Paper chemical bonding

Atomic Nuclei
(Proton and Neutron)


By
Andi Afni Amelia
1213441029
ICP of Chemistry A


Chemistry departement
Mathematics and sains faculty
Universitas Negeri Makassar
2014

The name atom comes from the Greek (atomos, "indivisible") from
- (a-, "not") and (temn, "I cut"), which means uncuttable, or indivisible,
something that cannot be divided further. The atom is a basic unit of matter that
consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged
electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and
electrically neutral neutrons (except in the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only
stable nuclide with no neutrons). The electrons of an atom are bound to the
nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain
bound to each other by chemical bonds based on the same force, forming a
molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is
electrically neutral, otherwise it is positively or negatively charged and is known
as an ion. An atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons
in its nucleus: the number of protons determines the chemical element, and the
number of neutrons determines the isotope of the element(Wikipedia
a
, 2014)
The physicist J. J. Thomson, through his work on cathode rays in 1897,
discovered the electron, and concluded that they were a component of every atom.
Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are the indivisible, ultimate particles of
matter. Thomson postulated that the low mass, negatively charged electrons were
distributed throughout the atom in a uniform sea of positive charge. This became
known as the plum pudding model. In 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden,
under the direction of Ernest Rutherford, bombarded a metal foil with alpha
particles to observe how they scattered. They expected all the alpha particles to
pass straight through with little deflection, because Thomson's model said that the
charges in the atom are so diffuse that their electric fields could not affect the
alpha particles much. Geiger and Marsden instead observed a small fraction of
alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90. To explain this,
Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny
nucleus at the center of the atom. While experimenting with the products of
radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there
appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic
table(Wikipedia
b
, 2014).
The discovery of the neutron in 1932 explained the discrepancy between the
charge on the nucleus and the mass of an atom. A neutral gold atom that has a mass of
197 amu consists of a nucleus that contains 79 protons and 118 neutrons surrounded by
79 electrons. By convention, this information is specified by the following symbol, which
describes the only naturally occurring isotope of gold.

This convention can also be applied to subatomic particles. The only difference is
the use of lowercase letters to identify the particle.

Because anyone with access to a periodic table can find the atomic number of an
element, a shorthand notation is often used that reports only the mass number of
the atom and the symbol of the element. The shorthand notation for the naturally
occurring isotope of gold is
197
Au (Bodner, 2014: 1).
Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron,
at 1.672610
27
kg. The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number.
Ernest Rutherford (1919) observed that nitrogen under alpha-particle
bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei. By 1920 he had
accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and
named it proton (Wikipedia
b
, 2014).
Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the
mass of the electron, or 1.692910
27
kg, the heaviest of the three constituent
particles, but it can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy. Neutrons and
protons (collectively known as nucleons) have comparable dimensionson the
order of 2.510
15
malthough the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply
defined. The neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James
Chadwick (Wikipedia
b
, 2014).
The proton, the electron, and the neutron are classified as fermions.
Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle which prohibits identical fermions,
such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum state at the same
time. Thus, every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different
from all other protons, and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to
all electrons of the electron cloud. However, a proton and a neutron are allowed to
occupy the same quantum state (Wikipedia
b
, 2014).
The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be
modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong
force(Wikipedia
b
, 2014).
The proton is a subatomic particle, symbol p or p+, with a positive electric
charge of 1 elementary charge and mass slightly less than that of a neutron.
Protons and neutrons, each with mass approximately one atomic mass unit, are
collectively referred to as "nucleons". One or more protons are present in the
nucleus of an atom. The number of protons in the nucleus is referred to as its
atomic number. Since each element has a unique number of protons, each element
has its own unique atomic number. The name proton was given to the hydrogen
nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1920, because in previous years he had
discovered that the hydrogen nucleus (known to be the lightest nucleus) could be
extracted from the nuclei of nitrogen by collision, and was thus a candidate to be a
fundamental particle and building block of nitrogen, and all other heavier atomic
nuclei(Wikipedia
c
, 2014).
Protons are spin- fermions and are composed of three valence quarks,
making them baryons (a sub-type of hadrons). The two up quarks and one down
quark of the proton are held together by the strong force, mediated by gluons.
modern perspective has the proton composed of the valence quarks (up, up,
down), the gluons, and transitory pairs of sea quarks. The proton has an
approximately exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean
square radius of about 0.8 fm. Protons and neutrons are bot h nucleons, which
may be bound together by the nuclear force to form atomic nuclei
(Wikipedia
c
, 2014).
It has long been considered to be a stable particle, but recent developments
of grand unification models have suggested that it might decay with a half-life of
about 10
32
years. Experiments are underway to see if such decays can be detected.
Decay of the proton would violate the conservation of baryon number, and in
doing so would be the only known process in nature which does so.

When we say that a proton is made up of two up quarks and a down, we mean that
its net appearance or net set of quantum numbers match that picture. The nature of
quark confinement suggests that the quarks are surrounded by a cloud of gluons,
and within the tiny volume of the proton other quark-antiquark pairs can be
produced and then annihilated without changing the net external appearance of the
proton(Nave, 2014:1)
One of the implications of the grand unification theories is that the proton
should decay with a half-life on the order of 10
32
years. Such a long half-life is
exceedingly difficult to measure, but the hope of doing led to a deep mine
experiment in the Soudan iron mines of Minnesota. The Soudan 2 Proton Decay
experiment ran from 1989-2001 without observing any convincing proton decays.
Such experiments serve to push back the lower bound on the proton decay half
life.



Decay mode for
proton
Suggested minimum
lifetime
x 10
32
years

50

37

11

7.8

6.1

2.9
Along with protons, neutrons make up the nucleus, held together by the
strong force. The neutron is a baryon and is considered to be composed of two
down quarks and one up quark. A free neutron will decay with a half-life of about
10.3 minutes but it is stable if combined into a nucleus. The decay of the neutron
involves the weak interaction as indicated in the Feynman diagram to the right.
This fact is important in models of the early universe. The neutron is about 0.2%
more massive than a proton, which translates to an energy difference of 1.29
MeV. The decay of the neutron is associated with a quark transformation in which
a down quark is converted to an up by the weak interaction . The average lifetime
of 10.3 min/0.693 = 14.9 minutes is surprisingly long for a particle decay that
yields 1.29 MeV of energy. You could say that this decay is steeply "downhill" in
energy and would be expected to proceed rapidly. It is possible for a proton to be
transformed into a neutron, but you have to supply 1.29 MeV of energy to reach
the threshold for that transformation. A free neutron will decay with a half-life of
about 10.3 minutes but it is stable if combined into a nucleus. This decay is an
example of beta decay with the emission of an electron and an electron
antineutrino(Nave, 2014: 3).
Both the proton and the neutrons in the nucleus are commonly
denominated nucleons. The mass number A is the total number of nucleons. Thus
neutrons. The elemental identify and the chemical properties are basically
determinde by the atomic number even if most chemical interactions take place
via the interactions of the surrounding electron cloud
A = N + Z
Where Z is the number of protons, i.e. the atomic number and N is the number of
neutrons. The elemental identify and the chemical properties are basically
determined by the atomic number even if most chemical interactions take place
via the interactions of the surrounding electron cloud(Choppin, 2013: 32)
According Bohr atomic theory, atomic nuclei consist from positive charge.
By rutherford concluded that atomic nuclei consist from protons. This argument
appear many question, especially as regard atomic mass. Example how to explain
atomic carbon that has mass approximately 12 times of proton mass but only have
six electron (or protons)?
The discovery of neutron that almost has mass with proton, can answer
thats problem. Physics scientist consider that nuclei atom not only consist proton
but also contain neutron. This neutron caused atomic mass greater that total mass
proton in nucleus. Example in carbon, number of proton is 6. The excess of 6
proton mass occur because they have a neutron in nucleus. So, very clear, why the
atomic mass greater than total mass of proton in nucleus. That explain was logic
and difficult to disagreement. So that, scientist concluded that the particle of atom
nuclei formed is a proton and neutron(Surya, 2009: 42).
In above we know that in atomic nuclei have proton and neutron.
According electrostica, a sort charge repulsion so that protons in atomic nuclei,
more near the proton with each other, more big its repulsion force. This case
appear question, how can this proton bonding in atomic nuclei? (Surya, 2009: 42).


How can neuton bonding in collected of proton?Kind of nucleus force as
follow:
1. Nucleus force not electric force. In nuclei atom has a electrical force that
repulsion force each proton.
2. Nuclei force must strong! Atomic radius assumed in atom more than
20.000
2
= 4 x 10
8
times tensile force of electron and proton in hydrogen
atom.
3. Nuclei force is a near force, its mean that this force work when a particle
in atom have a near distance with each other.
4. Nuclei force doesnt work if the distance very ner of each other
The force that work in atom consist of two kind, are strong force (nuclei
force)and repulsion coulomb force. An nucleus or nucleid will stable if if both
force balance. This can happen when the number of neutron, N, same or greater
than number of proton, Z. If number proton more dominant than number of
neutron in nucleus, coulomb force repulsion will dominant so that the nucleus
become not stable. Nucleus not stable will gain neutron or release proton for
becoming stable(Surya, 2009: 42).














BIBLIOGRAPHY

Choppin, gregory, et all. 2013. Radiochemistry & Nuclear Chemistry. America:
Academic press of Elsevier
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch23/history.php
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/particles/proton.html
Surya, yohanes. 2009. Fisika Modern. Tangerang:Pt Kandel

Nave, R. 2014. Proton and Neutron. http://proton-and neutron. Htm. Accessed
on Friday September 19
th
2014