INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

On
STUDY OF AUTOMATION SYSTEM (PLC)
IN PROCESS INDUSTRY
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree
Of
B.E
IN
ELECTRONICS (INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL)
Batch (2012-2016)
Period of training: JUNE-JULY 2014

Submitted by
ARCHIT GARG
101205012
THAPAR UNIVERSITY
PATIALA ,PUNJAB

Under the supervision of :-
Mr.VIKAS MANORIA
Chief Manager (Sales)
Siemens India Pvt. Limited
Gurgaon


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am extremely grateful to Siemens Ltd., for giving me the opportunity to pursue
my Summer Internship Program with the company.
I would like to thank Mr. Vikas Manoria (Chief Manager Sales ) for providing
all possible support and guidance in connection with project undertaken. I am
grateful to him for giving me a chance to work closely with his team members
throughout the training period. He also provided me with all the assistance, his
precious time and help whenever I needed access to all the readings and Company
modules.
Thanks and appreciation to fellow staff members at Siemens Ltd. who helped me
to gain knowledge of all the processes and measures taken at Siemens Ltd.




Mr.Vikas Manoria
Chief Manager (Sales)
Siemens India Pvt Limited



1.1 Company Profile
Siemens was founded in Berlin by Werner von Siemens in 1847.As an
extraordinary inventor, engineer and entrepreneur, Werner von Siemens
made the worlds first pointer telegraph and electric dynamo ; inventions
that help put the spin in the industrial revolution. He was the man behind
the most fascinating success stories of all time-by turning a humble little
workshop into one of the worlds largest enterprises.

Siemens is today a technology giant in more than 190 countries, employing
some 362,000 people worldwide. Their work in the field of energy, industry,
communications, information, transportation, healthcare, components and
lightening has become essential parts of everyday life.

Siemens was established in India in 1922 progress and has 12 offices and 5
manufacturing units in the country.

With a presence of more than 190 countries Siemens is a global
powerhouse in electronics and electrical engineering, operating in the
industry, healthcare and energy sectors.



Short Portrait of Siemens:
Founder- Werner von Siemens
CEO Siemens- Armin Bruck (SIEMENS INDIA)
Headquarters- Berlin, Munic

1.2 Siemens in India

Siemens in India has history dating back to 1867 when the
founder Werner von Siemens took a bold decision to build a
telegraph line from London to Kolkata. This happened within 20
years of companys foundation in 1847.



1. INTRODUCTION TO PLC (PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLER)


Process Control

















Recognizing
the status

Process the
information

Actuate the
control
element

Rules and
guidelines


Process control consists of three activities

Recognizing the state of the process at all times
Processing the information according to the set rules and guidelines
Actuating the control elements accordingly

These actions can be taken
Manually with human involvement
In a semiautomatic manner
In a fully automatic manner





1.1 Automation

Automation is basically the delegation of human control functions to technical
equipment aimed towards achieving

Higher productivity
Superior quality of end product
Efficient usage of energy and raw materials
Improved safety in working conditions


Arrival of microprocessor and associated peripheral chips has changed the
whole process of control and automation radically.

PLC achieves the desired control and automation through a program or
software. Therefore these controllers are referred to as Programmable
Logic Controllers.

It can be effectively used in applications ranging from simple control like
replacing small number of relays to complex automation problems like
Rolling Mill automation.


Programmable controllers offer a system with computer flexibility:

Suited to withstand the industrial environment

Has simplicity of operation

Maintenance by plant technicians and

Reduce machine down time and provide expandability for future.

1.2 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)


A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programming memory
for the internal storage of instructions for implementing specific functions
such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control through
digital or analog modules, various types of machines or process.






It can be viewed as an industrial computer that has a central processor unit,
memory, input output interface and a programming device.

The Central Processing Unit provides the intelligence of the controller. It
accepts data, status information from various sensing devices like limit
switches, proximity switches, executes the user control program store in the
memory and gives appropriate output commands to devices like solenoid
valves, switches etc.

Input Output Interface is the communication link between field devices and
the controllers; field devices are wired to the I/O interfaces. Through these
interfaces the processor can sense and measure physical quantities regarding
a machine or process, such as, proximity, position, motion, level,
temperature, pressure, etc. Based on status sensed, the CPU issues
command to output devices such as valves, motors, alarms, etc.

Programmer Unit provides the man machine interface. It is used to enter the
application program, which often uses a simple user-friendly logic.


LEADING BRANDS OF PLC


AMERICAN 1. Allen Bradley
2. Honeywell
3. Texas Instruments
4. General Electric
5. Westinghouse
6. Invensys

EUROPEAN 1. Siemens
2. Schneider Electric
3. ABB
4. Telemecanique
5. Festo
6. Klockner & Mouller


JAPANESE 1. Toshiba
2. Omron
3. Fanuc
4. Mitsubishi







ADVANTAGES OF PLC

Reduced SpacePLCs are fully solid state and hence extremely compact as
compared to hard-wired controller wherein electromechanical devices are
used.

Energy SavingAverage power consumption is just 1/10th of power
consumed by an equivalent relay logic control.

Ease of Maintenance
Modular replacement
Easy trouble shooting
Error diagnostics with programmer

Economical
One time investment
Cost of PLC recovers within a short period (Low pay back period)

Tremendous Flexibility
To implement changes in control logic no rewiring is required
PLC can carry out complex functions such as generation of time delays,
counting and comparing of arithmetic operations etc.
On Line(i.e. without disturbing the process) as well as Off Line
programming is possible.
High processing speed and greater flexibility in the processing of both
analog and digital signals.
Suitability for closed loop tasks with several loops and high sampling
Frequencies

Greater Life and Reliability
Because of the static devices the moving parts are less and therefore
reduced wear and tear which finally results in longer ON TIME of the
system.

Shorter Project time
In PLC, construction of the controller and wiring are independent of control
program definition. The total hardware is standard and desired control is
achieved through program.


Easier Storage Archiving and Documentation
This is due to its compatibility with PC/AT, printer and floppy disk.


BENEFITS OF PLC OVER COMPUTER

Computers are generally used for data storing or handling purposes where as
PLC are used for Logical processing.
PLCs can handle large number of I/Os.
PLCs interact directly with the process as I/O are a part of PLC, where as
Computer needs special designed I/O for operation.
Programming in PLC is simpler than Computers, and the language is very
user friendly compare to Computers.
Computer cant sustain in industrial environment where high noise,
temperature, vibration and humidity is present.


APPLICATIONS OF PLC

Manufacturing / Machining
Food / Beverage
Metals
Power
Mining
Petrochemical / Chemical













2. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE




3. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION






MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A PLC


POWER SUPPLY

Provides the voltage needed to run the primary PLC components

I/O MODULES

Provides signal conversion and isolation between the internal logic- level
signals inside the PLC and the fields high level signal.


PROCESSOR

Provides intelligence to command and govern the activities of the entire
PLC systems.

PROGRAMMING DEVICE

used to enter the desired program that will determine the sequence of
operation and control of process equipment or driven machine.

Also known as:

- Industrial Terminal ( Allen Bradley )
- Program Development Terminal ( General Electric )
- Programming Panel ( Gould Modicon )
- Programmer ( Square D )
- Program Loader ( Idec -Izumi )
- Programming Console ( Keyence / Omron )

Types:

-Hand held unit with LED / LCD display
-Desktop type with a CRT display
-Compatible computer terminal













3.1 FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS BLOCKS

3.1.1 INPUT MODULE

o Acts as an interface between the field control inputs and the CPU.
o The voltage or current signals generated by the sensors, transducers, limit
switches, push buttons etc. are applied to the terminals of the input
module.
o The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the various signals
received from or sent to the external input and output devices.
o Input modules convert signals from discrete or analog input devices to
logic levels acceptable to PLCs processor.

o Depending upon the nature of input signal coming from the field the input
module could be Analog Input Module
Digital Input Module


DC INPUT MODULE





AC INPUT MODULE






OUTPUT MODULE

o Acts as a link between the CPU and the output devices located in the
field.
o These field devices could be relays, contactors, lamps, motorized
potentiometers, actuators, solenoid valves, dampers etc. These devices
actually control the process.
o The output module converts the output signal delivered by CPU into
an appropriate voltage level suitable for the output field device which
is applied to the respective output terminals.
o An output module could be an analog or digital. The selection is based
on the voltage rating of the field output devices.
o Typical analog output modules have the ratings of 4 to 20 mA or 0 to
10 V and the digital output modules have 24V DC, 115V AC, 230V
AC or relay output.




DC / AC OUTPUT MODULE






DIFFERENT TYPES OF I/O CIRCUITS

1. Pilot Duty Outputs

Outputs of this type typically are used to drive high-current electromagnetic loads
such as solenoids, relays, valves, and motor starters.
These loads are highly inductive and exhibit a large inrush current.
Pilot duty outputs should be capable of withstanding an inrush current of 10 times
the rated load for a short period of time without failure.

2. General - Purpose Outputs

These are usually low- voltage and low-current and are used to drive indicating
lights and other non-inductive loads. Noise suppression may or may not be
included on this types of modules.




3. Discrete Inputs

Circuits of this type are used to sense the status of limit switches, push buttons, and
other discrete sensors. Noise suppression is of great importance in preventing false
indication of inputs turning on or off because of noise.

4. Analog I/O

Circuits of this type sense or drive analog signals.
Analog inputs come from devices, such as thermocouples, strain gages, or pressure
sensors, that provide a signal voltage or current that is derived from the process
variable.
Standard Analog Input signals: 4-20mA; 0-10V

Analog outputs can be used to drive devices such as voltmeters, X-Y recorders,
servomotor drives, and valves through the use of transducers.
Standard Analog Output signals: 4-20mA; 0-5V; 0-10V

5. Special - Purpose I/O

Circuits of this type are used to interface PLCs to very specific types of circuits
such as servomotors, stepping motors PID (proportional plus integral plus
derivative) loops, high-speed pulse counting, resolver and decoder inputs,
multiplexed displays, and keyboards.

This module allows for limited access to timer and counter presets and other PLC
variables without requiring a program loader.







DISCRETE INPUT

A discrete input also referred as digital input is an input that is either ON
or OFF is connected to the PLC digital input. In the ON condition it is
referred to as logic 1 or a logic high and in the OFF condition maybe
referred to as logic o or logic low.





ANALOG INPUT

An analog input is an input signal that has a continuous signal. Typical inputs may
vary from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA or 0 to10V. Below, a level transmitter monitors
the level of liquid in the tank. Depending on the level transmitter, the signal to the
PLC can either increase or decrease as the level increases or decreases.





ANALOG OUTPUT

An analog output is an output signal that has a continuous signal. Typical outputs
may vary from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA or 0 to10V.










3.1.2 PROCESSOR

The processor module contains the PLCs microprocessor, its supporting
circuitry, and its memory system.

The main function of the microprocessor is to analyze data coming from
field sensors through input modules, make decisions based on the users
defined control program and return signal back through output modules to the
field devices. Field sensors: switches, flow, level, pressure, temperature
transmitters, etc. Field output devices: motors, valves, solenoids, lamps, or
audible devices.

The memory system in the processor module has two parts: a system memory
and an application memory.


Memory Map Organization



Memory Designs

-VOLATILE

A volatile memory is one that loses its stored information when power is
removed.
Even momentary losses of power will erase any information stored or
programmed on a volatile memory chip.

Common Type of Volatile Memory

RAM - Random Access Memory (Read/Write)

Read/write indicates that the information stored in the memory can be retrieved
or read, while write indicates that the user can program or write information
into the memory.

The words random access refer to the ability of any location (address) in the
memory to be accessed or used. Ram memory is used for both the user
memory (ladder diagrams) and storage memory in many PLCs.

RAM memory must have battery backup to retain or protect the stored
program.

-NON-VOLATILE

Has the ability to retain stored information when power is removed,
accidentally or intentionally. These memories do not require battery back-up.

Common Type of Non-Volatile Memory

ROM - Read Only Memory

Read only indicates that the information stored in memory can be read only
and cannot be changed. Information in ROM is placed there by the
manufacturer for the internal use and operation of the PLC.






Other Types of Non-Volatile Memory

PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory

Allows initial and/or additional information to be written into the chip.
PROM may be written into only once after being received from the PLC
manufacturer; programming is accomplished by pulses of current.
The current melts the fusible links in the device, preventing it from being
reprogrammed. This type of memory is used to prevent unauthorized program
changes.

EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

Ideally suited when program storage is to be semi-permanent or additional
security is needed to prevent unauthorized program changes.

The EPROM chip has a quartz window over a silicon material that contains the
electronic integrated circuits. This window normally is covered by an opaque
material, but when the opaque material is removed and the circuitry exposed to
ultra violet light, the memory content can be erased.

The EPROM chip is also referred to as UVPROM.

EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

Also referred to as E
2
PROM, is a chip that can be programmed using a
standard programming device and can be erased by the proper signal being
applied to the erase pin.

EEPROM is used primarily as a non-volatile backup for the normal RAM
memory. If the program in RAM is lost or erased, a copy of the program stored
on an EEPROM chip can be down loaded into the RAM.









BUS SYSTEM

Bus system is a path for the transmission of signals. In the programmable
controllers, it is responsible for the signal exchange between processor and input
/ output modules.

The bus comprises of several signal lines i.e. wires / tracks.


There are three buses in a PLC:

Address bus - Enables the selection of a memory location
Data bus Carries the data from memory location / modules to processor
and vice versa
Control bus Transfers control and timing signals for the synchronization of
the CPUs activities within the programmable controller





4. PLC OPERATION

Basic Function of a Typical PLC

Read all field input devices via the input interfaces, execute the user program
stored in application memory, then, based on whatever control scheme has been
programmed by the user, turn the field output devices on or off, or perform
whatever control is necessary for the process application.

This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the program in
memory, and updating the outputs is known as SCANNING.

While the PLC is running, the scanning process includes the following four phases,
which are repeated continuously as individual cycles of operation:




PHASE 1 Input Status scan

A PLC scan cycle begins with the CPU reading the status of its inputs.

PHASE 2 Logic Solve/Program Execution

The application program is executed using the status of the inputs.

PHASE 3 Logic Solve/Program Execution

Once the program is executed, the CPU performs diagnostics and
communication tasks.

PHASE 4 - Output Status Scan

An output status scan is then performed, whereby the stored output values
are sent to actuators and other field output devices. The cycle ends by
updating the outputs.

As soon as Phase 4 are completed, the entire cycle begins again with Phase 1
input scan.

The time it takes to implement a scan cycle is called SCAN TIME. The scan time
composed of the program scan time, which is the time required for solving the
control program, and the I/O update time, or time required to read inputs and
update outputs. The program scan time generally depends on the amount of
memory taken by the control program and type of instructions used in the
program. The time to make a single scan can vary from 1 ms to 100 ms.








5. SPECIFICATIONS

Several factors are used for evaluating the quality and performance of
programmable controllers when selecting a unit for a particular application.
These are listed below-:

NUMBER OF I /O PORTS

This specifies the number of I/O devices that can be connected to the
controller. There should be sufficient I/O ports to meet present requirements
with enough spares to provide for moderate future expansion.

MEMORY CAPACITY

The amount of memory required for a particular application is related to the
length of the program and the complexity of the control system. Simple
applications having just a few relays do not require significant amount of
memory. Program length tend to expand after the system have been used for a
while. It is advantageous to a acquire a controller that has more memory than
is presently needed.


OUTPUT-PORT POWER RATINGS

Each output port should be capable of supplying sufficient voltage and current
to drive the output peripheral connected to it.


SCAN TIME

This is the speed at which the controller executes the relay-ladder logic
program. This variable is usually specified as the scan time per 1000 logic nodes
and typically ranges from 1 to 200 milliseconds.


6. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION


PLC, like computer, is software driven equipment. User program decides the way
PLC should control the process.

Depending upon the process control requirement the user prepares the program
i.e. writes the instructions. These instructions are then stored in the User
Memory or Program memory of CPU in the form of machine code.

The CPU sequentially reads these instructions and operates the control elements
taking into consideration the input status and the program instructions.


The user program can be written in the following three forms:-

Ladder Diagram (LAD)
Function Block Diagram (FBD)
Statement List (STL)


Among these three forms well be studying Ladder diagrams and Functional Block
Diagrams.

Ladder diagram is a graphic programming language derived from the circuit
diagram of directly wired relay controls. The ladder diagram contains
contact rails to the left and the right of the diagram; these contact rails are
connected to switching elements (normally open / normally closed
contacts) via current paths and coil elements.

I n t he f unct i on bl ock di agram, the f unct i ons and f uncti on
bl ocks are represented graphi cal l y and interconnected into
networks. The function block diagram originates from the logic diagram for
the design of electronic circuits.






6.1 LADDER DIAGRAMS

As an introduction to ladder diagrams, consider the simple wiring diagram for an
electrical circuit in Figure 11.1a. The diagram shows the circuit for switching on or
off an electric motor. We can redraw this diagram in a different way, using two
vertical lines to represent the input power rails and stringing the rest of the circuit
between them. Figure 11.1b shows the result. Both circuits have the switch in
series with the motor and supplied with electrical power when the switch is
closed. The circuit shown in Figure 11.1b is termed a ladder diagram.




With such a diagram the power supply for the circuits is always shown as
two vertical lines with the rest of the circuit as horizontal lines.

The power lines, or rails as they are often termed, are like the vertical sides
of a ladder with the horizontal circuit lines like the rungs of the ladder.

The horizontal rungs show only the control portion of the circuit; in the
case of Figure 11.1 it is just the switch in series with the motor.




In drawing a ladder diagram, certain conventions are adopted:

1. The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails between which
circuits are connected. The power flow is taken to be from the left-hand vertical
across a rung.

2. Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control process.

3. A ladder diagram is read from left to right and from top to bottom, Figure 11.3
showing the scanning motion employed by the PLC. The top rung is read from left
to right. Then the second rung down is read from left to right and so on.



When the PLC is in its run mode, it goes through the entire ladder program to the
end, the end rung of the program being clearly denoted, and then promptly
resumes at the start. This procedure of going through all the rungs of the program
is termed a cycle. The end rung might be indicated by a block with the word END
or RET for return, since the program promptly returns to its beginning.

4. Each rung must start with an input or inputs and must end with at least one
output. The term input is used for a control action, such as closing the contacts of
a switch, used as an input to the PLC. The term output is used for a device
connected to the output of a PLC, e.g., a motor.

5. Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition. Thus a switch, which is
normally open until some object closes it, is shown as open on the ladder
diagram. A switch that is normally closed is shown closed.

6. A particular device can appear in more than one rung of a ladder. For example,
we might have a relay that switches on one or more devices. The same letters
and/or numbers are used to label the device in each situation.


6.1.1 DIFFERENT SYMBOLS USED IN LAD ARE :-

1. Normally Open Contact



This can be used to represent any input to the control logic - a switch or
sensor, a contact from an output, or an internal output. When "solved" the referenced
input is examined for an ON (logical 1) condition. If it is ON, the contact will close
and allow power (logic) to flow from left to right. If the status is OFF (logical 0),
the contact is Open, power (logic) will NOT flow from left to right.

2. Normally Closed Contact



When solved the referenced input is examined for an OFF condition. If the status
is OFF (logical 0) power (logic) will flow from left to right. If the status is ON
(logical 1) power will not flow.




3. Normally Open Coils



This can be used to represent any discrete output from the control logic. When "solved" if
the logic to the left of the coil is TRUE, the referenced output is ON (logical 1).


4. Normally Closed Coil



When "solved" if the coil is a logical 0, power will be turned on to the device. If
logical 1, power will be OFF .


6.1.2 LOGIC FUNCTIONS

1. AND OPERATION



Each rung or network on a ladder program represents a logic operation. In the
rung above, both inputs A and B must be true (1) in order for the output C to be
true (1).




2. OR OPERATION





In the rung above, it can be seen that either input A or B is be true (1), or both
are true, then the output C is true (1).


3. NOT OPERATION



In the rung above, it can be seen that if input A is be true (1), then the output C
is true (0) or when A is (0), output C is 1.








4. NAND OPERATION




Both the inputs A and B have to be 0 for there to be a 1 output. There is an
output when input A and input B are not 1.


5. NOR OPERATION




The combination of OR and NOT gates is termed a NOR gate. There is an output
when both input A and input B is 0.









6. XOR OPERATION




When input A and input B are not activated then output is 0.When just input A
is activated, then the upper branch results in the output being 1. When just
input B is activated, then the lower branch results in the output being 1. When
both input A and input B are activated, there is no output.


7. XNOR OPERATION




When both the inputs are same, output is high else output is low.





6.1.3 TIMERS AND COUNTERS

Many times we will want to take action in a control program based on
more than the states of discrete inputs and outputs. Sometimes, we will want
to turn something on after a delay, or count the number of times a switch is hit. To do
these simple tasks, we will need Timers & Counters.

1. Simple Timers (TIM)

A timer is simply a control block that takes an input and changes an output
based on time. There are two basic timer types we will deal with initially
(there are other advanced timers, but we will start with the basics first) -
On-Delay Timer and the Off-Delay Timer.

o On-Delay Timer

- This timer takes an input, waits a specific amount of time, then turns
ON an output (or allows logic to flow after the delay).

o Off-Delay Timer

- This timer takes turns ON an output (or allows logic to flow) and keeps that
output ON until the set amount of time has passed, then turns it OFF (hence off-
delay) .


2. Simple Counter (CNT)

A counter simply counts the number of events that occur on an input. There are two basic
types of counters- Up counter and a Down counter.

o Up Counter

- As its name implies, whenever a triggering event occurs, an up
counter increments the counter. .

o Down Counter

- Whenever a triggering event occurs, a down counter decrements the counter.






EXAMPLES:-

1.

We can simulate this same circuit using Ladder Diagram as shown below:-



2. We are controlling lubricating oil being dispensed from a tank. This is possible
by using two sensors. We put one near the bottom and one near the top, as
shown in the fig. below.

Here, we want to fill the motor to pump lubricating oil into the tank until the high
level sensor turns on. At that point we want to turn off the motor until the level
fails below the low level sensor. Then we should turn on the fill motor and repeat
the process.


This is the ladder diagram for the above example:-






These are the steps of the Ladder diagram shown above:-







These were some of the examples that show how the ladder programming is
done for PLCs.

6.2 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAMS

The term function block diagram (FBD) is used for PLC programs described in
terms of graphical blocks. It is described as being a graphical language for
depicting signal and data flows through blocks, these being reusable software
elements.



A function block is a program instruction unit which, when executed, yields
one or more output values.

A function block is depicted as a rectangular block with inputs entering from
the left and outputs emerging from the right.



6.2.1 LOGIC GATES

Programs are often concerned with logic gates. Figure shows the effect of such
functional blocks in PLC programs.







FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAMS
EXAMPLES

1. Figure shows a ladder diagram involving the output having contacts acting as
an input. The function block diagram equivalent can be shown as a feedback
loop.





2. Consider the development of a function block diagram and ladder diagram for
an application in which a pump is required to be activated and pump liquid
into a tank when the start switch is closed, the level of liquid in the tank is
below the required level and there is liquid in the reservoir from which it is to
be pumped. What is required is an AND logic situation between the start
switch input and a sensor input which is on when the liquid in the tank is
below the required level. We might have a switch that is on until the liquid is
at the required level. These two elements are then in an AND logic situation
with a switch indicating that there is liquid in the reservoir. Suppose this switch
gives an input when there is liquid. The function block diagram, and the
equivalent ladder diagram, is then of the form shown in Figure.




These were some of the examples that shows how the functional block
programming is done for PLCs.

7. NETWORKING AND COMMUNICATION

7.1 NETWORK TOPOLOGY:
Network topology is the name given to the way in which the devices (called
nodes) are physically connected in a network. There are two basic categories of
network topologies.

1. Physical topologies
2. Logical topologies

o The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables,
computers, and other peripherals.
There are SIX types of network topologies:-
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. hybrid







1. BUS TOPOLOGY

All the nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) on a bus topology
are connected by one single cable.

A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end.
All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the
linear cable.

Popular on LANs because they are inexpensive and easy to install.






ADVANTAGES

Easy to install and implement
Cheaper than other topologies
Failure of one node does not affect the rest of network.
Used when networks are small, temporary and simple.




DISADVANTAGES

If a break in main cable ,entire network shuts down
Heavy network can slow a bus
Difficult to troubleshoot
Limited cable length and devices

2. RING TOPOLOGY
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbours for
communication purposes.

All messages travel through a ring in the same direction.

A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire
network.

To implement a ring network we use the Token Ring technology.

A token, or small data packet, is continuously passed around the network.
When a device needs to transmit, it reserves the token for the next trip
around, and then attaches its data packet to it.


ADVANTAGES

Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit
allows error checking and acknowledgement
less expensive
performs well under heavy load
DISADVANTAGES
a single break in network can disrupt the entire network
The movement or changes made to network nodes affects the performance
of the entire network
difficult to troubleshoot
addition of every node makes communication delay

3. STAR TOPOLOGY
In a star network, each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) is
connected to a central device called a hub.

The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and passes it along to all
the other nodes in the network.

Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator
before continuing to its destination.

The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the
network.

The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by connecting all
of the systems to a central node.



ADVANTAGES
easy to implement and can be extended
adding a new device is easier than in bus or ring topologies
easy to troubleshoot
provided for centralized management
DISADVANTAGES
if host fails , entire network fails
long cable length required
requires a dedicated server
maintenance cost may be higher
More expensive because of the cost of the concentrators




4. MESH TOPLOGY
In mesh topology each computer are connected to each other by separate
cables.

Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult.

In this type of network, each node may send message to destination through
multiple paths.

While the data is travelling on the Mesh Network it is automatically
configured to reach the destination by taking the shortest route which means
the least number of hops.

On large scales multiple LANs using mesh can be connected generally used in
military.



ADVANTAGES
because of dedicated links no traffic between the devices
failure of one node does not affect the rest of the network
privacy and security are guaranteed
point to point link makes fault identification and its isolation easy
It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other routes can be used
for data communication.
DISADVANTAGES
high level of redundancy
difficult implementation
costly for practical networks
There is mesh of wiring which can be difficult to manage.
Installation is complex as each node is connected to every node.

5. TREE TOPOLOGY
A tree topology (hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star
networks arranged in a hierarchy.

This tree has individual peripheral nodes which are required to transmit to
and receive from one other only and are not required to act as repeaters or
regenerators.

The tree topology arranges links and nodes into distinct hierarchies in order
to allow greater control and easier troubleshooting.

This is particularly helpful for colleges, universities and schools so that each
of them connect to the big network in some way.







ADVANTAGES
point-to-point wiring for individual segments
supported by several hardware and software venders
All the computers have access to the larger and their immediate networks
DISADVANTAGES
overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used
if the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down
more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies




6. HYBRID TOPOLOGY
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a
way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard
topologies

A hybrid topology always accrues when two different basic network
topologies are connected.

It is a mixture of above mentioned topologies. Usually, a central computer
is attached with sub-controllers which in turn participate in a variety of
topologies






ADVANTAGES
it provides a better result by it
it is flexible i.e. it can be designed in many ways for various purposes
DISADVANTAGES
it is costly
difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.

7.2 PLC Communications

Common Uses of PLC Communications Ports:-

o Changing resident PLC programs - uploading/downloading from a
supervisory controller (Laptop or desktop computer).

o Forcing I/O points and memory elements from a remote terminal.

o Linking a PLC into a control hierarchy containing several sizes of PLC and
computer.

o Monitoring data and alarms, etc. via printers or Operator Interface Units
(OIUs).

Serial Communications

PLC communications facilities normally provide serial transmission of information.

Common Standards

RS 232

o Used in short-distance computer communications, with the majority of
computer hardware and peripherals.
o Has a maximum effective distance of approx. 30 m at 9600 baud.


Local Area Network (LAN)

o Local Area Network provides a physical link between all devices plus
providing overall data exchange management or protocol, ensuring that
each device can talk to other machines and understand data received
from them.

o LANs provide the common, high-speed data communications bus which
interconnects any or all devices within the local area.

o LANs are commonly used in business applications to allow several users
to share costly software packages and peripheral equipment such as
printers and hard disk storage
RS 422 / RS 485

o Used for longer-distance links, often between several PCs in a
distributed system. RS 485 can have a maximum distance of about 1000
meters.


7.3 DIFFERENT STATIONS


1. ENGINEERING STATION (ES)

You configure and download all system components of PLC with the
engineering station.

Engineering stations are PCs on which the PLC engineering software is installed
for the configuration of a PLC.

2. OPERATING STATION (OS)

The operator station is used to operate and monitor the PLC system in process
mode.
You connect the operator station to the plant bus to enable the required data
communication with the automation system.

Operator stations are PCs on which the PLC OS software is installed.

The operator station can be designed as a single station system for smaller
plants and less stringent requirements. In larger plants with more stringent
requirements, the OS can be designed as a multiple station system with OS
servers and OS clients.


8. CLIENT SERVER ARCHITECTURE
Network architecture is defined as the design of a computer network for
the purpose of allowing various systems to confabulate with each other.
There are various components of the network architecture of a computer.

There are servers, proxies, clients, server modules, cores and command
consoles.

The basic purpose of network architecture is to assist you so as to get a
glitch free network.

There are many types of network architecture that are present and among
these, there is a very prominent one that is known as client server
architecture.


Definition of Client Server Architecture

The Client Server Architecture is a kind of network architecture in which
each computer that is present on the network is either a client or the
server.

The server, as we know, is the more powerful of the two and has to
perform various duties. There are various kinds of servers such as file
servers, network servers, print severs etc. Each serves has to take care of a
job that corresponds to its name.

For example, printers that are present in the network will be managed by
the print server and the disk drives are managed by the file servers.

The clients that are present in the network are dependent on the server
that is present, for all their resources and also for the purpose of processing
power.


The Client Server structure is also known as a two-tier structure.

Server provides the service
Client is considered as the customer requesting the service
The server service can be shared among a number of clients
Clients must request or initiate the service
The location of the server in the network is transparent to clients
The server is centrally maintained where as clients are independent
of each other


Characteristic features of the Client Server structure

The Client server structure is used in many systems and mostly in
automated library system. The structure basically segregates the functions
of an application into two or more parts.

Thus there are two major sub-systems, namely the client and the server, of
which the client is the one that asks for a particular service, while the
server is the one that renders the service.

The client and the server are distinct from each other and they can be
easily made out because of the duties that they perform.

There may be more than one server for a given set of clients.

The client and the server are connected to each other but at the same time,
they are separate entities and either of them can be upgraded without
having any effect on the other.

The client is the one to break the ice between as it requests for a certain set
of services from the server and only then will the server respond to the
request that has been made.

Client Server Structure is desirable keeping mind the present scenario. The
network has a modular structure and it is much more flexible than the
other network structures that are present. The human computer
interaction is an important part of the network structure and this become
easier with the client server structure.

The Client Server Structure was basically developed as a solution to the
problem of limited file sharing architecture that requires a large amount of
bandwidth and causes the traffic in the network to get blocked. Thus, the
Client Server structure no doubt eases the traffic of the network.



9. SAFETY MEASURES

9.1 HAZOP ANALYSIS:


What is HAZOP?

Systematic technique to IDENTIFY potential Hazard and Operating problems
A formal systematic rigorous examination to the process and engineering
facets of a production facility
A qualitative technique based on guide-words to help provoke thoughts
about the way deviations from the intended operating conditions can lead
to hazardous situations or operability problems
HAZOP is basically for safety
- Hazards are the main concern

- Operability problems degrade plant performance (product quality,
production
rate, profit)

Considerable engineering insight is required - engineers working
independently could develop different results


OBJECTIVE OF HAZOP

For identifying cause and the consequences of perceived mal operations of
equipment and associated operator interfaces in the context of the
complete system.
It accommodates the status of recognized design standards and codes of
practice but rightly questions the relevance of these in specific
circumstances where hazards may remain undetected.


HOW AND WHY HAZOP IS USED?

HAZOP identifies potential hazards, failures and operability problems.
Its use is recommended as a principal method by professional institutions
and legislators on the basis of proven capabilities for over 40 years.
It is most effective as a team effort consists of plant and prices designers,
operating personnel, control and instrumentation engineer etc.
It encourages creativity in design concept evaluation.
Its use results in fewer commissioning and operational problems and better
informed personnel, thus confirming overall cost effectiveness
improvement.
Necessary changes to a system for eliminating or reducing the probability of
operating deviations are suggested by the analytical procedure.
HAZOP provides a necessary management tool and bonus in so far that it
demonstrates to insurers and inspectors evidence of comprehensive
thoroughness.
HAZOP reports are an integral part of plant and safety records and are also
applicable to design changes and plant modifications, thereby containing
accountability for equipment and its associated human interface throughout
the operating lifetime.
HAZOP technique is now used by most major companies handling and
processing hazardous material, especially those where engineering practice
involves elevated operating parameters :
- oil and gas production
- flammable and toxic chemicals
- pharmaceuticals etc
Progressive legislation in encouraging smaller and specialty manufacturing
sites to adopt the method also as standard practice.


HAZOP STUDY PROCEDURE

Procedure in HAZOP study consists of examining the process and
instrumentation (P&I) line diagram, process line by process line.
A list of guide words is used to generate deviations from normal operation
corresponding to all conceivable possibilities.
Guide words covering every parameter relevant to the system under review
i.e. flow rate and quality, pressure, temperature, viscosity, components etc.
Flowchart for application of HAZOP is shown in figure.


HAZOP STUDY

HAZOP study is applied during:

Normal operation

Foreseeable changes in operation, e.g. upgrading, reduced output, plant
start-up and shut-down

Suitability of plant materials, equipment and instrumentation

Provision for failure of plant services, e.g. steam, electricity, cooling water

Provision for maintenance


STRENGTH OF HAZOP

HAZOP is a systematic, reasonably comprehensive and flexible

It is suitable mainly for team use whereby it is possible to incorporate the
general experience available

It gives good identification of cause and excellent identification of critical
deviations

The use of keywords is effective and the whole group is able to participate

HAZOP is an excellent well-proven method for studying large plant in a
specific manner

HAZOP identifies virtually all significant deviations on the plant; all major
accidents should be identified but not necessarily their causes.






WEAKNESS OF HAZOP

HAZOP is very time consuming and can be laborious with a tendency for
boredom for analysts

It tends to be hardware-oriented and process-oriented, although the
technique should be amenable to human error application

It tends to generate many failure events with insignificance consequences
and generate many failure events which have the same consequences

It stifles brainstorming although this is not required at the late stage of
design when it is normally applied

HAZOP does not identify all causes of deviations and therefore omits many
scenarios

It takes little account of the probabilities of events or consequences,
although quantitative assessment is sometime added. The group generally
let their collective experiences decide whether deviations are meaningful

HAZOP is poor where multiple-combination events can have severe effects

It tends to assume defects or deterioration of materials of construction will
not arise

When identifying consequences, HAZOP tends to encourage listing these as
resulting in action by emergency control measures without considering that
such action might fail. It tends to ignore the contribution which can be
made by operator interventions



9.2 SAFETY INSTRUMENT LEVEL (SIL)

Safety Integrity Level (SIL) is defined as a relative level of risk-reduction
provided by a safety function, or to specify a target level of risk reduction

In simple terms, SIL is a measurement of performance required for a safety
instrumented function (SIF)

To categorize the safety integrity of a safety function the probability of
failure is considered in effect the inverse of the SIL definition, looking at
failure to perform rather than success

It is easier to identify and quantify possible conditions and causes leading to
failure of a safety function than it is to guarantee the desired action of a
safety function

Two classes of SIL are identified, depending on the service provided by the
safety function

For safety functions that are activated when required (on demand mode)
the probability of failure to perform correctly is given, whilst

for safety functions that are in place continuously the probability of a
dangerous failure is expressed in terms of a given period of time (per
hour)(continuous mode)

The higher the SIL level, the greater the impact of a failure and the lower
the failure rate that is acceptable.


There are different types of SILS:

SIL 1 it means only a comparable low risk reduction is necessary.
SIL 2 it means require a greater degree of risk reduction.
SIL 3



9.3 REDUNDANCY

Redundancy is a common approach to improve the reliability and availability of
a system

Adding redundancy increases the cost and complexity of a system design and
with the high reliability of modern electrical and mechanical components,
many applications do not need redundancy in order to be successful

However, if the cost of failure is high enough, redundancy may be an attractive
option

Models of Redundancy

While there are various methods, techniques, and terminologies for
implementing redundancy, the following models represent the more common
ones used in industry. The three main models are Standby Redundancy, N
Modular Redundancy, and 1:N Redundancy .


N Modular Redundancy

N Modular Redundancy, also known as Parallel Redundancy, refers to the
approach of having multiply units running in parallel. All units are highly
synchronized and receive the same input information at the same time. Their
output values are then compared and a voter decides which output values should
be used.
This model typically has faster switchover times, thus the system availability is
very high, but because all the units are powered up and actively engaged with the
DUC, the system is at more risk of encountering a common mode failure across all
the units.

In N Modular Redundancy, there are three main typologies:

Dual Modular Redundancy (DMR)
Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR)
Quadruple Modular Redundancy (QMR)
Flexible Modular Redundancy (FMR)




Dual Modular Redundancy

Dual Modular Redundancy (DMR) uses two functional equivalent units, thus
either can control the DUC

The most challenging aspect of DMR is determining when to switch over to
the secondary unit

Because both units are monitoring the application, you have to decide what
to do if they disagree

You either need to create a tiebreaker vote or simply designate the
secondary unit as the default winner, assuming it is more trustworthy than
the primary unit

You may be able to trust the secondary unit more if the primary is normally
in control and if regular diagnostics are run on the secondary to help insure
its reliability, but this is very application specific

The average cost increase of a DMR system is about twice that of a non-
redundant system, factoring in the cost of the additional hardware and the
extra software development time


Triple Modular Redundancy

Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) uses three functionally equivalent units
to provide redundant backup

This approach is very common in aerospace applications where the cost of
failure is extremely high

TMR is more reliable than DMR due to two main aspects. The most obvious
reason is that you now have two standby units instead of just one

The other reason is that in TMR, you commonly see a technique called
diversity platforms or diversity programming applied

In this technique, you would use different software or hardware platforms
on your redundant systems to prevent common mode failure



Quadruple Modular Redundancy

Quadruple Modular Redundancy (QMR) is fundamentally similar to TMR
but using four units instead of three to increase the reliability

The obvious drawback is the 4X increase in system cost


Flexible Modular Redundancy

FMR enables the assembly of extremely fault-tolerant architectures

Unlike traditional leg-based architectures, where the failure of a single
component causes shutdown of an entire leg of the system

Flexible Modular Redundancy delivers higher levels of availability than
traditional dual and triple redundant architectures

At the same time, the flexibility of the architecture allows redundancy only
where it is needed, providing a more attractive and cost-effective solution
than traditional one-size-fits-all architectures
Benefits with Flexible Modular Redundancy:
Highest flexibility to choose the redundancy levels to fit the Safety
Instrumented Function (SIF)

Field device redundancy can be designed to achieve safety and availability
goals

I/O and field device redundancy can be matched to:
- Minimize cost
- Maximize availability
Multiple fault-tolerance
- Fieldbus architecture allows system to tolerate multiple faults without
interruption
- I/O redundancy independent of CPU redundancy

All components rated for SIL3
- No degraded mode
- Safety not dependent on redundancy




10. CONCLUSION

In the present industrial world, a flexible system that can be controlled by user
at site is preferred. Systems, whose logic can be modified but still, used without
disturbing its connection to external world, is achieved by PLC. Utilizing the
industrial sensors such as limit switches, ON-OFF switches, timer contact, counter
contact etc., PLC controls the total system.
The above said controlling elements (normally called as inputs of PLCs) and
controlled elements (called as outputs of PLCs) exist abundantly in any industry.
These inputs, outputs, timers, counters, auxiliary contacts are integral parts of all
industries.

The PLC offers a compromise between advance control techniques and
present day technology. It is extremely difficult to forecast the rate and form of
progress of PLCs, but there is strong evidence that development is both rapid and
cumulative. Though a PLC is not designed to replace a computer, it is useful and
cost effective for medium sized control systems. With the capability of functioning
as local controllers in distributed control systems. PLCs will retain their
application in large process plants.

A further development of PLCs leads to the development of programmable
function controller (PFC) is compatible to PCs and directly controls the desired
functions.

In India every process industry is replacing relay control systems by PLCs
and will go for PFCs in near future. In the near future every flats and offices may
possess PFCs to control room temperature, as elevator controller, maintain water
tank levels, as small telephone exchange etc.
11. REFERENCES


www.siemens.co.in
www.wikipedia.com
www.google.com
Manuals provided by the co-ordinator
Old Project Reports and Seminars