Glossary Of Terms A-L For Introduction to Psychology

-A-
Abnormal - Term used to describe behavior that is rare or dysfunctional, causes personal distress, or deviates from
social norms
absolute threshold - Minimum amount of energy required for conscious detection of a stimulus 50 percent of the
time by the individuals tested
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) - Viral disease transmitted via bodily fluids such as blood and
semen usually during sexual relations or by sharing needles used by a person infected with the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV); the virus attacks the bodys immune system, resulting in vulnerability to infections
and diseases, which eventually cause death
action potential - Reversal in electrical charge of a neuron that occurs when the neuron fires
activation-synthesis hypothesis - Explanation of dreams that suggests that they result when the cortex seeks to
explain the high level of neuronal activity occurring during REM sleep
adaptation - Loss of sensitivity to a stimulus by the receptors as a result of continued presentation of that stimulus
adolescence - The years between approximately age 12 and age 20
adrenogenital syndrome - Condition caused by exposure to excessive amounts of androgens during the fetal
period; can result in a genetic female with genitals resembling those of males
afferent (sensory) nerves - Nerves that carry information from the receptors to the brain and spinalcord
ageism - Viewing elderly people in a negative manner
aggression - Physical or psychological behavior that is performed with the intent of doing harm
Agonist - Drug that enhances the operation of a neurotransmitter
Agoraphobia - Avoidance of public places or situations in which escape may be difficult should the individual
develop incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms of panic
Alcohol - Depressant psychoactive substance, also known as ethyl alcohol or ethanol
Algorithm - Systematic procedure for solving a problem by evaluating all possible solutions until the correct one is
found
altered state of consciousness - State of consciousness that is different than normal waking consciousness
altruism - Helping behavior performed voluntarily with no anticipation of reward
Alzheimers disease - Degenerative brain disorder that results in progressive loss of intelligence and awareness
American Sign Language (ASL) - manual language used for communication by the deaf
Amnesia - Loss of memory that occurs as a result of physical or psychological trauma
Amniocentesis - Withdrawal and analysis of amniotic fluid to detect genetic abnormalities in the fetus
Amphetamines - Stimulants that have been used to reduce appetite and treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
and narcolepsy
Amplitude - Strength or intensity of a stimulus
anal stage - Second stage of psychosexual development, during which the focus of pleasure is the anus and conflict
often occurs as efforts are made to toilet-train the child
androgen insensitivity syndrome - Failure by a male embryo to respond to male hormones
androgens - General name given to the sex hormones that predominate in males
anomalous trichromat - Person with a form of colorblindness in which one of the three primary colors (red, blue,
or green) is processed incorrectly
anorexia nervosa - A potentially life-threatening eating disorder occurring primarily in adolescent and young adult
females; an intense fear of becoming fat leads to self-starvation and weight loss; accompanied by a strong belief that
one is fat despite objective evidence to the contrary
anoxia - Reduction or lack of oxygen
antagonist - Drug that blocks the operation of a neurotransmitter
anterograde amnesia - Inability to store new memories following a traumatic event
antianxiety drugs - Minor tranquilizers used to reduce anxiety
antigens - Foreign substances such as bacteria that trigger an immune response
antipsychotic drugs - Drugs that reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking dopamine receptors in the
brain
antisocial personality disorder - Personality disorder characterized by deceitful, impulsive, reckless actions for
which the individual feels no remorse
anxiety - General feeling of apprehension characterized by behavioral, cognitive, or physiological symptoms
aphasia - Loss of the ablity to speak or understand written or spoken language
apparent motion - Illusion of movement in a stationary object
apraxia - Inability to perform previously learned skilled movements
arbitrary inference - Conclusion drawn in the absence of supporting information
assertiveness training - The use of a variety of behavioral techniques, such as modeling and behavioral rehearsal, to
help clients develop assertive responses
assimilation - Piagets term for the process of incorporating information into existing schemas
ataxia - Loss of motor control
attachment - Intense, reciprocal relationship formed by two people, usually a child and an adult
attitudes - Evaluative judgments about objects, people, and thoughts, including affective, knowledge, and
behavioral components
attraction - The extent to which we like other people
attribution - The process of assigning causes to events and behaviors
audition - The sense of hearing
autonomic division - Division of the peripheral nervous system involved in the control of bodily functioning
autonomous moral principles - Kohlbergs third stage of moral development (age 13 or later, if at all), in which
control over moral conduct is completely internalized
autonomy versus shame and doubt - Eriksons second psychosocial crisis (1 to 3 years), in which children
develop a sense of whether their behavior is under their own control or under the control of external forces
autonomy - The feeling of being able to act independently and having personal control over ones actions
availability heuristic - Heuristic in which the probability of an event is determined by how readily it comes to mind
aversion therapy - Classical conditioning technique for reducing or eliminating behavior by pairing the behavior
with an unpleasant (aversive) stimulus
axon - Part of a neuron that transmits information to other neurons and to muscles and glands
-B-
Babinski reflex - Reflex in which the infants toes fan upward when the bottom of the foot is stroked
backward conditioning - Form of classical conditioning in which the CS comes on after the US has been presented
barbiturates - Depressant drugs that are used to induce sleep but can be deadly when combined with alcohol
Barnum effect - The tendency to accept generalized personality descriptions as accurate descriptions of oneself
basic trust versus basic mistrust - Eriksons first psychosocial crisis (birth to 1 years), in which children learn
through contact with their primary caregiver whether their environment can be trusted
basilar membrane - Membrane located in the cochlea of the inner ear; movement of cochlear fluid causes it to
vibrate
behavior genetics - A new field, combining psychology and biology, that studies the influences of heredity and
environment on behavior
behavior modification - Using the fundamental principles of learning to change inappropriate behaviors
behavioral model - The view that psychological disorders are learned behaviors that follow the principles of
classical and operant conditioning or modeling
behavioral perspective - Perspective that focuses on observable behavior and emphasizes the learned nature of
behavior
bereavement - Emotional and role changes that follow death
bias - Beliefs that interfere with objectivity
binocular cues - Cues for depth perception that involve the use of both eyes
binocular disparity - The difference between the images seen by the two eyes
biofeedback - Providing information about some ongoing biological process such as muscle tension in the hope that
a person will learn to adjust the process
biomedical therapies - A set of treatments for mental illness that include drugs, psychosurgery, and
electroconvulsive therapy
bipolar cells - Cells in the retina that connect the receptors to ganglion cells
bipolar disorder - Mood disorder in which the individual experiences episodes of mania and depression, which
usually alternate
blind spot - Location at which the optic nerve leaves the eyeball; contains no receptors
blocking - Situation in which the conditionability of a CS is weakened when it is paired with a US that has
previously been paired with another CS
brain asymmetries - Differences between the two hemispheres of the brain
brainstorming - Free expression of ideas by members of a group to solve a problem
bulimia nervosa - Eating disorder in which a victim alternately consumes large amounts of food (gorging) and then
empties the stomach (purging), usually by inducing vomiting
burnout - Emotional and physical exhaustion that interferes with job performance
bystander effect - The tendency for a group of bystanders to be less likely than an individual to provide assistance
to a person in trouble
-C-
Cannon-Bard theory - Theory that the thalamus relays information simultaneously to the cortex and to the
sympathetic nervous system, causing emotional feelings and physiological changes to occur at the same time
Case study - In-depth study of a single individual that can often provide suggestions for further research
Cataracts - Clouding of the lens of the eye
central deafness -Deafness resulting from damage to the auditory pathways or auditory cortex of the brain.
central nervous system (CNS) - Division of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord
cerebellum - Structure of the hindbrain that coordinates muscular movements
cesarean section - Procedure in which a baby is surgically removed from the uterus
chromosomes - Segments of genetic material located in the nucleus of each cell; human cells have 23 pairs of
chromosomes, one of each pair being inherited from each parent
circadian rhythm -Internal biological changes that occur on a daily schedule
classical conditioning - Learning that occurs when two stimuli, a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus, are paired and become associated with each other
client-centered therapy - Therapy designed to create an environment in which the client is able to find solutions to
his or her problems
clinical psychology - Specialty of psychology that involves the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
closure - Gestalt principle stating that organizing perceptions into whole objects is easier than perceiving separate
parts independently
coactors - Other people who are present and are engaging in the same behaviors as an individual at the same time
cognitive development - Changes that occur in our thought processes throughout life
cognitive developmental theory - Explanation for the learning of gender roles that holds that cognitive factors give
rise to gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy
cognitive dissonance - Aversive state produced when an individual has two incompatible thoughts or cognitions
simultaneously
cognitive model - A view that emphasizes thinking as the key element in causing psychological disorders
cognitive perspective - View that focuses on the study of how thought occurs, memory processes, and how
information is organized and stored
cognitive psychology - Study of higher mental processes, such as thinking, knowing, and deciding
cognitive therapies - Therapies designed to change cognitions in order to eliminate maladaptive behaviors
cohort - Group of individuals born in the same period
collectivism - Placing group goals above individual goals
color afterimage - Perception of a color that is not really present; occurs after viewing the opposite or
complementary color
commonsense view of emotions - View that emotions precede and cause bodily changes
companionate love - Long-lasting form of love that involves commitment
comparison level - General outcome expected from a particular relationship
compliance - Initiating or changing a behavior in response to a request
computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT) - Imaging technique that involves the production of a large number
of X-rays interpreted by a computer
concepts - Mental categories that share common characteristics
concordance rate - Percentage of twin pairs in which both twins have a disorder that is of interest to an investigator
concrete operational stage - Piagets third stage of cognitive development, in which the child is able to use mental
representations to think about current objects and events but is not yet capable of abstract thought
conditioned response (CR) - Response elicited by a conditioned stimulus that has been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus. It is similar to the unconditioned response
conditioned stimulus (CS) - Neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response after being
paired with an unconditioned stimulus
conduction deafness - Deafness due to problems associated with transmitting sounds through the outer and middle
ear
cones - Visual receptors that are less prevalent than rods, have a higher threshold and higher acuity, and are able to
detect color
confirmation bias - Committing to one hypothesis without adequately testing other possibilities
conflict - A state that occurs when an individual must chose between two or more competing goals
conformity - Initiating or changing a behavior in response to indirect social pressures
conjunctive eye movements - Movements of the eyes in the same direction
consciousness - A persons awareness of feelings, sensations, and thoughts at a given moment
conservation - Recognition that a physical change in a substance does not change the amount of that substance
consolidation hypothesis - Hypothesis that memories must be consolidated or set before they can be stored in
LTM
consumer psychology - Specialty of psychology that studies consumers and the choices they make
continuous reinforcement - Reinforcement that follows every target response
control group - A comparison group in an experiment that does not receive the effect of the independent variable
being manipulated
conventional role conformity - Kohlbergs second stage of moral development (ages 10 to 13), in which rules and
standards are internalized and behaviors are performed in order to please others
conversion disorder - Somatoform disorder in which an individual presents sensory or motor symptoms that do not
have a medical explanation
coping - Cognitive and behavioral efforts that are used to reduce the effects of stress
corpus callosum - Wide band of neural fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain
correlation coefficient - Number ranging between +1.00 and -1.00 that represents the degree of relationship
between two variables
counseling psychology - Specialty of psychology that deals with less serious problems than those treated by clinical
psychologists
creativity - The ability to produce work that is both novel and appropriate
critical period - A specific time during development when damage may occur or certain processes should take place
cross-sectional study -Research technique in which participants, often of different ages, are tested or observed
during a limited time span or only once
crystallized intelligence - Intelligence that involves the ability to retrieve and use information that has been learned
and stored
cumulative record - Results of a series of operant conditioning trials, shown as rate of responding
-D-
daydreaming - A form of consciousness that involves fantasies, usually spontaneous, that occur while a person is
awake
debriefing - Providing a complete explanation of research that has involved deception
decibel (db) - Unit of measure of the amount of energy producing the vibrations we perceive as sound
defense mechanism - Psychodynamic term used to describe primarily unconscious methods of reducing anxiety or
guilt that results from conflicts among the id, ego, and superego
deindividuation - Phenomenon in which the presence of a group results in a loss of personal identity and a decrease
in responsibility
deinstitutionalization - The policy of discharging mentally ill patients from institutions on the assumption that they
can be cared for in their communities
delayed conditioning - Form of classical conditioning in which the CS comes on and stays on for a period of time
before the US is presented
delusion - An obviously false belief that is difficult to change
dementia - General intellectual decline associated with old age; may be reversible when caused by medication or
blood clots
dendrite - Part of a neuron that receives information from receptors and other neurons
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - Chemical name for the genetic material located in the nucleus of each cell
dependent variable - Variable that shows the outcome of an experiment by revealing the effects of an independent
variable
depolarization - Process in which the electrical charge of the neuron becomes less negative
depressants - Drugs that slow the activity of the central nervous system
depression - Mood disorder characterized by sadness; feelings of guilt; changes in sleep, appetite, and motor
behavior; and sometimes thoughts of suicide
depth perception - The ability to perceive our world three dimensionally
developmental psychology - Study of physical and cognitive changes throughout the life span, from conception
until death
diagnosis - The process of deciding whether a person has symptoms that meet established criteria of an existing
classification system
dichromat - Individual who has trouble seeing one of the primary colors (red, blue, or green) due to a form of
colorblindness
differential threshold - Smallest amount of stimulation that must be added to or subtracted from an existing
stimulus for a person to be able to detect a change 50 percent of the time
discrimination - Behaviors that adversely affect members of a particular group
discriminative stimulus - Stimulus or signal telling the participant that responding will be reinforced
display rules - Culturally specific rules for which emotions to display, to whom, and when they can be displayed
dissociation - Splitting of conscious awareness that is believed to play a role in hypnotic pain reduction
dissociative amnesia - Dissociative disorder that involves a sudden inability to recall important personal
information; often occurs in response to trauma or extreme stress
dissociative disorders - Disorders affecting a function of the mind, such as memory for events, knowledge of ones
identity, or consciousness
dissociative fugue - Dissociative disorder involving amnesia and flight from the workplace or home; may involve
establishing a new identity in a new location
dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality) - Dissociative disorder in which a person has two or more
separate personalities, which usually alternate
divided attention - The ability to process more than one source of stimulation at the same time
dream - A succession of visual images experienced during sleep
dysfunctional - Term used to describe behaviors that adversely affect an individuals functioning
-E-
early adulthood - Period from approximately age 20 to age 40
eclectic approach - View of psychology that combines several different approaches
efferent (motor) nerves - Nerves that carry information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles
ego - In psychodynamic theory, the element of the mind that operates according to the reality principle and serves to
satisfy the id and the superego
egocentrism - Inability to see a situation or event from another persons point of view
elaborative rehearsal - Rehearsal in which meaning is added to the material to be remembered
Electra complex - Process that occurs during the phallic stage in which a girl wishes to possess her father sexually
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) - A biomedical treatment in which an electric current is passed through the brain
to induce a seizure; most often used to treat severe depression
electroencephalograph (EEG) - Device that monitors and records electrical activity of the brain
embryo - A developing organism during the stage when the major organ systems are formed

emotions - Physiological changes and conscious feelings of pleasantness or unpleasantness, aroused by external and
internal stimuli, that lead to behavioral reactions
empty nest syndrome - Period of adjustment for parents after all children have left home
encoding specificity - Theory stating that the effectiveness of memory retrieval is directly related to the similarity of
the cues present when the memory was encoded and when the memory is retrieved
encoding - First stage of the memory process, in which information is transformed or coded (a transduction process)
into a form that can be processed further and stored
endocrine system - System of glands that produce and secrete chemicals
endorphins - Opiatelike substances produced by the body that block pain by inhibiting the release of substance P
enuresis - Bedwetting, a sleep disorder that occurs primarily in children
epidemiologist - Scientist who studies the distribution and causes of accidents, diseases, and psychological
disorders in a given population
episodic memory - Memory of ones own personal experiences
estrogens - General name given to the sex hormones that predominate in females
ethnocentrism - Belief that ones own country or culture is superior to all other countries and cultures
evolutionary perspective - Interest in the role a physiological structure or behavior plays in helping the organism
adapt to the environment
experimental group - The group in an experiment that receives the effect of the independent variable being
manipulated
experimental method - Research method that involves manipulating independent variables to determine how they
affect dependent variables
extinction - The process of removing reinforcers, which leads to a decrease in the strength of a CR
extracellular fluids - Fluids such as blood, water, and cerebrospinal fluid that are found outside the cells of the
body
extraneous variables - Variables, other that the independent variable, that can influence the outcome of an
experiment
extrasensory perception (ESP) - Occurrence of behaviors or experiences that cannot be explained by information
received by the senses
-F-
facial feedback hypothesis - Hypothesis that making a certain facial expression will produce the corresponding
emotion
feature analysis theory - Theory of pattern perception stating that we perceive basic elements of an object and
assemble them mentally to create the complete object
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) - Condition found in some children born to alcoholic mothers, characterized by
lower birth weight, small head circumference, and mental retardation
fetishism - Paraphilia involving sexual arousal by unusual objects or body parts
fetus - The developing baby from about the ninth week after conception until birth
figure-ground relationship - Organization of perceptual elements into a figure (the focus of attention) and a
background
fixation - Cessation of further development, resulting in behaviors that are characteristic of the stage of development
in which the fixation occurred
flashbulb memory - Very detailed memory of an arousing, surprising, or emotional situation
fluid intelligence - Intelligence involving the ability to see new relationships, solve new problems, form new
concepts, and use new information
foot-in-the-door effect - Phenomenon in which a person who has agreed to a small request is more likely to comply
with a subsequent larger request
forebrain - Major division of the brain that consists of subcortical structures and the cerebral cortex
foreclosure - Uncritical acceptance of parental values and desires; hampers the development of a unique identity
forensic psychology - Application of psychology to law and legal proceedings
formal operational stage - Final stage of intellectual development, characterized by abstract thinking; achieved
during adolescence or adulthood
fovea - Indented spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones
fraternal twins - Twins who develop from two ova fertilized by two different sperm; genetically related as siblings
free association - A psychoanalytic technique in which the patient is asked to say whatever comes to mind without
censoring anything
free recall - Learning procedure in which material that has been learned may be repeated in any order
frequency theory - Theory stating that the basilar membrane vibrates at different rates to create the perception of
different pitches
friendship - Form of interpersonal attraction that is governed by an implicit set of rules
frustration-aggression hypothesis - The hypothesis that aggression is likely to occur when a person is frustrated
functional fixedness - Inability to see new uses for familiar objects
functionalism - Approach to psychology that focused on the functions of consciousness
fundamental attribution error - The tendency to attribute behaviors to internal causes
-G-
ganglion cells - Cells in the retina whose axons form the optic nerve
gate control theory - Theory of pain stating that the release of substance P in the spinal cord produces the sensation
of pain
gender identity disorder - Sexual disorder characterized by a persons belief that he or she was born with the
wrong biological sex organs
gender roles - Behaviors considered appropriate for males and females in a given culture
gender-schema theory - Explanation for the learning of gender roles that suggests that children form schemas of
masculine and feminine attributes, which influence memory, perception, and behaviors
gender - Social and psychological phenomena associated with being feminine or masculine as these concepts
are defined in a given culture
general adaptation syndrome (GAS) - Typical series of responses to stressful situations that includes the alarm,
resistance, and exhaustion stages
generalization - Occurrence of responses to stimuli that are similar to a CS
generalized anxiety disorder - Chronically high level of anxiety that is not attached to a specific stimulus
generativity versus stagnation - Eriksons seventh psychosocial crisis, which occurs during middle adulthood and
reflects concern, or lack of concern, for the next generation
genes - Units of hereditary material that line the chromosomes and provide information concerning the form and
function of each cell
genital stage - Stage of psychosexual development that begins at puberty and usually leads to normal adult sexual
development
Gestalt psychology - Approach to psychology most noted for emphasizing that our perception of a whole is
different from our perception of the individual stimuli
Gestalt therapy - A humanistic form of therapy developed by Fritz Perls in which therapists may frustrate and
challenge clients to help them toward self-acceptance
glia cell - Type of cell found in the nervous system that forms the myelin sheath
glucostatic theory - Theory of short-term hunger regulation that stresses the importance of the level of usable blood
sugar (glucose)
good continuation and direction - Gestalt principle stating that smooth, flowing figures are more readily perceived
than choppy, broken figures
grasp reflex - Reflex consisting of a very strong hold on any object placed in the palm
group polarization - Phenomenon in which group decision making enhances or amplifies the original opinions of
the groups members
group therapy - Therapy in which clients discuss problems in groups that may include individuals with similar
problems
groupthink - The tendency to make decisions intended primarily to promote the harmony of the group
gustation - The sense of taste
-H-
habituation - Decrease in response strength that occurs as a function of repeated stimulation
hallucinations - Sensory experiences that are not caused by stimulation of the relevant sensory organ
hallucinogen - Drugs that can cause changes in perceptions such as hallucinations
hardiness - A psychological characteristic that can reduce the impact of stressors, consisting of commitment, belief
in a sense of control, and viewing change as a challenge
health psychology - Subfield of psychology that is concerned with how psychological and social variables affect
health and illness
heritability - Percentage of differences among a group of people in a characteristic, such as intelligence, that is
believed to be due to inherited factors
hermaphrodite - Individual who has both ovarian and testicular tissue
hertz (Hz) - Unit of measure (in cycles per second) of the frequency of a sound wave
heuristics - Educational guesses or rules of thumb for solving problems
hindbrain - Oldest of the three main divisions of the brain; its major structures are the medulla, pons, and
cerebellum
homeostasis - Tendency of the body to maintain an optimum range of physiological processes
hormones - Chemicals produced by the glands of the endocrine system that are carried by the bloodstream to other
organs
hospice - Institution where terminally ill patients and their families are given warm, friendly, personalized care
hostile aggression - Aggressive behavior that is performed with the specific intent of harming another person
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) - A virus that is usually contracted through the transfer of semen, blood, or
vaginal secretions and is the cause of AIDS
humanistic perspective - Approach to psychology associated with Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers; emphasizes
free will and individuals control of their behavior
humanistic psychology - General approach to psychology, associated with Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, that
emphasizes individuals control of their own behavior
humanistic therapies - Therapies that emphasize the present and the ability of clients to solve their own problems
when they are able to accept themselves
hyperpolarization - Process in which the electrical charge of the neuron becomes more negative
hypersomnias - Sleep disorders characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness despite a normal amount of sleep at
night
hypnosis - State of heightened susceptibility to suggestions
hypochondriasis - Somatoform disorder in which a person believes that he or she has a serious disease despite
repeated medical findings to the contrary
hypothesis - Prediction about future behaviors that is derived from observation and theories


-I-
id - In psychodynamic theory, the most basic element of the personality; it is the source of the instincts and operates
on the pleasure principle
identical twins - Twins who develop from one ovum fertilized by one sperm; genetically identical to each other
identity diffusion - Failure to develop an identity because of lack of goals and general apathy
identity versus identity confusion - Eriksons fifth psychosocial crisis, in which the adolescent faces the task of
determining his or her identity and role in society
imagery - Process of visualizing items as they are being learned
imaginary audience - Adolescents assumption that everyone else is concerned with his or her appearance and
behavior
immune system - System that protects the body against foreign substances such as viruses and bacteria
impression formation - The process of forming an opinion about another person
incidence - Number or percentage of newly diagnosed cases of a particular disorder in a given population
inclusiveness - Gestalt principle stating that the identity of a smaller figure may be lost within a larger, more
complex figure
independent variable - Variable manipulated by a researcher to determine its effects on a dependent variable
individualism - Placing ones own goals above those of the group
industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology - Application of psychology to problems of businesses and other
organizations
industry versus inferiority - Eriksons fourth psychosocial crisis, in which children begin to acquire the knowledge
and skills that will enable them to become productive members of society
informed consent - Written document in which a potential subject agrees to participate in a research study after
receiving information about the researchers specific procedures
initiative versus guilt - Eriksons third psychosocial crisis, in which children begin to evaluate the consequences of
their behavior
insanity - Legal ruling that a person accused of a crime is not held legally responsible for that act; defined in most
states as the inability to tell the difference between right and wrong at the time the crime is committed
insight learning - Sudden grasp of a concept or the solution to a problem; typically characterized by an immediate
change in behavior
insomnia - Complaints of difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, frequent awakenings, or poor-quality sleep
instrumental aggression - Aggression that causes harm in the process of achieving another goal
integrity versus despair - Eriksons eighth psychosocial crisis, which occurs during late adulthood; integrity
reflects a feeling that ones life has been worthwhile; despair reflects a desire to relive ones life
intelligence quotient (IQ) - Score that indicates how an individual compares to others on an intelligence test
intelligence - The ability to excel at a variety of tasks, especially those related to academic success
interdependence theory - Theory of interpersonal relationships that stresses the costs and rewards involved
intermittent, or partial, reinforcement - Reinforcement that does not follow every target response
interval schedule - Reinforcement schedule that is based on the passage of time and in which a single response at
the end of the designated interval is reinforced; intervals may be set (fixed interval, or FI, schedule) or may vary
from one reinforcement to the next (variable-interval, or VI, schedule).
intimacy versus isolation - Eriksons sixth psychosocial crisis, in which the young adult faces the task of
establishing a strong commitment to others (intimacy) or having to deal with isolation
intracellular fluids - Fluids located inside the cells of the body
introspection - Structural psychologists major method, in which participants reported the contents of their
conscious experience
ions - Electrically charged particles
-J K-
James-Lange theory - Theory that physiological changes precede and cause emotions
jet lag - Temporary maladjustment that occurs when a change of time zones causes biological rhythms to be out of
step with local time
just noticeable difference (jnd) - The smallest difference between two stimuli that is noticeable 50 percent of the
time to the individuals tested
kinesthetic sense - System of receptors located in the muscles and joints that provides information about the
location of the extremities
-L-
latchkey child - Child who is unsupervised after school
late adulthood - Period from approximately age 65 until death
latency stage - Stage of psychosexual development that extends from about age 6 until the onset of puberty and is
characterized by low levels of sexual interest
latent content - According to Freud, the real meaning of a dream, connected by symbols to the manifest content
latent learning - Learning that has occurred but is not demonstrated
law of effect - Thorndikes view that reinforcers promote learning, whereas punishers lead to the unlearning of
responses
law of parsimony - Principle that simple explanations of phenomena are preferred to complex explanations
learned goals (learned incentives) - Goals or incentives that are learned through the process of classical
conditioning
learned helplessness - Belief that one cannot control outcomes through ones actions; usually leads to passivity and
reduced motivation and may cause depression
learned motives - Motives that are learned or acquired through the process of classical conditioning
learning - A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience
levels-of-processing theory - Theory stating that deeper processing of information increases the likelihood that the
information will be placed in LTM
Likert scale - Questionnaire that requires individuals to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with a
set of statements
limbic system - System of interconnected subcortical structures that regulate a variety of motivated behaviors
linguistic relativity hypothesis - Hypothesis that language directs and determines what we think
lipostatic theory - Theory of long-term hunger regulation that stresses the importance of the level of stored body fat
longitudinal study - Research technique in which the same partcipants are tested or observed repeatedly over a
period of time
long-term memory (LTM) - Memory stage that has a very large capacity and the capability to store information
relatively permanently
long-term potentiation - Condition in which stimulation of the hippocampus results in long-lasting neural activity
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) - Powerful hallucinogen derived from the ergot fungus found on rye