Power Electronics Mod

Fundamentals of Power Electronics MTE 320 Spring 2006 E.F.
EL-Saadany
1
Fundamentals of Power Electronics

1. Power Semiconductors Devices (Switches)
There are several power semiconductors devices currently involved in several industrial applications.
This lecture will concentrate mainly on four power devices only, namely; Diodes, SCRs (Thyristors),
MOSEFTs, and IGBTs.

Diodes: These are two terminal switches, as shown in Fig. 1-a, formed of a pn junction. It is
not controllable and its operating states are determined by the circuit operating point. A
forward positive voltage (v
D
is positive) will turn it on and a reverse negative current (from
Cathode to Anode, i
D
is negative) will turn it off. Practically, the diode characteristic consists
of two regions, as shown in Fig. 1-b; a forward bias region (ON state) where both v
D
and i
D

are positive and the current in this region increases exponentially with the increase in the
voltage, and a reversed bias region (OFF state) where both v
D
and i
D
are negative and very
small leakage current flow through the diode until the applied reverse voltage reaches the
diodes breakdown voltage limit V
BR
. Ideally, the diode is represented by a short circuit when
forward biased and as an open circuit when reversed biased with the ideal characteristic
shown in Fig. 1-c.

Fig. 1 Diode: a) symbol, b) characteristic, and c) ideal characteristic [1]

Silicon Controlled Rectifiers SCRs (Thyristors): These are three terminal switches as
shown in Fig. 2-a, formed of three pn junction (pnpn). This is a controllable switch that
usually required to be latched to conduct. This latching (triggering) process is carried out by
Fundamentals of Power Electronics MTE 320 Spring 2006 E.F. EL-Saadany
2
injecting current to the gate terminal (i
g
) at the required latching instant provided that the
device is forward biased (v
AK
is positive). Practically, the thyristor characteristic has three
main regions as shown in Fig. 2-b; the Conduction Region where the thyristor is operating in
its ON state, the Forward Blocking Region where the thyristor is forward biased but not yet
triggered or the voltage didnt reach the forward breakover voltage, and a Reverse Region that
consists of the reverse blocking region and the reverse avalanche region similar to the diode
characteristic. Among the important points along the SCR characteristic:

Fig. 2 Thyristor: a) symbol, b) characteristic, and c) ideal characteristic [1]

Fig. 3 Thyristor gate circuit [1]

3
o Latching Current: This is the minimum required current to turn on the SCR
device and convert it from the Forward Blocking State to the ON State.
o Holding Current: This is the minimum forward current flowing through the
thyristor in the absence of the gate triggering pulse.
o Forward Breakover Voltage: This is the forward voltage required to be applied
across the thyristor to turn it ON without the gate signal application.
o Max Reverse Voltage: This is the maximum reverse voltage to be applied across
the thyristor before the reverse avalanche occurs.
Ideally, SCRs are represented by a short circuit when operating within the conduction region
and as an open circuit when operating within the blocking region. The ideal characteristic is
shown in Fig. 2-c. It is also worth mentioning that once the SCR is triggered and turned ON
the gate signal can be removed without turning it OFF. SCRs are turned OFF when reversing
the terminal voltage and current.

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors MOSFETs: These are three
terminal switches as shown in Fig. 4-a. This is considered the fastest power switching device.
It is a controllable switch that requires a gate-source voltage (v
GS
) higher than a threshold
value (v
Th
) for the device to conduct. Practically, MOSFETs characteristic consists of three
regions, as shown in Fig. 4-b; a cut OFF region (OFF state) when v
GS
<v
Th
, a linear region
when v
DS
<v
GS
v
Th
, and an active region when v
DS
>v
GS
v
Th
. Ideally, MOSFETs are
represented by a short circuit when operating within the ON State and as an open circuit when
operating within the OFF State.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors IGBTs (Thyristors): These are also three terminal
switches as shown in Fig. 5. Their operation modes and characteristics are almost similar to
those for MOSFETs, shown in Fig. 4-b, except for the operating ranges.

Other Semiconductor Devices: These include; Bipolar J unction Transistors (BJ Ts), Gate
Turn Off Thyristors (GTO Thyristors), Triode ac switches (Triacs), Static Induction
Transistors (SITs), Static Induction Thyristors (SITHs), and MOS-Controlled Thyristors
4
(MCTs). Comparisons between different types of semiconductor devices from the point of
view of ratings and power and frequency ranges are given in Table 1 and Fig. 6, respectively.

Fig. 4 MOSFET: a) symbol and b) characteristic [1]

Fig. 5 IGBT symbol [1]

Table 1 Power semiconductor devices ratings comparison [1]

5

Fig. 6 Frequency and power ranges for different power semiconductor devices [1]

2. Important Parameters for Periodic Waveforms
For any periodic waveform as shown in Fig. 7, the following parameters can be determined:

Peak Value: This represent the maximum value of the periodic waveform.
Peak to Peak Value: This represents the difference between the maximum and the
minimum values of the waveform.

Fig. 7 Periodic waveform and its parameters
6
Average Value: This represent the DC component content of the waveform and can be
calculated from the following expression;
( )
=
T
avr
dt t f
T
f
0
1
or
( )
0
1
t d t f f
avr

where f
avr
is the average value of the periodic function f(t) { f( t)} over a period T {}.
Root Mean Square (RMS) Value: this represent the effective value of the periodic function
and can be expressed by; (sometimes it is referred to by Effective Value)
( )
=
T
rms
dt t f
T
f
0
2
1
or
( )
0
2
1
t d t f f
rms

where f
rms
is the rms value of the periodic function f(t) { f( t)} over a period T {}.
Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV): This represents the maximum reverse voltage applied to a
semiconductor device during its operation in the off state. Sometimes referred to as the Peak
Inverse Voltage (PIV).
Conduction Period (Angle): The period of time (angle) during which a semiconductor switch
is conducting (operating in its ON state).
Extinction Angle: This is the angle ( t) at which the semiconductor switch stops conducting
(switched to the OFF state).
Firing Angle: This is the angle ( t) at which controlled semiconductor switch starts
conducting (switched to the ON state). Sometimes referred to as the Delay Angle.

3. Power Electronics Converters
In general, power electronics converters can be classified into four main categories namely; Rectifiers,
DC to DC Converters, AC to AC Converters, and Inverters.

3.1 Rectifiers
These converters are used to convert fixed AC power to fixed or variable DC power. They are
classified into two main categories; Uncontrolled Rectifiers and Controlled Rectifiers.
7
3.1.1 Uncontrolled Rectifiers
In this type, the generated DC power is fixed with the converter used and the input AC power.
They usually use diodes as their power switches. The following subsections deal with the basic
operation of some examples of uncontrolled rectifiers.

Single-phase half-wave rectifier loaded with resistive load:
Fig. 8-a presents the basic circuit for a single-phase, half-wave, rectifier loaded with a resistive
load. The circuit is supplied by a single phase transformer whose secondary represents the
rectifiers circuit AC source (v
s
) that is represented by a sinusoidal wave given by,
v
s
= V
m
sin ( t)

where v
s
is the supply voltage, V
m
is the peak value of the supply voltage, is the
angular frequency, and t and is the time.

For this configuration, the diode will conducts (becomes forward biased) whenever the supply
voltage (v
s
) is positive to force the current in the diode from the anode to the cathode.

Fig. 8 Single-phase half-wave rectifier: a) circuit and b) waveforms [2]

For one total period of operation of this circuit, the corresponding waveforms are shown in Fig.
8-b where two operating states occur as presented in Table 2.

8
Table 2 Operation states
Period Diode State
Diode
Representation
Output
Voltage (v
o
)
Load / Supply
Current (i
o
/ i
s
)
Diode
Voltage (v
D
)
0 t <
ON (Forward
Biased)
SC
*
v
s
v
s
/ R Zero
t < 2
OFF (Reverse
Biased)
OC
*
Zero Zero v
s

*
SC = Short Circuit, and OC = Open Circuit

The average value of the load voltageV
dc
can be calculated as follows,

( ) ( )

= =

0 0
sin
2
1
2
1
t d t V t d t v V
m s dc

m
m
dc
V
V
V 318 . 0 = =

Since the load is resistive load, therefore the load voltage and current are in phase and they are
related by i
s
= v
s
/ R. Consequently, the average value of the load current I
dc
is

R
V
R
V
R
V
I
m m dc
dc
318 . 0
= = =

The output DC power is given by
( ) ( )
R
V
R
V
V I P
m dc
dc dc dc
2 2
318 . 0
= = =

The rms value of the load voltage V
rms

( ) { } ( ) { }

= =

0
2
0
2
sin
2
1
2
1
t d t V t d t v V
m s rms

m
m
rms
V
V
V 5 . 0
2
= =

Therefore the rms value of the load current I
rms
is

R
V
R
V
R
V
I
m m rms
rms
5 . 0
2
= = =

The output AC power is given by
( ) ( )
R
V
R
V
V I P
m rms
rms rms ac
2 2
5 . 0
= = =

9
The PRV of the diode in this configuration is V
m
.

Single-phase half-wave rectifier loaded with resistive load and a battery:
Fig. 9-a presents the basic circuit for a single-phase, half-wave, rectifier loaded with a resistive
load and a battery. For this configuration, the diode will conducts (becomes forward biased)
whenever the supply voltage (v
s
) is positive and greater than the battery voltage E to force the
current in the diode from the anode (point 2) to the cathode (point 4).

Fig. 9 Single -phase half-wave rectifier: a) circuit and b) waveforms [3]


Period Diode State
Diode
Representation
Output
Voltage (v
o
)
Load / Supply
Current (i
o
/ i
s
)
Diode
Voltage (v
D
)
0 t < t
1
OFF (Reverse
Biased)
OC
*
E Zero v
s
- E
t
1
t < t
2

ON (Forward
Biased)
SC
*
v
s
(v
s
- E)/ R Zero
t
2
t < t
4

OFF (Reverse
Biased)
OC
*
E Zero v
s
- E
*

In the analysis of this circuit, point 1 is considered the grounded reference for all node voltages
and consequently the following voltages can be defined:
v
1
(Voltage at point 1) = zero
PRV = V
m
+ E
E
V
m
10
v
s
(Supply Voltage) = v
2
v
1
= v
2

v
D
(Diode Voltage) =v
2
v
4
v
R
(Resistive Load Voltage) =v
4
v
3
= v
4
E
v
o
(Output Load Voltage) =v
4
v
1
= v
3
+ v
R
= E + v
R

Moreover, the load (supply {since the load, the battery, and the supply are connected in series})
current may be defined as
i
o
(Load Current) =i
s
(Supply Current) = v
R
/ R

The angle at which the diode starts conducting ( ) is the same angle at which the supply
voltage is equal to the battery voltage. Therefore, at = t we have,
( ) ( ) sin
m s
V E t v = = =

=

m
V
E
1
sin

Since the wave form during the first half cycle is symmetric around
2
= t . Therefore, the
angle at which the diode stops conducting ( ) is be given by,
=

dc

( ) ( )

+ =
+ =

+
2 2
sin
2
1
2
1
t d E t d t V t d E t d t v V
m s dc

( ) ( ) [ ] E V V
m dc
+ + =
2 cos 2
2
1

The average value of the load current I
dc
is

( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) [ ]
R
E V
R
E E V
R
E V
I
m
m
dc
dc
2
2 cos 2
2 cos 2
2
1
+
=
+ +
=
=

11
The PRV of the diode in this configuration is (V
m
+ E) which represent the maximum value of
v
D
=v
2
v
4
when there is no current flowing in the load as shown in Fig. 9-b.

Single-phase full-wave rectifier loaded with resistive load:
Fig. 10-a presents the circuit connection for a single-phase, full-wave, rectifier loaded with a
resistive load. It is sometimes referred to as the full-wave bridge rectifier. For this
configuration, two diodes always conducting during the same interval to provide a closed loop
for the current. D
1
and D
2
conduct whenever the supply voltage (v
s
) is positive while D
3
and D
4

conduct whenever the supply voltage (v
s
) is negative as illustrated by Fig. 10-b.

Fig. 10 Single -phase full-wave rectifier loaded with resistive load [2]


Period
Conducting
Diodes
Output Voltage
(v
o
)
Load Current
(i
o
)
Supply Current
(i
s
)
Diode Voltage
(v
D
)
0 t < D
1
& D
2
v
s
v
s
/ R v
s
/ R
- v
s

for D
3
& D
4

t < 2 D
3
& D
4
- v
s
- v
s
/ R v
s
/ R
v
s

for D
1
& D
2

12
Since the load is a resistive load. Then, the load current will have the same waveform as the
load voltage but with current scale according the load current-voltage characteristic,
i
o
(Load Current) =v
o
/ R

Table 4 reveals that, during the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, the load current is
positive (i
o
=- v
s
/ R) whereas the supply current is negative (i
s
= v
s
/ R).

dc

( ) ( )

= =

0 0
sin
1 1
t d t d t V t d t v V
m s dc

m
m
dc
V
V
V 6366 . 0
2
= =

dc
is

R
V
R
V
R
V
I
m m dc
dc
6366 . 0 2
= = =

rms

( ) { } ( ) { }

= =

0
2
0
2
sin
1 1
t d t V t d t v V
m s rms

m
m
rms
V
V
V 707 . 0
2
= =

rms
is

R
V
R
V
R
V
I
m m rms
rms
707 . 0
2
= = =

The PRV for any diode in this configuration is (V
m
) as shown in Fig. 10-b.

Single-phase full-wave rectifier loaded with highly inductive load:
Fig. 11-a presents the circuit connection for a single-phase, full-wave, rectifier loaded with a
highly inductive load. Highly inductive loads are basically R-L loads where L >>> R.
13
Therefore, the load time constant
R
L
= is very high and can be considered infinity.
Consequently, the load current is assumed constant. For one total period of operation of this
circuit, the corresponding waveforms are shown in Fig. 11-b where two operating states occur
as presented in Table 5.

Fig. 11 Single -phase full-wave rectifier loaded with highly inductive load [2xxxx]

Period
Conducting
Diodes
Output Voltage
(v
o
)
Load Current
(i
o
)
Supply Current
(i
s
)
Diode Voltage
(v
D
)
0 t < D
1
& D
2
v
s
I
a
I
a
- v
s

for D
3
& D
4

t < 2 D
3
& D
4
- v
s
I
a
- I
a
v
s

for D
1
& D
2

Table 5 reveals that, during the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, the load current is
positive (i
o
=I
a
) whereas the supply current is negative (i
s
=- Ia).

14
dc

( ) ( )

= =

0 0
sin
1 1
t d t V t d t v V
m s dc

m
m
dc
V
V
V 6366 . 0
2
= =

Since the load is a highly inductive load. Then, the load current is considered constant (ripple
free current) and equal to the average value of the load current I
dc
as follows,

R
V
R
V
R
V
I I
m m dc
a dc
6366 . 0 2
= = = =

In case the load contains a DC battery E (or a back emf) in addition to the highly inductive
load, the load current will be

R
E V
R
E
V
R
E V
I I
m
m
dc
a dc
= =
2
2
(provided that E < V
dc
)

rms

( ) { } ( ) { }

= =

0
2
0
2
sin
1 1
t d t V t d t v V
m s rms

m
m
rms
V
V
V 707 . 0
2
= =
Since the load current is constant over the studied period, therefore the rms value of the load
current I
rms
is

a dc rms
I I I = =

The PRV for any diode in this configuration is (V
m
) as shown in Fig. 11-b.

3.1.2 Controlled Rectifiers
In this type, the generated DC power is controllable and variable. They usually use SCRs as
their power switches. For fast switching operation, MOSFETs and IGBTs are used. The
following subsections deal with the basic operation of some examples of controlled rectifiers.

15
Single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier loaded with resistive load:
Fig. 12-a presents the basic circuit for a single-phase, half-wave, controlled rectifier loaded
with a resistive load. For this configuration, the thyristor will conducts (becomes forward
biased) when triggered using gate pulses provided that the supply voltage (v
s
) is positive to
force the current in the thyristor from the anode to the cathode.

The instant at which the gate pulse occurs is known as the firing angle and represented by ().
The gate pulses are repeated every 2 (one complete cycle). The firing angle can occur at any
instant ranging from 0 to as the thyristor has to be forward biased when triggered, otherwise
it wont conduct. For one total period of operation of this circuit, the corresponding waveforms
are shown in Fig. 12-c where three operating states occur as presented in Table 6.

Fig. 12 Single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier [2]

dc

( ) ( )

= =

t d t V t d t v V
m s dc
sin
2
1
2
1

16
( ) ( )
cos 1
2
+ =
m
dc
V
V

dc
is
( ) ( )
cos 1
2
+ = =
R
V
R
V
I
m dc
dc

Period Thyristor State
Thyristor
Representation
Output
Voltage (v
o
)
Load / Supply
Current (i
o
/ i
s
)
Thyristor
Voltage (v
T1
)
0 t <
OFF (Forward
Blocking)
OC
*
Zero Zero v
s

t <
ON (Forward
Biased)
SC
*
v
s
v
s
/ R Zero
t < 2
OFF (Reverse
Biased)
OC
*
Zero Zero v
s

*

Therefore, the average output voltage can vary from 0 to
m
V
and the average load current will
vary from 0 to
R
V
m
when varying from to 0, respectively. Moreover, since the load

voltage and current for this configuration are always positive, therefore, this converter operates
in the first quadrant only as revealed by Fig. 12-b.

rms

( ) { } ( ) { }

= =

t d t V t d t v V
m s rms
2 2
sin
2
1
2
1

( )
+ =
2
2 sin 1
2

m
rms
V
V

rms
is

( )
+ = =
2
2 sin 1
2

R
V
R
V
I
m rms
rms

The PRV of the thyristor for this configuration is V
m
.
17
Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier loaded with highly inductive load:
Fig. 13-a presents the circuit connection for a single-phase, full-wave, controlled rectifier
loaded with a highly inductive load. For one total period of operation of this circuit, the
corresponding waveforms are shown in Fig. 13-c where two operating states occur as presented
in Table 7.
Period
Conducting
Thyristors
Output
Voltage (v
o
)
Load Current
(i
o
)
Supply Current
(i
s
)
Thyristor
Voltage (v
T
)
t < + T
1
& T
2
v
s
I
a
I
a
- v
s

for T
3
& T
4

+ t < 2 + T
3
& T
4
- v
s
I
a
- I
a
v
s

for T
1
& T
2

Fig. 13 Single -phase full-wave rectifier loaded with highly inductive load [2]

dc

( ) ( )

+ +
= =

m s dc
sin
1 1

( )
cos
2
m
dc
V
V =
18
Since the load is a highly inductive load. Then, the load current is considered constant (ripple
free current) and equal to the average value of the load current I
dc
as follows,

( )
R
E
V
R
E V
I I
m
dc
a dc
= =

cos
2
dc
and V
dc
> 0)

In case the load doesnt contain a DC battery E (or a back emf) in addition to the highly
inductive load, the load current will be
( )
cos
2
R
V
R
V
I I
m dc
a dc
= = = (provided that V
dc
> 0)

Therefore, the average output voltage can vary from
m
V 2
to
m
V 2
when varying from
to 0, respectively. Moreover, since the load voltage for this configuration can be positive or
negative while the load current is always positive because the thyristors prevents a reverse
current flow. Therefore, this converter operates in the first and the fourth quadrants as revealed
by Fig. 13-b.

rms

( ) { } ( ) { }

+ +
= =

t d t V t d t v V
m s rms
2 2
sin
1 1

m
m
rms
V
V
V 707 . 0
2
= =

Since the load current is constant over the studied period, therefore the rms value of the load
current I
rms
is

a dc rms
I I I = =

The PRV for any thyristor in this configuration is (V
m
).

Single-phase semiconverter loaded with highly inductive load:
Fig. 14-a presents the circuit connection for a single-phase semiconverter loaded with a highly
inductive load. This configuration consists of a combination of thyristors and diodes and used
19
to eliminate any negative voltage occurrence at the load terminals. This is because the diode D
m

is always activated (forward biased) whenever the load voltage tends to be negative. For one
total period of operation of this circuit, the corresponding waveforms are shown in Fig. 14-b
where four operating states occur as presented in Table 8.

dc

( ) ( )

= =

t d t V t d t v V
m s dc
sin
1 1

( ) ( )
cos 1+ =
m
dc
V
V

Fig. 14 Single -phase semiconverter loaded with highly inductive load [2]
20
Period
Conducting
Switches
Output
Voltage
(v
o
)
Load
Current
(i
o
)
Supply
Current
(i
s
)
Diode D
m

Current
(i
Dm
)
Switch Voltage
0 t < D
m
0 I
a
0

I
a
0.5 v
s
for T
1
& D
2

- 0.5 v
s
for T
2
& D
1

t < T
1
& D
2
v
s
I
a
I
a
0

- v
s
for T
2
& D
1
& D
m

t < + D
m
0 I
a
0

I
a
- 0.5 v
s
for T
1
& D
2

0.5 v
s
for T
2
& D
1

+ t < 2 T
2
& D
1
- v
s
I
a
- I
a
0

v
s
for T
1
& D
2
& D
m

dc
is

( ) ( )
R
E
V
R
E V
I
m
dc
dc
+
=
cos 1
2
dc
)

Therefore, the average output voltage can vary from 0 to
m
V
when varying from to 0,
respectively. Moreover, since the load voltage and current for this configuration are always
positive, therefore, this converter operates in the first quadrant only as revealed by Fig. 14-b.

rms

( ) { } ( ) { }

= =

t d t V t d t v V
m s rms
2 2
sin
1 1

( )
+ =
2
2 sin 1
2

m
rms
V
V

The PRV for any switch in this configuration is (V
m
).

3.2 DC to DC Converters
These converters are used to convert fixed DC power to controllable, variable DC power. The
following subsections deal with the basic types of these converters. They are sometimes referred to as
DC Choppers. DC Choppers can be classified according to their operation range (load voltage and
current) into five main categories as shown in Fig. 15.
21

Fig. 15 DC Choppers classification

3.2.1 First Quadrant DC Chopper
In this type, the load voltage and load currents are always positive. Fig. 16 presents the circuit
of this type. For one total period of operation of this circuit (T), the corresponding equivalent
circuits and waveforms are shown in Fig. 17 where two operating modes occur as presented in
Table 9.

Fig. 16 First quadrant DC Chopper
22

Fig. 17 Modes of operation equivalent circuit and output Waveforms

The equations that governs the operation of this type can be summarized as follows, the
average value of the load voltageV
dc

s
kT
s dc
V k t d V
T
V = =

0
1

where V
s
is the DC supply voltage, T is the total period of operation, and k is the duty
cycle given by
T
t
k
on
= , where t
on
is the period at which the chopper is ON.

Table 9 Operation modes
Currents
Period Mode
Chopper
State
Diode State
Output
Voltage
(v
o
)
(i ) (i
s
) (i
Dm
)
0 t < kT 1

ON (SC*) OFF (OC*) V
s
i
1
i
1
0
kT t < T 2

OFF (OC*) ON (SC*) 0 i
2
0 i
2

*

23
For (L / R) >> T, the load current is continuous and can be expressed by,
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+ =
=

T k t T t T k e
R
E
e I t i
T k t e
R
E V
e I t i
t i
L R t L R t
L R t s L R t
) 1 ( ' 0 , 1 '
0 1
/ ' / '
2 2
/ /
1 1

where t is a new reference related to t by t = t - kT

where
R
E
e
e
R
V
I
z
z k
s
=
1
1
1
,
R
E
e
e
R
V
I
z
z k
s
1
1
2
, and
L
R T
z = .

For discontinuous mode of operation (I
1
= 0), the load current can be expressed by,
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
=
=

T k t T t T k e
R
E
e I t i
T k t e
R
E V
t i
t i
L R t L R t
L R t s
) 1 ( ' 0 , 1 '
0 1
/ ' / '
2 2
/
1

For the load current to be continuous, I
1
should be greater than or equal to zero. Therefore,
0
1
1
1

=
R
E
e
e
R
V
I
z
kz
s

0
1
1
s
z
kz
V
E
e
e

1
1

z
kz
s
e
e
V
E

3.2.2 Second Quadrant DC Chopper
In this type, the load voltage is always positive while the load current is always negative. Fig.
18-a presents the circuit connection of this type. For one total period of operation of this circuit
(T), the corresponding equivalent circuits and waveforms are shown in Figs. 18-b and 18-c
where two operating modes occur as presented in Table 10.
24

Fig. 18 Second quadrant DC Chopper

The equations that governs the operation of this type can be summarized as follows, the
average value of the load voltageV
dc

( )
s
T
kT
s dc
V k t d V
T
V = =

1
1

where V
s
is the DC supply voltage, T is the total period of operation, and k is the duty
cycle given by
T
t
k
on
= , where t
on
is the period at which the chopper is ON.

Currents
Period Chopper State Diode State Load Voltage (v
o
)
(i
L
) (i
s
) (i
ch
)
0 t < kT ON (SC*) OFF (OC*) 0

i
1
0 i
1

kT t < T OFF (OC*) ON (SC*) V
s
i
2
i
2
0
*

For continuous load current operation, the load current is can be expressed by,
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
+ =
+
=

T k t T t T k e
R
V E
e I t i
T k t e
R
E
e I
t i
L R t s L R t
L R t L R t
L
1 ' 0 , 1 '
0 1
/ ' / '
2 2
/ /
1

where t is a new reference related to t by t = t kT
where
( )
R
E
e
e
R
V
I
z
z k
s
=

1
1
1
1
,
R
E
e
e e
R
V
I
z
z z k
s

=

1
2
, and
L
R T
z = .

25
3.2.3 First and Second Quadrants DC Chopper
In this type, the load voltage is always positive while the load current can be either positive or
negative. It is also know as the two quadrant chopper. Fig. 19 presents the circuit connection of
this type. This is considered a combined converter consisting of both the first-quadrant and the
second quadrant DC choppers. It can operate in the first quadrant by controlling S
1
and D
4
in
the same manner explained in Section 3.2.1. Moreover, it can operate in the second quadrant by
controlling S
4
and D
1
in the same manner explained in Section 3.2.2. S
1
and S
4
must not be
switched ON at the same time; otherwise, the source will be short circuited. Table 11 shows the
different operation mode of this converter.

Fig. 19 First and second quadrants DC Chopper

Mode Conducting switch Load Current (i
L
) Load Voltage (v
L
)
1 S
1
+ ve V
s
2 S
4
- ve 0

3 D
1
- ve V
s
4 D
4
+ ve 0

Note that the diode D
1
is activated once S
4
is switched off while the diode D
4
is activated once
S
1
is switched off. This operation is carried out because of the presence of the inductance in the
load that requires a continuous flow of current at the instant of turning OFF the chopper
switches.

3.2.4 Third and Fourth Quadrants DC Chopper
In this type, the load voltage is always negative while the load current can be either positive or
negative. Fig. 20 presents the circuit connection of this type. It can operate in the third quadrant
by controlling S
3
and D
2
while it can operate in the fourth quadrant by controlling S
2
and D
4
. S
2

26
and S
2
must not be switched ON at the same time; otherwise, the source will be short circuited.
Table 12 shows the different operation mode of this converter.

Fig. 20 Third and Fourth quadrants DC Chopper

L
) Load Voltage (v
L
)
1 S
2
+ ve 0

2 S
3
- ve - V
s
3 D
2
- ve 0

4 D
3
+ ve - V
s

The diode D
2
is activated once S
3
is switched off while the diode D
3
is activated once S
2
is
switched off.

3.2.5 Four-Quadrants DC Chopper
In this type, the load voltage and the load current can be either positive or negative. Fig. 21
presents the circuit connection of this type. It can operate in the first quadrant by controlling S
1

and keeping S
2
switched ON, S
3
and S
4
switched OFF. Moreover, it can operate in the second
quadrant by controlling S
4
and keeping S
2
, S
3
and S
1
switched OFF. S
2
and S
3
(as well as S
1
and
S
4
) must not be switched ON at the same time; otherwise, the source will be short circuited.
Table 13 shows the different operation mode of this converter.

Fig. 21 Four-quadrants DC Chopper
27
Table 13 Four quadrant operation modes
L
) Load Voltage (v
L
)
1 S
1
and S
2
+ ve V
s
2 D
3
and D
4
+ ve - V
s
3 S
3
and S
4
- ve - V
s
4 D
1
and D
2
- ve V
s

Diodes D
3
and D
4
are activated once S
1
and S
2
are switched off (and S
3
and S
4
are triggered)
while diodes D
1
and D
2
are activated once S
3
and S
4
are switched off (and S
1
and S
2
are
triggered).

3.3 Other Power Converters
In addition to the previously discussed converters, there are also the AC - to - AC Converters, that
convert fixed AC power to controllable, variable AC power, and the DC - to AC Converters
(Inverters), that convert fixed AC power to controllable, variable DC power. These converters are not
covered within the scope of this course.

4. Fast Switching Modulation Techniques
There are several techniques to control (modulate) fast power semiconductor switches. This section
will introduce the basic principle and the main types of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) techniques.
This technique is basically based on comparing a reference signal v
r
with a carrier signal v
cr
to generate
the control (switchs gate) signal as shown in Fig. 22. This generated control signal is send to the
control terminal of the power electronic switches to activate them whenever v
r
<v
cr
provided that the
switch is forward biased. By varying the carrier signal magnitude the ON period (ton) and the duty
cycle of switching changes. Moreover, the switching frequency (switching period) is varied by varying
the reference signal frequency.

Fig. 22 Basics of PWM
28
4.1 PWM for DC Output
They techniques are used for the converters generating DC outputs. They are classified into two main
categories:

Uniform (Equal width) PWM: The generated pulses have equal width as shown in Fig.
23. They are generated by comparing a triangular wave with a DC signal.

Fig. 23 Uniform PWM for DC outputs [4]

Sinusoidal PWM: The generated pulses have different widths as shown in Fig. 24.

Fig. 24 Sinusoidal PWM for DC outputs [1]

29
They are generated by comparing a triangular wave with a variable DC signal to generate
a sinusoidal variable duty cycle tracking the following function,
( ) ( ) t D D t d
o dc
sin
max
+ =
where ( ) t d is the required duty cycle signal to be generated,
dc
D is the normal
duty cycle with no sinusoidal modulation,
max
D is the maximum modulation
constant, and
o
is the modulation frequency.

The generated DC output voltage in this case can be represented by
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t V D V D V t D D V t d v
o dc dc dc dc o dc dc o
sin sin
max max
+ = + = =
where V
dc
is the DC source voltage.

4.2 PWM for AC Output
They techniques are used for the converters generating AC outputs. They are classified into three main
categories:

Uniform (Equal width) PWM: The generated pulses have equal width as shown in Fig.
25. They are generated by comparing two inverse triangular waves with two opposite DC
signal levels.

Fig. 25 Uniform PWM for AC outputs [4]

30
Bipolar Sinusoidal PWM: The generated pulses have different widths as shown in Fig.
26. They are generated by comparing a triangular wave with a sinusoidal wave.
Whenever, the reference signal is greater than the triangular signal a pulse is generated by
turning ON switch S
1
. On the other hand, whenever, the reference signal is lower than the
triangular signal a pulse is generated by turning ON switch S
2
as shown in Fig. 27.

Fig. 26 Biopolar Sinusoidal PWM for AC outputs [1]

Fig. 27 Simplified circuit for generating biopolar Sinusoidal PWM for AC outputs [1]

Unipolar Sinusoidal PWM: The generated pulses have different widths as shown in Fig.
28. They are used when a positive and negative sinusoidal control signal are available.
These signals are compared with sawtooth signals to generate to output V
o1
and V
o2
. The
difference generates the total output control signal V
o
= V
o1
- V
o2
. For example, positive
pulses can be used to trigger S
1
while negative pulses can be used to trigger S
2
, shown in
Fig. 27, to generate the output voltage waveform shown in Fig. 28.
31

Fig. 28 Unipolar Sinusoidal PWM for AC outputs [1]

5. Numerical Examples

Example 1: For the half-wave uncontrolled rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 29. The supply is a 110
V, 60 Hz. The resistive load is 25 . Calculate:
1. The average value of the output voltage and current,
2. The rms value of the output voltage and current,
32
3. The average value of the power delivered to the load,
4. The average value of the power delivered to the load if the source has a
resistance of 60 .

Given: V =110 V, f =60 Hz, R =25 , and R
s
=60 .

Solution: For half-wave uncontrolled rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 29.

Fig. 29 Single-phase half-wave rectifier [2]

1. The average value of the load voltageV
dc

( ) ( )

= =

0 0
sin
2
1
2
1
t d t V t d t v V
m s dc

V
x V
V
m
dc
517 . 49
110 2
= = =

dc
is
A
x
R
V
R
V
I
m dc
dc
981 . 1
25
110 2
= = = =

2. The rms value of the load voltage V
rms
33

( ) { } ( ) { }

= =

0
2
0
2
sin
2
1
2
1
t d t V t d t v V
m s rms

V
x V
V
m
rms
782 . 77
2
110 2
2
= = =

rms
is
A
R
V
I
rms
rms
111 . 3
25
782 . 77
= = =

3. The average power delivered to the load is
( ) ( )
( ) [ ] ( )
R
V
t d
R
t v
t d t i t v P
rms s
o o avr
2
0
2
0
2
1
2
1
= = =

( )
W P
avr
002 . 242
25
782 . 77
2
= =

4. If the source has a resistance of 60 , the load voltage will be related to the total
voltage using the voltage divider equation as follows,
( ) ( )
( )
s
s o
R R
R
t v t v
+
=

Therefore the value of the average power delivered to the load is
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
( )
( )
( )
2
2
0
2
2
0
2
1
2
1
s
rms
s
s o o avr
R R
R
V t d
R R
R
t v t d t i t v P
+
=
+
= =

( )
( )
W P
avr
934 . 20
60 25
25
782 . 77
2
2
=
+
=

Example 2: For the single-phase, full-wave uncontrolled rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 30. The
supply is a 110 V, 60 Hz. The resistive load is 25 . Calculate:
1. The average value of the output voltage and current,
2. The rms value of the output voltage and current,
3. The average value of the power delivered to the load,

Given: V =110 V, f =60 Hz, and R =25 .
34
Solution: For full-wave uncontrolled rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 30.

Fig. 30 Single-phase, full-wave rectifier [2]

dc

( ) ( )

= =

0 0
sin
1 1
m s dc

V
x V
V
m
dc
035 . 99
110 2 2 2
= = =

dc
is
A
R
V
I
dc
dc
961 . 3
25
035 . 99
= = =

2. The rms value of the load voltage V
rms

( ) { } ( ) { }

= =

0
2
0
2
sin
1 1
t d t V t d t v V
m s rms

V
x V
V
m
rms
110
2
110 2
2
= = =

rms
is
35
A
R
V
I
rms
rms
4 . 4
25
110
= = =

3. The average power delivered to the load is
( ) ( )
( ) [ ] ( )
R
V
t d
R
t v
t d t i t v P
rms s
o o avr
2
0
2
0
1 1
= = =

( )
W P
avr
484
25
110
2
= =

Example 3: For the first quadrant DC chopper shown in Fig. 31. The supply is a DC source of
220 V. The load parameters are as follows: E =0 V, L =7.5 mH, and R =5 . The
chopper is switched at 1 kHz with a duty cycle of 50 %. Calculate:
1. The average value of the load voltage,
2. The maximum and the minimum values for the instantaneous load current,
3. The peak-to-peak load current ripple.
4. The approximated average value of the load current,

Given: V
s
=220 V, E =0 V, f =1 kHz, L =7.5 mH, R =5 , and k =0.5.

Solution: For the first quadrant DC chopper shown in Fig. 31.

Fig. 31 First quadrant DC chopper [2]

dc

V x V k t d V
T
V
s
kT
s dc
110 220 5 . 0
1
0
= = = =

36
2. Since the back emf (battery voltage) is zero. Then, the load current will satisfy the
continuity equation
1
1
z
kz
s
e
e
V
E
. Therefore, the load current is continuous and the
crrosponding waveforms are shown in Fig. 32.

Fig. 32 First quadrant DC chopper waveforms [2]

Therefore the maximum and the minimum values for the instantaneous load
current can be determined using the following equations

R
E
e
e
R
V
I
z
z k
s
=
1
1
1
,
R
E
e
e
R
V
I
z
z k
s
1
1
2
, and
L
R T
z =

using the circuit parameters and substitute in the above equation yield to,
667 . 0
10 5 . 7 1000
5
3
= = = =

x x
L f
R
L
R T
z ,
A x
e
e
I
x
38 . 18
1 948 . 1
1 396 . 1
44 0
1
1
5
220
667 . 0
667 . 0 5 . 0
1
=

=
, and
37
A x
e
e
I
x
659 . 25
1 513 . 0
1 716 . 0
44 0
1
1
5
220
667 . 0
667 . 0 5 . 0
2
=

3. The peak-to-peak load current ripple I can be calculated using,
A I I I 279 . 7 38 . 18 659 . 25
1 2
= = =

4. The approximated average value of the load current can be calculated assuming
that the current waveforms are linear and using the 50 % duty cycle as follows,
A
I I
I
dc
02 . 22
2
38 . 18 659 . 25
2
1 2
=
+
=
+
=

References
[1] Issa Batarseh, Power Electronic Circuits J ohn Wiley & Sons Inc., USA, 2004.
[2] Muhammad H. Rashid, Power Electronics, Third Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, NJ , USA, 2004.
[3] Theodore Wildi, "Electrical Machines Drives, and Power Systems," Prentice Hall, Ohio, 2006.
[4] Timothy L. Skvarenina, The Power Electronics Handbook, CRC Press, 2001.

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Fundamentals of Power Electronics MTE 320 Spring 2006 E.F.

when varying from to 0, respectively. Moreover, since the load

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