"tuali-ing it.
#vidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the following situations:
#ffectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a childH people speak
to children acquiring their first language in special ways.
+dults speaking to children modify their language in order to aid
comprehension. +dults roughly%tune to child=s level of linguistic
competence. These include use of baby%talk and short simple sentences.
Teacher%talk from a teacher to a language student.
32
Teachers simplify their language to make 3 learners understand or go
down to 3 learners= comprehension.
Koreigner%talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language
learner or acquirer
&ome of the ways a foreigner talks to a language learner include slower
pronunciation, omission of features of connected speech, heavier stress
on key words, short responses, use of gestures and demonstrations.
3 learners often go through an initial &ilent ;eriod.
+ learner is silent to build up competencies in 3
nd
language via listening.
&peaking only emerges after the learner has enough competence in the
language.
Prashen indicates that the comparative success of younger and older
learners reflects provision of comprehensible input. The more comprehensible
input the greater the 3 proficiency. The lack of comprehensible input delays
language acquisition. +s such teaching methods work according to the e"tent
that teachers use comprehensible input. One finds that immersion teaching is
successful because it provides comprehensible input. +s for bilingual
programmes, they succeed to the e"tent teachers provide comprehensible input
8.2.2 A**e$"+e F"/$e' :()%$.e#"#
This hypothesis describes e"ternal factors that can act as a filter that
impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self%confidence, and
an"iety. If a learner has very low motivation, very low self%confidence, and a high
level of an"iety, the affective filter falls into place and inhibits the learner from
acquiring the new language. On the other hand, learners who are motivated,
confident, and rela"ed about learning the target language have more success
acquiring a second language.
33
Barriers to learning can also be found in any negative feelings that a learner has
about the language, the method used, the institution or the teacher. These
feelings become a kind of filter, which keeps the input out. Dence, the teacherJs
4ob is to make language learning free of stress and en4oyable.
8.2.8 A!u"#"$"%n7Lea'n"ng :()%$.e#"#
Prashen elucidates two systems of language acquisition that are
independent but related namely the acquired system and the learned system.
The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language
acquisition. $hen people learn their first language by speaking the language
naturally in daily interaction with others the acquired system is at work. Dere
speakers are more concerned with the act of communicating meaning than the
structure of their utterances.
On the other hand, the learned system relates to formal instruction where
students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language.
One e"ample of the learned system is the studying the rules of synta".
The differences between acquisition and learning are depicted in Kigure 1
below:
A!u"#"$"%n Lea'n"ng
implicit, subconscious e"plicit, conscious
informal situations formal situations
uses grammatical JfeelJ uses grammatical rules
depends on attitude depends on aptitude
stable order of acquisition simple to comple" order of
learning
Kig. 1: /ifferences between acquisition and learning
34
3.2.4 M%n"$%' :()%$.e#"#
The monitor hypothesis seeks to e"plain how the learned system affects
the acquired system. +ccording to Prashen, the formal rule system acts as the
M%n"$%' in the acquired system. $hen second language learners monitor their
speech, they apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and
initiate their communication. This action can only occur when speakers have
ample time to think about the form and structure of their sentences.
The 5onitor is best used when:
we have to be very careful
when language is necessarily formal
e.g. writing letters of application, speaking to a hierarchical superior in a
formal situation.
There are three conditions required by the 5onitor:
Time
The learner must have time to use the monitor. Msing the monitor requires
the speaker to slow down and focus on the form of language.
Kocus on correctness of form
The learner must be focused or thinking about the form of language. +
learner may find it difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.
Pnowledge of rules
The learner must know the rules. This means that the speaker must have
had e"plicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to
produce.
35
There three types of monitor users C over%users, under%users and optimal%
users. 5onitor over%users try to always use their monitor, and are so concerned
with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. 5onitor under%
users have not consciously learned or choose not to use their conscious
knowledge of the language. #rror correction by others has little influence on
them, as they can often correct themselves based on a ,feel, for correctness.
Teachers should aim to produce optimal monitor users, who use the
monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication.
They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation,
but will use it in writing and planned speech. Optimal monitor users can
therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired
competence
Prashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed most of
the time, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than
on the form of our utterances.
8.2.> Na$u'a/ O'&e' :()%$.e#"#
+ccording to this hypothesis there is a natural order to the way second
language learners acquire their target language. Prashen states that $.e'e "# a
na$u'a/ %'&e' "n 3.". /ea'ne'# )"1 u) a /anguage and this order is roughly
the same for all learners regardless of their linguistic background.
@esearch shows that this natural order seems to go beyond age, the
learnerJs native language, the target language, and the conditions under which
the second language is being learned.
5istakes made by learners are a necessary part of language learning.
T.e#e 2"#$a1e# a'e n%$ 'an&%24 5u$ a'e +e'( #"2"/a' $% $.e e''%'# $.a$
36
."/&'en 2a1e 3.en /ea'n"ng $.e"' *"'#$ /anguage. The mistakes that students
make through time lie in a rough sequence.
In addition, the sequence of errors for acquired language is not the same
as the sequence of learned grammar items. &ome grammatical morphemes
which appear simple from the learning point of view are in fact acquired late % the
JsJ of ;T&. 'hinese learning #nglish make the same mistakes, and will learn in
more or less the same order as the Krench. +ccording to Prashen, this indicates
that $.e'e "# a na$u'a/ %'&e' "n 3.". /ea'ne'# )"1 u) a /anguage. In
a&&"$"%n4 $.e#e 2"#$a1e# 3"// 5e 2a&e "n $.e #a2e %'&e' 3.e$.e' $.e
/ea'ne'# .a+e 5een $aug.$ $.e g'a22a' %' n%$4 an& $.a$ $ea."ng g'a22a'
3"// n%$ .e/) $.e2 .ange $.e %'&e'.
The combined model of acquisition and production is shown in the
diagram below.
C%25"ne& 2%&e/ %* a!u"#"$"%n an& )'%&u$"%n
8.2.? I2)/"a$"%n# *%' Tea."ng
Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel has its implications for #&H#K teaching. Input
hypothesis focuses on comprehensible input at 9i I 1: level. To enable learners
37
to advance in language acquisition, teachers need to e"pose them to large
amounts of authentic language. The language need not be specifically graded in
terms grammatical progression, but adapted to the students= interests and
purposes for learning the language. + 3"&e +a'"e$( %* "n)u$4 #u))%'$e& 5(
+"#ua/ ue# an& 'ea/"a should be conte"tuali-ed in a way that the learner can
understand a large amount of spoken or written language.
+ccording to Prashen comprehension precedes production. +s such, 3
learners often go through an initial &ilent ;eriod. Teachers should provide time
for silent period to allow learners to build up acquired competence in a language
before they begin to produce it.
In line with the +ffective Kilter Dypothesis, language acquisition should be
done in rela"ing and friendly conditions. +ffective%humanistic activities such as
dialogues, interviews, personal charts and tables are encouraged.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
Dow does the Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel help a teacher better to understand how
hisHher second language students learn(
/esign materials and tasks suitable for primary school learners in relation to
Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel
@ela" and move on to the ne"t topic when you are ready.
38
TOPIC 9 O@ER@IEW- APPROAC:ES4 MET:ODS AND
TEC:NIQUES ELT MET:ODS
9.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 2 introduces you to the
By the end of this &ession, you will be able to:
39
CONTENT
SESSION FOUR (6 Hours)
9.2 O+e'+"e3- A))'%a.e#4 Me$.%&#4 an& Te.n"!ue# ELT Me$.%&#
9.2.1 G'a22a'7T'an#/a$"%n Me$.%&
9.2.2 D"'e$ Me$.%&
9.2.8 Au&"%7L"ngua/ Me$.%&
9.2.9 S"/en$ Wa(
9.2.> Sugge#$%)e&"a
9.2.? C%22un"$( Language Lea'n"ng
40
O+e'+"e3- A))'%a.e#4 Me$.%&#4
an& Te.n"!ue# ELT Me$.%&#
ELT Me$.%&#
G'a22a'7T'an#/a$"%n Me$.%&
D"'e$ Me$.%&
Au&"%7L"ngua/ Me$.%&
S"/en$ Wa(
Sugge#$%)e&"a
C%22un"$( Language Lea'n"ng
T%$a/ P.(#"a/ Re#)%n#e
9.2.A T%$a/ P.(#"a/ Re#)%n#e
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
TOPIC > ELT MET:OD- COMMUNICATI@E APPROAC:
>.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the
>.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
>.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
41
CONTENT
SESSION FIVE (3 Hours)
>.2 ELT Me$.%&
1.3.1 'ommunicative +pproach

TOPIC ?
ELT MET:ODS-
LEBICAL AND ECLECTIC APPROAC:ES
?.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 0 introduces you to
?.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. understand how figurative language is used in communication
42
#T 5ethod
'ommunicative +pproach
3. use figurative and phrasal verbs in spoken and written language
?.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
SESSION SIX (3 Hours)
?.2.1 Le,"a/ A))'%a.
?.2.2 E/e$" A))'%a.
'heck your answers with your tutor<
TOPIC A SYLLA6US DESIGN MALAYSIAN PRIMARY
SC:OOL ENGLIS: CURRICULUM
A.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic B introduces you to
A.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
43
ELT Me$.%&#
ELT Me$.%&#
Le,"a/ A))'%a.
Le,"a/ A))'%a.
E/e$" A))'%a.
E/e$" A))'%a.
A.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION SEVEN (3 Hours)
A.2. S(//a5u# De#"gn 7 Ma/a(#"an P'"2a'( S.%%/ Eng/"#. Cu''"u/u2
A.2.1 P'"n")/e#
A.2.2 Te.n"!ue#
A.2.8 S$'eng$.#CL"2"$a$"%n
A.2.9 R%/e %* Tea.e'4 Lea'ne'#4 an& Re#%u'e#
A.2.> S.e2e %* W%'1 Wee1/(4 Se2e#$e'
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
44
S(//a5u#
De#"gn
S(//a5u#
De#"gn
P'"n")/e#
P'"n")/e#
R%/e %*
$ea.e'4
/ea'ne'#4 an&
'e#%u'e#
R%/e %*
$ea.e'4
/ea'ne'#4 an&
'e#%u'e#
S.e2e %*
3%'1
3ee1/(4
#e2e#$e'
S.e2e %*
3%'1
3ee1/(4
#e2e#$e'
Te.n"!ue#
Te.n"!ue#
S$'eng$.#C
L"2"$a$"%n
S$'eng$.#C
L"2"$a$"%n
TOPIC D SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING T:EORIES ;II<
D.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 8 introduces you to
D.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
45
D.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION EIG:T ;? :%u'#<
Mniversal >rammar
$hy a Mniversal >rammar
$hat does a Mniversal >rammar consist of(
Mniversal >rammar and first language acquisition
Mniversal >rammar and second language acquisition
TOPIC E SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN T:E
CLASSROOM
E.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic A introduces you to some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism. It also introduces the ;;; procedure in language learning.
E.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. identify some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism
3. e"plain the different stages in the ;;; procedure
7. devise a teaching plan using the ;;; procedure
46
E.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION NINE (3 Hours)
E.2.1 I##ue# %* Se%n& Language Lea'n"ng
The issues that will be discussed here are related to audiolingualism as it
were these issues that resulted in the introduction and use of the ;;; +pproach
or procedure in the 'ommunicative anguage Teaching 5ethod.
E,e'"#e 1-
1. $hat is the language learning theory that audiolingualism is
based on(
3. &tate the principles of audiolingualism.
47
7. .ame three techniques used in audiolingualism.
2. $hat are some of the shortcomings of audiolingulism(
!ou would have gone through in detail about audiolingualism or the audio%
lingual method in Topic 2. $hat we will discuss here briefly are the issues
related to audiolingualism which resulted in the use of ;;; +pproach.
+udiolingualism which is based on Behaviourist earning Theory relied
heavily on drills to form habits in language learning. #mphasis on accuracy of
the language through repetition of correct utterances was supported by positive
reinforcement. Dowever much of the audio%lingual method of language learning
remained at sentence level. There was limited placing of language in real%life
conte"t. Dence, there grew a need to place language in clear situational conte"t.
This lead to introduction of the ;;; +pproach.
E.2.2 T.e PPP A))'%a.
The ,Three ;s, procedure is a variation of the audiolingual method. ;;;
stands for presentation, practice and production. It is based on structural%
situational teaching where the focus is to place language in clear situational
conte"ts. It is very important to understand what ,P'e#en$a$"%nF4 FP'a$"eF
an& FP'%&u$"%n, really are, and to see how they work in together to create
effective communicative language learning.
;resentation is the beginning or introduction to learning language, with
production being the end product of the learning process, whereby a learner
becomes a ,user, of the language in contrast to a ,student, of the language.
;ractice is the process that helps a learner to progress from the initial stage
through to the final one.
This is how it works. +t the beginning of a lesson, the teacher introduces
a situation which conte"tuali-es the new language to be taught. Then the
language or linguistic ,model, is presented. $ith this ,model, in mind, the
students practise the new language through a variety of ,controlled, activities
48
such as coral repetition, individual repetition and cue%response drills. +fter
sufficient practice, the students move into ,productive, activity, where a situation
calls for the language to be used naturally without correction or control. Kor
e"ample the students can construct their own sentences. In general, for
communicative language learning to be most effective, the three stages need to
occur and flow smoothly from one stage to the ne"t.
;@#&#.T+TIO.
This is the first and the most crucial stage of the language learning
process. ;resentation involves the building of a situation requiring natural and
logical use of the new language. $hen the students recogni-e and understand
the ,situation,, they will then start building a conceptual understanding of the
meaning behind the new language, and why it will be relevant and useful to
them. $hen the situation surrounding the new language and the conceptual
meaning of it has been achieved, the new language is introduced through a
linguistic ,model,. It is this linguistic model or language presented that the
students will go on to practise and achieve naturally during a productive activity
without help.
It is important for the teacher to build on whatever #nglish the students
have already learned or have some access to when introducing a situation and
getting the students to build the concept underlying the new language. +t
primary levels, using pictures and body language are common ways of
presenting new language. /ialogues and te"t can also be used when the
students have progressed.
There are a various ways in which new language items or linguistic
Gmodels= can be presented. $hat is important is that these presentations should
have at least some of the following features: meaningful, memorable and realistic
e"amplesQ have logical connectionQ conte"tuali-edQ clear modelsQ sufficient
meaningful repetitionQ are brief and can be recycled
49
;@+'TI'#:
The practice stage is the important middle stage to communicative
language teaching. &ometimes this stage is 9over%done, or used ineffectively.
This may be due to a poor or no presentation stage. In some cases it is not used
as a natural progression or step towards production.
The type of practice activities should be appropriate to the language being
learned as well as the level and competence of the students. ;ractice is done to
ensure that the students get the accurate language as well as to get the students
to be familiar with the language. Dence an effective practice stage is one where
repetition leads to competence and accuracy.
;ractice activities need to be clear and understandable and should
promote a degree of confidence in the students. + well planned practice activity
will generate the studentsJ motivation. ;ractice activities should be challenging,
but within the reach of the students.
;ractice activities usually involve moving the students from the individual
drills to pair work such as chain pair%work, closed pair%work and open pair%work.
It is this communicative practice that leads to final stage of production.
;@O/M'TIO.:
The production stage is the most important stage of communicative
language teaching. + good indicator of a successful production is when students
move from being ,students, or learners of the language to ,users, of the
language.
The production stage involves creating a situation which requires the
students to use the language that was introduced in the presentation stage
independently. The situation should allow the students produce more
personali-ed language. + successful production stage depends on an effective
50
practice stage. This is because if the practice stage is not able to build the
students= confidence in the language then they will naturally be hesitant to
independently ,use, it in the production stage.
One of the most important things you have to remember is that production
activities should not ,tell, the students what to say. In the practice stage, the
students have most or all of the information required, but in the production stage
they do not have the information and therefore must think. +s such it would be
good if Greal life, situations are given in the production stage. >etting students
engaged in productive classroom activities can require a certain level of cognitive
ability. Dence, as teachers you should prepare well thought out and planned
activities.
&ome good e"amples of effective production activities include situational
role%plays, debates, discussions, problem%solving, narratives, descriptions,
qui--es and games.
The following demonstrates the use of the ;;; procedure:
;@#&#.T+TIO.:
The teacher shows the students the following picture and elicits some facts about
it.
The teacher points to the man carrying the 5alaysian flag to elicit the sentence
9De is carrying the 5alaysian flag: by asking 9$hat=s the man doing(:
The teacher then models the sentence 9The man is carrying the 5alaysian flag:.
This is repeated with the other people in the picture.
51

;@+'TI'#:
The teacher gets the students to repeat the sentences in chorus.
The teacher picks individual students to repeat the sentences.
The teacher gives a cue )woman in yellow* and gets the students to respond.
;@O/M'TIO.:
The teacher asks students to construct their own sentences e.g. think about what
their family members are doing at the moment.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
/evise a teaching plan to show your understanding of the ;;; procedure.
52
TOPIC 10 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN T:E
CLASSROOM
10.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 16 provides you with input on alternatives to ;resentation, ;ractice, and
;roduction. It also deals with the teaching implications of these alternatives in
the primary #T classroom.
1. name the alternatives to ;resentation, ;ractice, and ;roduction
53
3. e"plain the alternatives to ;resentation, ;ractice, and ;roduction
7. e"plain the teaching implications of the alternatives in the primary #T
classroom
CONTENT
SESSION TEN (3 Hours)
10.2.1 A/$e'na$"+e# $% P'e#en$a$"%n4 P'a$"e an& P'%&u$"%n
The ;;; +pproach or procedure in the 'ommunicative anguage
Teaching 5ethod which was introduced in the mid 1A06=s came under criticism in
the 1AA6=s.
E,e'"#e 1-
1. /o you use the ;;; procedure in your classroom( $hy(
54
3. $hat are the strengths of the ;;; procedure(
7. $hat are the shortcomings of the ;;; procedure(
One of the main criticisms of the ;;; procedure is that it is teacher%
centred. This is in contrast with the humanistic and learner%centred approach that
was prevalent in the 1AA6=s. The fact is that the ;;; procedure assumes
learners learn Gin straight lines=, that is, starting from no knowledge, through very
structured sentence%based patterns straight to instantaneous production was not
favourable to many. +ccording to $oodward )1AA7* language cannot be broken
down into small bits and pieces to learn as it is full of Ginterlocking variables and
systems=. ewis )1AA7* was not in favour of the ;;; approach as he felt that it
did not reflect neither the nature of language nor the nature of learning. It could
also be a waste of time and demotivating especially if you might be teaching
what the students already know.
One of the first people to suggest an alternative to the ;;; procedure was
Peith Fohnson in 1A83. Dis suggestion called the Gdeep%end strategy= was a
variation of the ;;; procedure. De encouraged students into immediate
production, in other words throwing them in the deep end. The teacher can see if
and where the students have difficulties in the language in the production stage.
The teacher goes back to either the presentation or practice stage after the
production stage if deemed necessary.
Byrne )1A80* had similar views as Fohnson. Dowever, he 4oined the three
stages of presentation, practice and production into a circle. Dere teachers and
students can decide at which stage to begin the procedure. Kigure 1 below
shows Byrne=s alternative approach.
.

Kigure 1: Byrne=s +lternative +pproach
55
Darmer )366B* suggested #&+: #ngage, &tudy and +ctivate as an
alternative to the ;;; procedure. E is for engage. >etting the students
emotionally engaged with what is going on is important to ensure effective
learning. S stands for study. Dere the focus of the teaching and learning
process is on how something is constructed. The study may focus on forms of
the language such as relative clauses, specific intonation patterns, developing a
paragraph etc. The teacher can draw the attention of students to the form of the
language during a communicative task or the students themselves may notice
the form of the language. A stands for activate. +t this stage students are
encouraged to use all or any of the language they know. Teachers can plan
communicative activities to activate students= knowledge. @eading for pleasure
or interest also helps students activate their language knowledge.
There are three basic lesson procedures in #&+. The first is the G&traight
+rrows= lesson procedure. This procedure is sequential in nature. The teacher
engages the students via the presentation of situations, pictures or other means.
The study stage involves the e"planation of meanings and forms of the language
by the teacher. The teacher models the forms of the language and the students
repeat and practise them. +ctivation of the new language is done when students
use the language to form their own sentences.
The second basic lesson procedure is called the GBoomerang= procedure.
The order here is #+&. Kirst the teacher gets the students emotionally engaged
with the lesson. Then the teacher gets the students to do a task for e"ample a
written task, a simulation activity or a communicative game. +fter the activity, the
students study some aspects of the language that were incorrectly used by them
or what they lack.
The final procedure is known as the G;atchwork= lesson procedure. Dere
the teacher may follow various sequences. The teacher may get the students
engaged first, followed by activating their knowledge before studying some
language forms before moving on to other activation activities. These may be
followed by re%engaging the students and ending with more study on language
forms.
56
Kigures 1 to 7 depicts the different lesson procedures of #&+.
E,e'"#e 2-
1. ist the alternatives to ;;; procedure.
3. #"plain the #&+ procedure.
7. /iscuss the similarities and differences between the three
lesson procedures of #&+.
10.2.2 Tea."ng I2)/"a$"%n# %* $.e A/$e'na$"+e# "n $.e P'"2a'( S.%%/
C/a##'%%2
The various frameworks suggested as alternatives for the ;;; procedure
such as Fohnson=s Gdeep%end strategy=, Byrne=s alternative approach and
Darmer=s #&+ imply that teachers should shift from a sequential, teacher%
centred approach to a more humanistic and leaner%centred approach. Teachers
57
should bear in mind that getting students emotionally engaged is vital for
effective learning. +s such, teachers should minimi-e their criticism and
encourage their young learners to be engaged in what is going on in the
classroom. &tudents should have positive feelings about what and how they are
learning.
The teacher should be well%versed in the forms of the language. There
would be teachable moments where the teacher needs to focus on the forms of
the language. This is something that the teacher must be prepared for. In other
words preparing for eventualities for the study phase.
The teacher should be creative to design communicative tasks that will
activate students= language knowledge. +ctivities prepared should encourage
students to use of much knowledge of the language that they have. These
activities should develop a desire for the students to communicate.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
/evise a teaching plan using any of the alternative frameworks discussed above.
$hat are the possible challenges you might face in carrying out the teaching
plan(

58

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TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING

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