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169

11
Lamina Flexural Response
11.1 Introduction
As defned in Chapters 8 through 10, pure, uniform tension, compression,
and shear loadings must be individually applied to establish the fundamen-
tal strength and stiffness properties of a composite material. A fexure test
(i.e., the bending of a beam) typically induces tensile, compressive, and shear
stresses simultaneously. Thus, this test is not usually a practical means of
determining the fundamental properties of a composite material (Whitney
et al. 1984, Adams 2000a).
Nevertheless, fexure tests are popular because of the simplicity of both
specimen preparation and testing, as discussed subsequently. Gripping of
the specimen, having the need for end tabs, obtaining a pure stress state,
avoiding buckling, and most of the other concerns discussed in the previous
three chapters are usually nonissues when conducting a fexure test.
Flexural testing can, for example, be a simple method of monitoring qual-
ity during a structural fabrication process. The usual objective of a fexure
test is to determine the fexural strength and fexural modulus of the beam
material. This might be particularly relevant if the component being fabri-
cated is to be subjected to fexural loading in service. However, because of
the complex stress state present in the beam, it is typically not possible to
directly relate the fexural properties obtained to the fundamental tensile,
compressive, and shear properties of the material.
11.2 Testing Configurations
Figure11.1 indicates the confguration of the ASTM D790 (2010) three-point
fexure test. This standard was created in 1970 by the plastics committee
within the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) for use with
unreinforced and reinforced plastics and electrical insulating materials, as
its title suggests. For more than 25 years, until 1996 when it was removed,
170 Experimental Characterization of Advanced Composite Materials
this standard also included four-point fexure. In response to demands by
the composite materials community, a new standard, ASTM D6272 (2010),
was introduced by the plastics committee specifying four-point fexure. That
is, two standards now exist. The composites committee of ASTM has now
written its own fexural test standard specifcally for composite materials,
ASTM D7264 (2007), which includes both three-point and four-point fexure.
The three standards differ suffciently in detail that it is advisable to refer
to all three for guidance. It is unfortunate, but understandable because of
its long existence, that many experimentalists still (incorrectly) only quote
ASTM D790 as the governing standard for all fexural testing.
Analysis of a macroscopically homogeneous beam of linearly elastic
material (Timoshenko 1984) shows that an applied bending moment is bal-
anced by a linear distribution of normal stress
x
, as shown in Figure11.2.
For the three-point fexural loading shown, the top surface of the beam is
in compression, while the bottom surface is in tension. Assuming a beam
of rectangular cross section, the midplane contains the neutral axis and
is under zero bending stress. The shear force will be balanced by a distri-
bution of interlaminar shear stress
xz
, varying parabolically from zero on
the free surfaces to a maximum at the center as shown (Timoshenko 1984).
For three-point fexure, the shear stress is constant along the length of the
beam and directly proportional to the applied force P. However, the fex-
ural stress, in addition to being directly proportional to P, is zero at each
z
P
P/2 P/2
Shear
stress,
xz
Bending
stress,
x
x
w
h
FIGURE 11.2
Stresses in a beam subjected to three-point fexure.
h
P
2
P
2
L
2
L
P
FIGURE 11.1
Three-point fexure loading confguration.
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171 Lamina Flexural Response
end support and maximum at the center. The stress state is highly depen-
dent on the support span length-to-specimen thickness ratio (L/h). Beams
with small L/h ratios are dominated by shear. As discussed in Chapter 10,
a short-span (L/h = 4) three-point fexure test is used for interlaminar shear
strength determination. Beams with long spans defect more and usually
fail in tension or compression. Typically, composite materials are stronger in
tension than compression. Also, a concentrated load is applied at the point
of maximum compressive stress in the beam, which tends to introduce local
stress concentrations. Thus, the composite beam usually fails in compres-
sion at the midspan loading point.
Although testing of a unidirectional composite is the primary subject
of the present chapter, laminates of various other orientations can also be
tested in fexure, as discussed in more detail in Chapter 15.
Flexural testing of a unidirectional composite is generally limited to beams
with the fbers aligned parallel to the beam axis. That is, 0 fexural proper-
ties are determined. Beams with fbers oriented perpendicular to the beam
axis almost always fail in transverse tension on the lower surface because the
transverse tensile strength of most composite materials is less than the trans-
verse compressive strength, usually by a factor of three or more. In fact, the
transverse fexure test has been suggested as a simple means of obtaining the
transverse tensile strength of a unidirectional composite (Adams et al. 1990).
As do the other two fexural test standards, ASTM D7264 requires that a
suffciently large support span-to-specimen thickness ratio be chosen, such
that failures occur in the outer fbers of the specimens, due only to the bend-
ing moment. The standard recommends support span-to-thickness ratios
of 16:1, 20:1, 32:1, 40:1, and 60:1, indicating that, as a general rule support
span-to-thickness ratios of 16:1 are satisfactory when the ratio of the tensile
strength to shear strength is less than 8 to 1. High-strength unidirectional
composites can have much higher strength ratios, requiring correspondingly
higher support span-to-thickness ratios. For example, ASTM D7264 suggests
a ratio of 32:1 for three-point and four-point fexure. Although longer spans
promote fexural failure, they also result in larger defections. Excessive
defections lead to geometric nonlinear effects, which should be avoided.
Per ASTM D7264, the diameter of the loading noses and supports should
be 6 mm. The other two ASTM standards have a slightly different require-
ment, (viz., 10-mm diameters). This perhaps confrms experimental observa-
tions that the test results obtained are not strongly infuenced by the specifc
diameters used as long as the diameters are not so small that local bearing
damage of the composite material occurs (Adams and Lewis 1995).
Four-point fexural loading is typically conducted in either third-point
or quarter-point loading, as shown in Figure11.3. For quarter-point load-
ing, the loading points are each positioned one-quarter of the support span
length from the respective support and hence are one-half of the support
span length from each other. For third-point loading, the loading points are
each positioned one-third of the support span length from the respective
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172 Experimental Characterization of Advanced Composite Materials
support and hence are also one-third of the support span length from each
other. ASTM D7264 includes only quarter-point loading.
Although the specimen thickness can be arbitrary (as long as the recom-
mended span-to-thickness ratio is maintained), ASTM D7264 suggests a speci-
men that is 100 mm long, 2.4 mm thick, and 13 mm wide and a 76.8-mm span
for materials of high-strength. This results in a specimen overhang of 11.6 mm
at each end. Suggestions are given for other types of composites as well.
11.3 Three- versus Four-Point Flexure
As noted in the previous section, either three- or four-point fexure can be,
and is, used. The various ASTM standards make no specifc recommenda-
tions concerning when to use each test. In fact, there is no clear advantage of
one test over the other, although there are signifcant differences. Figure11.4
indicates the required loadings and the corresponding bending moment M
and transverse shear force V distributions in the beam for each of the loadings.
For three-point fexure, the maximum bending moment in the beam, and
hence the location of the maximum tensile and compressive fexural stresses,
is at midspan and is equal to = /4
max
M PL . For four-point fexure with load-
ing at the quarter points, attaining the same maximum bending moment,
that is, = /4
max
M PL , requires twice the testing machine force (i.e., 2P); this
maximum bending moment is constant over the entire span L/2 between
the applied loads (Figure 11.4b). For four-point fexure with loading at the
one-third points, attaining the same maximum bending moment, that is,
= = ( /3) /4
max
3
4
M P L PL , requires 50% more testing machine force (i.e., 1.5P)
than for three-point fexure. This maximum bending moment is constant
over the entire span L/3 between the applied loads.
Thus, for quarter-point loading the force exerted by the testing machine
must be twice as high, and for third-point loading the force must be one and
one-half times as high, as for three-point fexure. Normally, this is not in
itself a signifcant factor because the loads required to fail a beam in fexure
are not extremely high. More signifcant is the magnitude of the required
force at the loading point(s). It is realized that the highest fexural stresses
(b) Tird-point loading (a) Quarter-point loading
L/2
P
P
h
L
L/3
h
L
FIGURE 11.3
Four-point fexure test confgurations: (a) quarter-point loading and (b) third-point loading.
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173 Lamina Flexural Response
occur at these locations, and these stresses will be magnifed by the stress
concentration factors at the load introduction points. As noted in Figure11.4,
for both three-point fexure and four-point fexure with quarter-point load-
ing, the maximum concentrated force on the beam is P. However, for four-
point fexure with third-point loading, the load applied is only
3
4
P . This
indicates an advantage for third-point loading.
There are other considerations, however. The transverse shear force V, and
hence the interlaminar shear stress in the beam, also varies with the type
of loading, as indicated in Figure 11.4. For three-point loading, the shear
force is equal to
1
2
P and is constant over the entire support span. For four-
point fexure, quarter-point loading, the maximum shear force is equal to
P and exists only over the end quarters of the beam. For four-point fexure,
third-point loading, the maximum shear force is equal to
3
4
P and exists
only over the end thirds of the beam. To avoid shear failure, it is desirable to
keep the ratio of interlaminar shear stress to fexural stress suffciently low.
As explained, this is normally achieved by increasing the span length-to-
specimen thickness ratio. For a given specimen thickness, three-point fex-
ure ( )
1
2
V P = would be preferred because it minimizes the required support
span length, followed by four-point fexure, third-point loading ( )
3
4
V P = .
One additional consideration should be noted, although it is usually of
lesser importance. As discussed in Section 11.5, it may also be desired to
determine the fexural modulus from the measured defection of the beam.
Tree-point exure Four-point exure
third-point loading
P
h
L
P
M
max
= PL/4
M
max
= PL/4 M
max
= PL/4
(a)
(b)
V = P V = P V = P
(c)
P
L/2
P P
h
L
P P
L/3
P P
h
L
P P
Four-point exure
quarter-point loading
FIGURE 11.4
Required loadings for equal maximum bending moment in various beam confgurations, with
corresponding vertical shear force distributions: (a) loading diagrams, (b) moment diagrams,
and (c) shear diagrams.
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174 Experimental Characterization of Advanced Composite Materials
The shear stresses in the beam contribute to the total deformation in pro-
portion to the product of the shear force and the length over which it acts.
The entire length of the beam in three-point fexure is subjected to the shear
force
1
2
P, one-half of the four-point fexure; the quarter-point loading beam
is subjected to the shear force P and two-thirds of the four-point fexure; and
the third-point loading beam is subjected to the shear force
3
4
P. Hence, the
net shear deformation is the same for all three cases. This consideration is
important when beam defection is used to determine modulus.
In summary, four-point fexure with third-point loading appears to be a
good overall choice. However, each of the three loading modes (Figure11.4) has
some individual advantages. Thus, all three are used, with three-point fexure
the most common, perhaps only because it requires the simplest test fxture. A
typical test fxture, with adjustable loading and support spans such that it can
be used for both three- and four-point fexure, is shown in Figure11.5.
As an aside, note that three-point fexure is commonly (although perhaps
erroneously) referred to as three-point loading, and likewise four-point
FIGURE 11.5
Photograph of a fexure test fxture with interchangeable three- and four-point loading heads
and adjustable spans. (Photograph courtesy of Wyoming Test Fixtures, Inc.)
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175 Lamina Flexural Response
fexure is referred to as four-point loading. As a result, this has become
accepted terminology, included in all three ASTM standards.
11.4 Specimen Preparation and Flexure Test Procedure
The fexure specimen is simply a strip of test material of constant width and
thickness. As noted in Section 11.2, for a unidirectional [0]
n
composite under
fexure, the suggested dimensions in ASTM D 7264 are support 76.8 mm
span length, 100 mm specimen total length, 13 mm specimen width, and
2.4 mm specimen thickness. Suggested tolerances on these dimensions are
also given in the standard.
Although all three ASTM standards specify the use of a defection-
measuring device mounted under the midspan of the specimen, occasionally
a strain gage is used instead. One longitudinal strain gage can be mounted at
the midspan on the tension side (bottom surface) of the specimen. The test fx-
ture support span is to be set according to the beam thickness, specimen mate-
rial properties, and fber orientation, as discussed previously. ASTM D7264
specifes that the specimen is to be loaded at a crosshead rate of 1 mm/min,
although a crosshead rate between 1 and 5 mm/min is common.
The beam defection is measured using a calibrated linear variable dif-
ferential transformer (LVDT) at the beam midspan. Alternatively, the beam
displacement may be approximated as the travel of the testing machine
crosshead if the components of this travel that are due to the machine com-
pliance and to the indentations of the specimen at the loading and support
points are subtracted. If a strain gage is used, the specimen is to be placed in
the fxture with the strain gage on the tension side of the beam and centered
at midspan. The strain or displacement readings may be recorded continu-
ously or at discrete load intervals. If discrete data are recorded, the load and
strain-displacement readings should be taken at small load intervals, with
at least 25 points in the linear response region (so that an accurate fexural
modulus can be determined). The total number of data points should be
enough to accurately describe the complete beam response to failure.
11.5 Data Reduction
From classical beam theory (Timoshenko 1984), the tensile and compres-
sive stresses at the surfaces of the beam at the location where the bending
moment is a maximum is

=
( /2)
max
max
M h
I
(11.1)
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176 Experimental Characterization of Advanced Composite Materials
where M
max
is the maximum bending moment, h is the thickness of the beam,
and = /12
3
I wh is the moment of inertia of a beam of rectangular cross sec-
tion, with w being the beam width.
For three-point fexure, for example, the maximum bending moment
occurs at the midlength of the beam. The maximum value is given by

= /4
max
M PL
(11.2)
Substitution of M
max
and I into Equation (11.1) gives

2
max
2
3PL
wh

= (11.3)
This equation enables construction of a stressstrain plot if load versus strain
has been recorded.
A reasonable approximation for most materials is that the modulus in ten-
sion is the same as in compression. If a strain gage is used, the initial slope of
the fexural stressstrain plot can be obtained using a linear least-square ft.
Figures11.6 and 11.7 show typical stressstrain curves obtained from three-
point fexure tests.
When the three-point fexure specimen is not strain gaged, the fexural
modulus may be determined from a plot of load P versus center defection as

4
3
3
E
L
wh
P
f
=

(11.4)
2000
Carbon/epoxy, [0]
12
E
1
f
= 128 GPa
1600
1200
800
400
0
0 0.4 0.8
Strain, %
1.2 1.6
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
X
1
f
= 1880 MPa
3
1

1
f
= 1.55%
FIGURE 11.6
Flexural stressstrain response of a [0]
12
carbonepoxy test specimen.
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177 Lamina Flexural Response
This relation, however, assumes that shear deformation is negligible. For
[90]
n
beams (fbers perpendicular to the beam axis), shear deformation is gen-
erally insignifcant, and Equation (11.4) should be accurate. For [0]
n
beams,
however, the results of Zweben (1990) shown in Figure 11.8 illustrate that
certain unidirectional composites require relatively long support spans to
2000
Carbon/PEEK (APC-2), [0]
16
1600
1200
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

M
P
a
800
400
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Strain, %
3
1
E
1
f
= 115 GPa
X
1
f
= 1632 MPa

1
f
= 1.4%
FIGURE 11.7
Flexural stressstrain response of a [0]
16
carbonPEEK (polyetheretherketone) test specimen.
50
Flexural modulus
Apparent exural modulus
Kevlar 49/polyester, [0]
n
Span-to-Tickness Ratio, L/h
3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
1
40
30
20
M
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

G
P
a
10
0
FIGURE 11.8
Apparent fexural modulus of a [0]
n
Kevlar 49polyester specimen as a function of span-to-
thickness ratio. (From Zweben, C., 1990, in Delaware Composites Design Encyclopedia, Vol. 1,
Technomic, Lancaster, PA, pp. 4970).
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178 Experimental Characterization of Advanced Composite Materials
minimize the infuence of shear deformation and thus produce an accurate
fexural modulus.
If a fexural test is conducted for which the shear deformation component is
signifcant, the following equation may be used to evaluate the fexural modulus:

6
5
3
3
2
2
13
E
L
4wh
1
h E
L G
P
f
f
= +

(11.5)
where G
13
is the interlaminar shear modulus. The second term in the paren-
theses of Equation (11.5) is a shear correction factor that may be signifcant for
composites with a high axial modulus and a low interlaminar shear modu-
lus. The fexural and shear moduli (E
f
and G
13
, respectively), however, may
not be known prior to the test. For use of Equation (11.5), the fexural modu-
lus E
f
may be replaced by the tensile modulus E
1
, and the out-of-plane shear
modulus can be approximated as the in-plane shear modulus G
12
if the fbers
are oriented along the beam axis. When E
1
and G
12
are not known, the fex-
ural modulus can be evaluated using Equation (11.4) for tests conducted on
a slightly loaded beam over a range of span lengths until a constant value is
achieved at long span lengths, as suggested in Figure11.8.
Additional details of data reduction, including for four-point fexure, can
be found in the three ASTM fexural testing standards cited in this chapter.
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