Synchrotron Notes Year 12 Physics Unit 4

Detailed Study
Unit 4
Physics
SYNCHROTRON
1 Electron Gun
2 inac
! "ooster Rin#
4 Stora#e Rin#
$ "ea% ine
& E'(eri%ental )or* Station
Images courtesy of Victorian government www.synchrotron.vic.gov.au - 1 -

Synchrotron Notes Year 12 Physics Unit 4
Synchrotrons
-are particle accelerators
-produce high intensity (electromagnetic radiation) light
-have been around since the 1930s
What is a synchrotron?
A synchrotron is a device that uses very high energy electrons to create very bright,
pinpoint beams of light !hese beams of synchrotron light have become essential
tools for science and industry for investigating the molecular structure of things
Who will use it?
"ynchrotrons around the #orld are being used in almost every field of science and
technology - both for research and for product development Australia$s synchrotron
#ill be used by the biomedical community, manufacturing community and many
others
A synchrotron consists of si% ma&or components An 'lectron (un, A )inac ()inear
Accelerator), A *ooster +ing, A "torage +ing, many *eam )ines and at the end of
each *eam )ine are the '%perimental ,or- "tations
The Electron Gun $+,c
!he electron gun is the device #hich produces electrons for the synchrotron
!his is done by thermionic emission #hich means that a metal plate is heated to
release valence electrons 'ffectively the electrons are boiled off
*y ma-ing this metal plate negative it #ill repel any e&ected electrons once they
leave the surface !he negative plate is called the cathode
!o accelerate the electrons a positive plate (the anode) is placed a distance d
a#ay from the cathode !he anode attracts the electrons and they accelerate to#ard
it
!he anode has a small hole in it to allo# the electrons to pass through
An electric field is set up bet#een the anode and cathode .ts direction is the
same as that a positive charge #ould travel in
EECTR-C .-EDS
A charged particle inside an electric field #ill act in a similar #ay to a mass in a
gravitational field As it moves closer to the body attracting it #ill gain -inetic
energy !he sign of the charge on the particle #ill determine #hether it is attracted
to or repelled from a negative charge 'lectric field flo#s from positive to negative,
so a negative particle such as an electron #ill move in the opposite direction to the
electric field lines
Images courtesy of Victorian government www.synchrotron.vic.gov.au - 2 -

/ -
As the field
lines move
closer together,
the 'lectric
field strength
increases
Synchrotron Notes Year 12 Physics Unit 4
'lectric field strength ' 0 123 (for a point charge in space)
4agnitude of a uniform 'lectric field E / 01d (measured in 5m
-1
)
#here 5 is the potential difference bet#een the charged plates and d is the plate separation in metres
"ince the net force on a charged particle is . / 2E then the acceleration that the
particle e%periences is a 0 12m 0 3'2m
!he #or- done in a uniform electric field is , 0 1d 0 53 0 '3d
#here d is the distance the charge has moved parallel to the electric field lines
Also , 0 '
-
0 -'
p
0 '3d 0 20 /
1
1
2
%3
2
"ince '
-
0
1
2
6
mv
6
then v 0 (6'
-
2m) 0 (6352m) 0 (63'd2m)
'nergy can be measured in electron 5olts (e5) #here 1 e5 0 17 % 10
-19
8
!his is a more convenient unit #hen dealing #ith electrons and similarly
charged particles !he charge on an electron is 17 % 10
-19
9
!he potential difference 5 (voltage) bet#een the cathode and anode determines
the e%tent of the acceleration and the final energy of the electrons once they reach
the anode in electron volts (e5)
'lectrons guns are limited to potential differences in the -5 range
,e cant go higher than about 1000-5 due to difficulty in preventing lea-age
through insulation and e3uipment, danger to scientists and from 'lectric :o#er
remember that above ;00-5 ionisation of air occurs !o prevent ionisation the
synchrotron operates in a very lo# pressure vacuum
A !5 has an electron gun #ith 5 ;-5 (light from a !5 is not synchrotron light
though)
1or the Australian synchrotron the electron gun #ill accelerate the electrons to a
speed of ;9< of the speed of light (0;9c)
!o accelerate electrons to higher speeds a linear accelerator is re3uired
1rom relativity #e -no# that as speed increases the mass of a particle increases
,hen approaching the speed of light the mass approaches infinity so huge amounts
of energy are re3uired for even small increases in speed
*elo# 1=<c #e can ignore relativistic effects
Images courtesy of Victorian government www.synchrotron.vic.gov.au - 3 -

/ / / / / / /
- - - - - - -
*et#een parallel
plates the electric
field is uniform
v
"chematic of an
'lectron (un
'lectrons that collide #ith
the anode help complete
the circuit
'lectrons that do not pass
through the hole in the
anode complete the circuit
Heater element
Cathode (-)
Anode (+)
Potential
difference V
d
Electric field E
Accelerated
electrons
Synchrotron Notes Year 12 Physics Unit 4
inac 4inear 5ccelerator6 ++7++$,c
>se drift tubes in a long straight (linear) line
'ach drift tube can change its polarity
!ubes become longer as electrons accelerate to -eep time in tubes constant
:olarity changes are timed to occur #hen electrons are inside tubes :rvided by
high voltage A9 sources
?o acceleration occurs inside tubes as there is no electric field 'lectrons drift
inside tubes at constant velocity
Acceleration occurs bet#een tubes due to the presence of an electric field
"ooster Rin# ++7+++++4,c
.s used to accelerate electrons even further
1rom circular motion if a particle changes direction it #ill accelerate
1 0 ma so a force #ill act
@irection of force is determined by the right hand slap rule +emember that the
electron travels in the opposite direction to conventional current used in the right
hand slap rule
*ending magnets are used to deflect the beam
. / 23" / e3" #here 2 is the charge (0 e for the synchrotron 0 17 10
-19
9),
3 is the velocity of the electron and " is the magnetic field strength in !esla (!)
. / %a / %3
2
1r from circular motion r is the radius of the curve
. / %3
2
1r / e3"
r / %312" / (12" #here % is the relativistic mass of the electron, and ( is
the momentum of the electron (including relativistic mass)
?o gain in speed #hen electron passes through a magnetic field, in fact it loses
some energy due to #or- done in changing direction
!o boost speed radio fre3uency 4R.6 ca3ities (or chambers) are located in the
straight sections of the ring to in&ect energy into the electrons (ie to boost the energy
of the electrons)
!his radiation is micro#ave radiation and as in the energy levels of electrons in
atomic orbits the absorbed photons #ill increase the electrons energy levels
(absorption spectra)
+adiation in&ection is timed to coincide #ith the passing of a bunch electrons
!he radiation is in phase (coherent) so all electrons receive the same amount of
energy at the same time !his -eeps the electrons at the same energy levels
.n the Australian synchrotron the electrons go from A004e5 to 3(e5 in the
booster ring
!o avoid collisions and reabsorption of electrons the synchrotron is operated at
e%tremely lo# pressure in a vacuum (A; 10
-7
:a compared to normal air pressure
of 1 10
7
:a)
Images courtesy of Victorian government www.synchrotron.vic.gov.au - 4 -

e
-
1 2
1 2
e
-
+ve
+ve -ve
Electron from electron gun approaches
1
st
drift tube hich has a positi!e
polarit" to attract and accelerate it#
Electron is pushed from 1
st
drift tube and
pulled toard 2
nd
drift tube due to diferent
polarities of the drift tubes creating an
electric field hich accelerates the electron
across the gap#
Synchrotron Notes Year 12 Physics Unit 4
'nergy is produced by a *lystron !hese are also used to pulse the original beam
of electrons from the electron gun into small bunches

Stora#e Rin#
'lectrons are in&ected into the storage ring every = - 60 hours appro% in the
Australian synchrotron
'lectrons #ill circulate for bet#een ; and ;0 hours before losing too much
energy and being absorbed by shielding or involved in collisions
!he ring is not circular but a many sided polygon Australias synchrotron #ill
have 16 straight sides
9urved sections contain the 8endin# %a#nets !his is #here the synchrotron
light is produced
*ending magnets are dipole (t#o pole) magnets
!he bunched electrons produced pulses of synchrotron light
!he +1 cavities are tuneable so they can determine the period of the light pulses
(Aust "ynch normally operates at ;004hB)
!he beam typically loses half its energy every ; - ;0 hours
.nsertion devices are placed in the straight sections #hich can modulate the light
produced
-nsertion de3ices
R. ca3ities C in&ect energy into electrons to replace energy lost as synchrotron
light ,hen the +1 cavity is positive the electrons are accelerated to#ards it, #hen
negative they are pushed a#ay !his changing electromagnetic field results in the
electrons bunching up again
.ocussin# 9a#nets C help realign the electron beam (3uadrupole D= polesE) and
rebunch the electrons (se%tupole D7 polesE)
!he arrangement of the magnets and their strengths is referred to as the lattice
Aust synchrotron #ill have 1= cells in its lattice each having 6 dipole, 7
3uadrupole and A se%tupole magnets to bend and guide the beam
Images courtesy of Victorian government www.synchrotron.vic.gov.au - 5 -

$he %l"stron is used to
bunch (modulate) the
electrons from the electron
gun and also to produce the
coherent high energ"
microa!es hich boost the
electrons in the &' ca!ities
inside the booster ring#
Electron beam
("nchrotron light
Synchrotron Notes Year 12 Physics Unit 4
)i##lers
Are multiple pole magnets designed to ma-e the electron beam rapidly change
direction (#iggle) along a straight section ?o net deflection of beam
'ach bend produces synchrotron light #hich results in the intensity of the light
produced being much higher (up to 1000 brighter than a bending magnet)
+oughly 8ri#htness increase :actor / 2 No7 o: (oles used ie F poles in the
#iggler results in G17 brighter light
!he synchrotron radiation is still produced across a broad spectrum
)ight produced is of higher energy and is shifted up the '4+ spectrum
!his light is no# incoherent and is in a #ide beam as the light is produced at
different times during each #iggle
Undulators
>se more magnets than a #iggler #hich are much smaller (up to 100)
?arro#er beam produced (collimation)
"ince poles are very close together interference effects #ill produce highly
coherent light at specific fre3uencies
"pacing of poles determines #avelength of ma%ima
At these fre3uencies constructive interference produces e%tremely bright,
coherent, collimated light (up to 10
7
brighter than a bending magnet)
@oes not produce a continuous spectrum
Images courtesy of Victorian government www.synchrotron.vic.gov.au - 6 -

)road incoherent bright light
Wiggler *
a series of alternate magnetic fields
+arro collimated , intensel"
bright and coherent light produced
Undulator *
-an" small poles ith !ariable spacing
to produce specific a!elengths of light#
Synchrotron Notes Year 12 Physics Unit 4
"ea% ines
:ath of light from storage ring to e%perimental #or- station
4irrors are used to direct light
A monochromator (single fre3uency filter) is used to select #anted fre3uencies
of light before the #or- station
)or* Stations
@epending on the e%periment or end use of the light the set up of #or-
stations can vary significantly
!his is #here the synchrotron light is used to analyse materials
Synchrotron i#ht
.s produced in the range of #avelengths () from 10
-11
(hard H-rays) to10
-1
m
(micro#aves) !hese photons have energies respectively from 10
;
e5 (hard H-rays)
do#n to 10
-;
e5 (micro#aves)
.t is of high intensity (brilliance)
'mitted in short pulses
Arrives in parallel rays (collimated)
.s coherent (all photons are in phase C #ave property)
Iighly polarised (limited to a single plane for direction of #ave vibration)
"pecific #avelengths can be isolated using di::raction #ratin#s or
%onochro%ators and used for e%amining ob&ects #hose structural dimensions is
similar to the single #avelength
)ight is released as a very narro# cone from the bending magnets and this is
then focussed to provide a very narro# beam at the #or- station
Images courtesy of Victorian government www.synchrotron.vic.gov.au - -

Synchrotron Notes Year 12 Physics Unit 4
"ri#htness is a measure of ho# many photons per mm
6
per second there are .f
the originating electron beam is #idened the brightness #ill be less !he narro#er
the cone of light the greater the brightness
;<rays = Synchrotron ;<rays
A conventional H-ray is a useful diagnostic tool as it #ill allo# us to detect
fractures is bones due to the H-ray being able to penetrate the fracture site
!here is no coherence or collimation #ith conventional H-rays and they are lo#
intensity
"ynchrotron H-rays are high intensity, collimated and coherent !his allo#s
them to e%tract more detail than a conventional H-ray
!he tuneability of synchrotron radiation allo#s us to interact #ith lighter atoms
than conventional H-rays, this means #e can see clearly flesh as #ell as bones,
resulting in a much more detailed image of the fracture site and the surrounding
tissues
"ra## Di::raction
.s used in H-ray crystallography #hich is the study of crystalline structure of
comple% molecules
!his re3uires the use of the interference patterns from #ave theory (Joungs
double slit e%periment) to determine atomic spacing
9onstructive interference #ill occur #hen coherent light is diffracted off
different layers in a crystal 2dsin / n
,here d is the spacing bet#een layers in the crystal, is the angle bet#een the
H-ray beam and the crystal surface, is the #avelength of the H-ray n is the
number of ma%ima (1, 6, 3, )
*y rotating the crystal the smallest angle at #hich a ma%ima is detected #ill
correspond to #hen n 0 1
Po>der Di::raction
.s used #hen a substance does not have a regular crystalline structure that is
large enough to aim H-rays at
A po#der is a collection of e%tremely small crystals #ith no regular
arrangement
,hen %-rays are fired at a po#der the beam is diffracted at different angles due
to the individual crystals having differing orientations to the incoming beam
!he scattered photons no# ma-e rings on a screen instead of discrete spots
(.magine that you put a pen on a piece of paper to ma-e a dot .f you no# rotate the
paper about some other point on the page you #ill produce a ring on the paper
Images courtesy of Victorian government www.synchrotron.vic.gov.au - ! -

d
E.tra distance tra!elled b" photon
in second la"er is tice dsin /
2dsin#
0f this e1uals a hole number of
a!elengths constructi!e
interference occurs# $he reflected
beam ill be of higher intensit"#
Synchrotron Notes Year 12 Physics Unit 4
instead of a dot .f you used t#o pens originally you #ould get t#o concentric rings
about your a%is of rotation and so forth)
!he position of the rings determines the structure of the po#der
!he scattered photons spread out as hollo# cones (funnels)
*y surrounding the specimen in a circular photographic film the rings leave
concentric bands on the film !his is called a @ebye-"herer camera

Alternatively a moving detector such as a (eiger counter can orbit the specimen
and determine the direction of the scattered photons and their intensity
*ecause the beam is pro&ected at an angle to the crystal surface the angle the
cone ma-es #ith the scattered beam is e3ual to 6
@etectors produce graphs #hich sho# the relationship bet#een the intensity of
the scattered beams and their angle to either the undeflected beam (6) or the
crystal surface ()
Images courtesy of Victorian government www.synchrotron.vic.gov.au - " -

$he podered sample is in the centre# $he
cones of scattered photons stri2e the circular
photographic film
3hen the film is laid flat the concentric rings are
e.posed# $he" centre about the to holes in the film
here the 4-ra"s enter and e.it#

(urface of small cr"stal

small cr"stal
("nchrotron 4-ra"
Photographic film
5ndeflected beam
)ragg diffraction beam#
Constructi!e interference ith la"er
beneath surface ma2es the beam
brighter than of deflection from
surface la"er onl"#
2
Synchrotron Notes Year 12 Physics Unit 4
Scatterin#
Kccurs #hen a photon transfers some of its energy to electrons !his is different to
photoelectric e%periments #here all of a photons energy is absorbed by an electron
!here are t#o ma&or types of scatteringL
Tho%(son (elastic) scattering #here no -inetic energy is lost
Co%(ton (inelastic) scattering #here -inetic energy is lost
An e%ample of Tho%(son scatterin# is *ragg diffraction #here the scattering
is elastic ?o energy is imparted to the interacting atoms !his is usually the case for
lo# energy (M100 -e5) H-rays
!he H-ray photon before the collision effectively transfers no -inetic energy to
the electron or atom and retains virtually all its -inetic energy after the collision
!he #avelength of the scattered photon is e3ual to that of the incoming photon
.magine a billiard ball bouncing of another stationary ball)
,hen the H-ray photon energy is above 100 -e5 the photon is li-ely to be
absorbed and the energy transferred to an electron is enough to ionise the atom
and the electron is e&ected
Co%(ton Scatterin# results from the H-ray photon colliding #ith a relatively
stationary electron #hich is not tightly bound to an atom (compared to the speed of
light) and the photon transfers some of its momentum to the electron
!he :hoton has less energy and so changes its #avelength and fre3uency
' 0 hf 0 h(f
in
C f
out
), and the electron gains an e3uivalent amount of -inetic energy
('
-
0 Nmv
6
0 hf)
At all times the total energy is conserved
'nergy of photon before interaction 0 energy of photon after interaction plus
energy gain of electron hf
in
0 hf
out
/ Nmv
6

!he scattered photon has a longer #avelength (shorter fre3uency) than the pre-
collision photon as it has less energy and ' 0 hc2 0 hf
!he reduced momentum of the photon p 0 hf2c 0
h
2
c
(f
in
C f
out
), must e3ual
the gain in momentum of the electron (p 0 mv) +emember momentum is a
vector 3uantity ?ote classical mechanics can be used due to the relatively slo#
speed of the electron
The Photoelectric e::ect
Kccurs #hen a photon is completely absorbed by an electron
!he energy from the photon enables the electron to brea- free from the metal
surface and thus produces a current
+efer to your notes from the topic .nteractions of )ight and 4atter
Ris*s -n3ol3ed >ith Synchrotrons
,hilst producing more intense light and higher resolution images there are still
dangers involved in the use of "ynchrotrons
Iigh energy photons and electrons are contained #ithin a concrete tunnel #hich
is thic- and dense enough to absorb any errant radiation that escapes from the
storage ring
!he high voltages used in the electron gun and linac are also haBardous and
re3uire heavy insulation to prevent electrical shoc-
!he lo# pressure vacuum is a ris- as any breach of the synchrotron apparatus
#ould cause a dangerous implosion as the atmosphere rushes in to e3ualise the air
pressure (!he reverse of a pressurised plane losing a door or #indo# at high
altitude)
Images courtesy of Victorian government www.synchrotron.vic.gov.au - 1# -