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P
Q
S
conv
S
grid
Q
reg P
bat
i
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
e
c
a
p
a
c
i
t
i
v
e
charge discharge
Fig. 1: Converter (S
conv
apparent power size) operating scheme.
services. Secondly, since the revenue is proportional to both
availability and actual operation, EVs could be remunerated
just for being plugged-in. Thirdly, they are compatible with
degradation aspects of batteries and with EVs primary appli-
cation as transport vehicles. Finally, these services are actually
remunerated.
Remuneration is fundamental to enable the participation of
different customers in regulation services [7]. Considering the
higher penetration of DGs and the evolution towards a Smart
Grid scenario, energy markets are expected to evolve in the
next future. New remuneration systems will be created and
economical opportunities for EVs are expected to increase.
Of particular interest, among others are the reactive power
management and voltage regulation services, at present not
remunerated.
Thanks to their recharge infrastructures, EVs could provide
reactive power without affecting batteries SOC. The inverter
interface of battery chargers, equipped with a 4-quadrant con-
verter, can easily be enabled to exchange reactive power with
the grid without affecting the downstream batteries [5]. As
depicted in Fig. 1 the active power affecting SOC (P
batt
) de-
termines the available reactive power (reactive power bounds,
Q
reg
), which could be exchanged with the grid. Within these
bounds the reactive power Q
T
h=1
c
h
P
h
where c
h
are hourly cost coefcients and P
h
are hourly active
power values).
Figs. 5a and 5b show the residential and ofce car
parking load curve necessary to provide the recharging service.
Car parking size has been assumed of 500 EVs, with batteries
of 35 kWh (efciency 0.87) [4]. 3.3 kW charger for each EV
has been supposed for the residential car parking (a charger
for each house), whereas 100 chargers of 19.2 kW for ofce
car parking assuming faster charging operations requirements
and a rst stage of investment for charger infrastructures [10].
0
50
100
0 6 12 18
(
%
)
EV EV
fc
EV
out
EV
in
(a) Residential car parking
0
50
100
0 6 12 18
(
%
)
(b) Ofce car parking
Fig. 4: Residential and ofce car parking daily proles: hourly availability
of EVs (EV ), required fully-charged batteries (E
fc
), outgoing EVs (EV
out
)
and incoming EVs (EV
in
) supposed percentages. (Refer to the legend on the
top; P
base
= 1MW, dt = 1h.)
Cost coefcients are assumed to be 152e/MWh for peak hours
(8am-7pm), 126e/MWh for shoulder hours (7am-8am, 7pm-
11pm) and 90e/MWh for off-peak hours (0am-7am, 11pm-
12pm) [11].
As shown in Fig. 4b, the ofce car parking has not
availability of EVs during the cheaper charging hours of the
day. Consequently, the recharging of batteries occurs during
peak hours and the cost of the service is 1651e, whereas the
residential car parking pays only 1083e (Fig. 5a, starting
energy of 5.18 pu is a result of the multi-period optimisation).
As shown in Figs. 5a and 5b both car parking has availabil-
ity of EVs to modify their load prole. In fact E
max
> SOC
for most of the day, whereas dE < (number of charger
charger size) for this simulation, which considers one-hour
time steps and average proles. In this paper, EVs active power
management based on grid requirements has been disabled
by purpose, in order to better highlight the reactive power
management aspects.
In the following, the car parking connected to the grid
is supposed to be an equivalent car parking comprising a
residential and an ofce car parkings of the same type
described above. Active power proles and reactive power
bounds are the sum of each car parking active power proles
and reactive power bounds respectively. Reactive power values
resulting by the single-step reactive optimization are provided
for the equivalent car parking.
VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Active power car parking impact
EVs increasing penetration could affect positively or nega-
tively the electrical network status depending on its operating
0
5
10
15
0 6 12 18
(
p
u
)
E
max E
*
E
min
dE
(a) Residential car parking
0
5
10
15
0 6 12 18
(
p
u
)
(b) Ofce car parking
Fig. 5: Residential and ofce car parking daily proles: hourly availability
(E
max
), required service (E
min
), SOC (E