02-Alternators

Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 1 of 12

Alternators
Alternator on Load [1/37.16/p.1422]

As the load on an alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also found to vary as in
DC generators. This variation in terminal voltage V is due to the following reasons:
1. Voltage drop due to armature resistance, R
a
,
2. Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance, X
L
, and
3. Voltage drop due to armature reaction

Armature Resistance
The armature resistance/phase R
a
causes a voltage drop/phase of IR
a
which is in phase
with the armature current I. However, this voltage drop is practically negligible.

Armature Leakage Reactance
When current flows through the armature conductors, fluxes are set up which do not
cross the air-gap, but take different paths. Such fluxes are known as leakage fluxes. Various
types of leakage fluxes are shown in Fig. 35.22.
The leakage flux is practically independent of saturation, but is depend on I and its
phase angle with terminal voltage V. This leakage flux sets up an emf of self-induced which
is known as reactance emf and which is ahead of I by 90
o
. Hence, armature winding is
assumed to posses leakage reactance X
L
(also known as Potier reactance X
P
) such that
voltage drop due to this equal IX
L
. A part of the generated emf is used up in overcoming this
reactance emf
) (
L a
jX R + + = I V E
This fact is illustrated in the vector diagram of Fig. 35.23.

Armature reaction
Armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field flux. In the case of
alternators, the power factor of the load has a considerable effect on the armature reaction.
We will consider three cases: (i) when load of p.f. is unity, (ii) when p.f. is zero lagging, and
(iii) when p.f. is zero leading.

Unity Power Factor
In the case of three phase stator, the three phase currents set up three fluxes. The
armature phase currents have the same magnitude and are 120
o
apart in time as shown in Fig.
02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 2 of 12


19.15. In accordance of Fig. 19.15. the expression of fluxes can be written as follows (taking
the direction of flux due to phase a as reference direction):



) 120 sin( ) 120 sin 120 (cos
); 120 sin( ) 240 sin 240 (cos
; sin ) 0 sin 0 (cos
o o o
o o o
o o
+ + =
+ =
+ =
t j
t j
t j
m c
m b
m a

Expanding and adding the above equations, we get
) 90 (
2
3
) cos (sin
2
3
o
t t j t
m m r
= + =
It is seen from the above equation that the resultant field set up the current in the
armature remains constant in magnitude and rotates at synchronous speed.
Moreover it is seen that when the current is in phase with the induced voltage, the
armature-reaction field always lags the main field by 90
o
as shown in Fig. 35.25 (a). This said
to be a cross-magnetizing field. In the other words, armature-reaction for unity power factor
is distortional.
If we consider the armature-reaction field to act independently, this field induces
another voltage in each phase of the armature which lags the respective phase current by 90
o
.

Zero power Factor Lagging
In this case, the phase current lags the phase voltage by 90
o
. This resultant armature-
reaction flux is moved backward by 90
o
. Thus, the direction of the armature-reaction flux is
now seen to be 180
o
behind the main filed flux as shown in Fig. 35.25(b). The armature-
reaction flux directly opposes and weakens the main field flux and this is said to be
demagnetizing.
To keep the value of generated emf the same, field excitation will have to be
increased to compensate for this weakening.

Zero power Factor Leading
In this case, the phase current leads the phase voltage by 90
o
. This resultant armature-
reaction flux is moved forward by 90
o
. Thus, the direction of the armature-reaction flux is
now seen to be in phase with the main filed flux as shown in Fig. 35.25(c). This results in
02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 3 of 12


added main flux. Hence, armature-reaction is wholly magnetizing, which results in greater
induced emf.
To keep the value of generated emf the same, field excitation will have to be reduced
somewhat.

(a) For unity power factor (b) For zero lagging power factor

(c) For zero leading power factor
Fig. 35. 25

For intermediate power factor between unity power factor and zero lagging power
factor, the effect is partly cross-magnetizing (or distortional) and partly demagnetizing. If
represents the phase angle between phase current and induced phase voltage, then sin
represents the demagnetizing component, while cos represents the cross-magnetizing
component.
For intermediate power factor between unity power factor and zero leading power
factor, the effect is partly cross-magnetizing (or distortional) and partly magnetizing. If
represents the phase angle between phase current and induced phase voltage, then sin
represents the magnetizing component, while cos represents the cross-magnetizing
component.

Synchronous Reactance [1/37.17/1425]
From the above discussion, it is clear that for the same field excitation, terminal
voltage is decreased from its no-load value E
0
to V (for lagging power factor). This is because
of
1. drop due to armature resistance, IR
a
;
2. drop due to leakage reactance, IX
L
; and
3. drop due to armature reaction.
02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 4 of 12


The drop in voltage due to armature reaction may be accounted for by assuming the
presence of a fictitious reactance X
a
in the armature winding. The value of X
a
is such that IX
a

represents the voltage drop due to armature reaction.
The leakage reactance X
L
(or X
P
) and the armature reactance X
a
may be combined to
give synchronous reactance X
S
.
Hence X
S
=X
L
+X
a
.
Therefore, total voltage drop in
an alternator under load is
S S a S a
I jX R I jIX IR Z = + = + = ) (
Where Z
S
is known as synchronous
impedance of the armature, the word
synchronous being used merely as an
indication that it refers to the working
conditions.
Hence, we learn that the vector
difference between no-load voltage E
0

and terminal voltage V is equal to IZ
S
,
as shown in Fig. 35.26.


Vector Diagram of a Loaded Alternator [1/37.18/1426]

(a) unity power factor
a
jIX E E + =
0
;
L a
jIX IR V E + + =
a L a
jIX jIX IR V E + + + =
0

) ( ) (
0 a L a
IX IX j IR V E + + + =
s a
jIX IR V E + + = ) (
0

2 2
0
) ( ) (
s a
IX IR V E + + =

(b) laging power factor
) sin ( ) cos (
0 s a
IX V j IR V E + + + =
2 2
0
) sin ( ) cos (
s a
IX V IR V E + + + =


(c) leading power factor
) sin ( ) cos (
0 s a
IX V j IR V E + + =
2 2
0
) sin ( ) cos (
s a
IX V IR V E + + =

Fig. 35.27
Before discussing the diagrams, following symbols should be clearly kept in mind.
02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 5 of 12


E
0
= No-load emf. This being the voltage induced in the armature in the absence of
three factors discussed in Art. 35.16. Hence it is represents the maximum
value of the induced emf.
E = Load induced emf. It is the induced emf after allowing for armature reaction. E is
vectorially less than E
0
by IX
a
. Sometimes, it is written as E
a
.
V = Terminal voltage. It is vectorially less than E
0
by IZ
S
or it is vectorially less than
E by IZ. where,
2 2
L a
X R Z + = . It may also be written as Z
a
.
I = Armature current/phase and = load power factor angle.
In Fig. 35.27 (a) is shown thee case for unity power factor, in Fig. 35.27(b) for lagging power
factor and in Fig. 35.27(c) for leading power factor. All these diagrams apply to one phase of
a 3-phase machine. Diagrams for the other phases can also be drawn similarly.

Example 37.16. A 3-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a load of 10 MW at PF 0.85
lagging and at 11 kV (terminal voltage). Its resistance is 0.1 ohm per phase and
synchronous reactance 0.66 ohm per phase. Calculate the line value of EMF
generated.


Voltage Regulation [1/37.19/1427]
It is clear that with change
in load, there is a change in
terminal voltage of an alternator.
The magnitude of this change
depends not only to the load but
also on the load power factor.
The voltage regulation of an
alternator is defined as the rise in
voltage when full-load is removed
(field excitation and speed
remaining the same) divided by the
rated terminal voltage.
100 up regulation %
0

=
V
V E

Voltage characteristics of an
alternator are shown in Fig. 35.29.
At leading loads, the armature-reaction is magnetizing and tends to produce additional
generated voltage as load is applied, producing a negative voltage regulation.
At lagging loads, the armature-reaction is demagnetizing and its effect in reducing the
generated voltage, results in a rapid decrease in terminal voltage as load is applied, producing
a positive voltage regulation.
A sufficient leading power factor produces a voltage rise. Unity and lagging power
factors produce a drop in terminal voltage with application of load.

Determination of Voltage Regulation [1/37.20/1427]
In the case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading. The
procedure is as follows:
The alternator is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is adjusted to
its rated value V.
02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 6 of 12


The load is varied until the wattmeter and ammeter (connected for the purpose)
indicate the rated values of desired power factor.
Then the entire load is thrown off while the speed and fixed excitation are kept
constant.
The open-circuit or no-load voltage E
0
is read.
Hence, regulation can be found from: 100 regulation %
0

=
V
V E


In the case of large machines, the cost of finding the regulation by direct loading
becomes prohibitive. Hence other methods are used where all these methods differ chiefly in
the way the no-load voltage E
0
is found in each case.

1. Synchronous Impedance or EMF Method: It is due to Behn Eschenberg.
2. The Ampere-Turn or MMF Method: This is due to Rothert.
3. Zero power factor (PF) or Potier Method: It is due to Potier.
4. old A.I.E.E. Method
5. The American Standards Association method

All these methods require:
1. Armature (or stator) resistance, R
a
,
2. Open-circuit or no-load characteristics
3. Short-circuit characteristics (but zero PF lagging characteristic for Potier method).


Value of R
a

Armature resistance R
a
per phase can be measured directly by voltmeter and ammeter
method or by using Wheatstone bridge. However, under working conditions, the effective
value of R
a
is increased due to skin effect. The value of R
a
so obtained by 60% or so to allow
for this effect. Generally, a value of 1.6 times the DC value is taken.

Open-Circuit (OC) Characteristics
This is plotted by running the machine on no-load and by noting the values of induced
voltage and field excitation current. It is just like the B-H curve.

Short-Circuit (SC) characteristics
It is obtained by short-circuiting the armature (i.e. stator) winding through a low-
resistance ammeter. The excitation so adjusted as to give 1.5 to 2 times the value of full-load
current. During this test, the speed which is not necessarily synchronous, is kept constant.

Example 37.17(b). A 60 kVA, 200 V, 50 Hz, 1- alternator has effective resistance of 0.016
ohm and an armature leakage reactance of 0.07 ohm. Compute the voltage induced in
the armature when the alternator is delivering rated current at a load PF of (a) unity,
(b) 0.7 lagging, and (c) 0.7 leading.
Example 37.18(a). In a 50 kVA, star connected, 440 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz alternator, the
effective armature resistance is 0.25 ohm per phase. The synchronous reactance is 3.2
ohm per phase and leakage reactance is 0.5 ohm per phase. Determine at rated load
and unity PF: (a) internal EMF E, (b) no load EMF E
0
, (c) percentage regulation on
full-load, (d) value of synchronous reactance which replaces armature reaction.
02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 7 of 12


Example 37.19(a). Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of an alternator in which
a given field current produces an armature current of 200A on short-circuit and a
generated EMF of 50V on open-circuit. The armature resistance is 0.1 ohm. To what
induced voltage must the alternator be excited if it is to deliver a load of 100A at a p.f.
of 0.8 lagging, with a terminal voltage of 200V.
Problem. Find the synchronous impedance and synchronous reactance of an alternator in
which a given field current of 20A produces an armature current of 200A on short-
circuit and a generated e.m.f of 50 V on open-circuit. The effective armature
resistance is 0.1 ohm. Find the voltage regulation if it is to deliver a load of 100A at
i) 0.8 p.f. lagging ii) 0.8 p.f. leading and iii) unity p.f. with a terminal voltage of
200V. Comment on the result.


Synchronous Impedance or EMF Method [1/37.21/1431]
Following procedural steps are involved in this method:
1. OCC is plotted from the given data as shown in Fig. 37.33(a).
2. Similarly, SCC is drawn from the data given by the short-circuit test. It is a
straight line passing through the origin. Both these curves are drawn on a common
field-current base.
Consider a field current I
f1
. The OC voltage corresponding to this field current is E
1
.
When winding is short circuited, the terminal voltage is zero. Hence, it may be assumed that
the whole of this voltage E
1
is being to circulate the armature short-circuit current I
1
against
the synchronous impedance Z
s
.
circuit) (short
circuit) (open
1
1
1 1

= =
I
E
Z Z I E
s s

3. Since R
a
can be found as discussed earlier,
2 2
a s s
R Z X =
4. Knowing Ra and Xs, vector diagram Fig. 37.33(b) can be drawn for any load and
any PF.
Here, OD=E
0
;
2 2
0 BD OB E + = ;





Or
2 2
0
) sin ( ) cos (
s a
IX V IR V E + + + =
100 regulation %
0

=
V
V E

02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 8 of 12


Voltage regulation for unity PF or leading PF can also be found in a similar way.

This method is not accurate because the value of Z
s
so found is always more than its value
under normal voltage conditions and saturation. Hence the value of regulation so obtained is
always more than that found from an actual test. That is why it is called pessimistic method.
The value of Z
s
is not constant but varies with saturation. At low saturation, its value is larger
because then the effort of a given armature ampere-turns is much more than at high
saturation.
Now under short-circuit conditions, saturation is very low, because armature MMF is directly
demagnetizing. Different values of Z
s
corresponding to different values of field current are
also plotted in Fig. 37.33(a).

The value of Zs usually taken is that obtained from the full-load current in the short-circuit
test.

Here, armature reactance X
a
has not been treated separately but along with leakage reactance
X
L
.

Example 37.21 (a). A 100 kVA, 300 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase star-connected alternator has
effective armature resistance of 0.2 ohm. The field current of 40 A produces short-
circuit current of 200 A and an open-circuit EMF of 1040 V (line value). Calculate the
full-load voltage regulation at, unity PF, 0.8 PF lagging, and 0.8 PF leading. Draw
phasor diagram.
Problem. Find the power angle () and the no load generated emf (Eo) when a 1500-KVA,
6.6-kV, 3-phase, Y-connected alternator having a resistance of 0.4 ohm, and a
reactance of 6 ohm per phase delivers full- load current at normal rated voltage and
0.8-pf lagging. Also draw the phasor diagram
Example 126 [2/ p.166] A 3-phase Y-connected alternator is of the following rating
164 KVA, 3600rpm, 2200V, 2 poles and 60 cycles.
For a particular value of field current of 31A, the maximum open circuit voltage is
3200V, and the same excitation produces a short circuit current of 70A. Effective
resistance of the armature per phase is 0.60 ohm. Determine the voltage regulations
for unity power factor and also for 0.8 lagging power factor. (Use synchronous
impedance method).

MMF or Ampere-Turn Method 1/37.22/1439]
This method also utilizes OC and SC data, but is the converse of the EMF method in
the sense that armature leakage reactance is treated as an additional armature reaction. In
other wards, it is assumed that the change in potential difference (PD) on load is due entirely
to armature reaction (and due to the ohmic resistance drop, which, in most cases, is
negligible). This fact is shown in Fig. 37.43.
Now, ampere-turn (AT) required to produce V on full-load is the vector sum of the
following:
02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 9 of 12


(i) Field AT required to produce V(or
R
a
is to be taken into account, then
V+IR
a
cos) on no-load. This can be found
from OCC. and
(ii) Field AT required toovercome the
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction on
full-load. This value is found from short-
circuit test. The field AT required to produce
full-load current on short-circuit balances the
armature reaction and the impedance drop.



The impedance drop can be neglected because R
a
is usually very small and X
s
is also
small under short-circuit conditions. Hence, PF on short-circuit is almost zero lagging and the
field AT wholly demagnetizing.
In other words, the demagnetizing armature AT on full-load are equal and opposite
to the field AT required to produce full-load current on short circuit.

Now, if the alternator, instead of being on short-circuit, is supplying full-load current
at its normal voltage and zero PF lagging, then total field AT required are the vector sum of
(i) The field AT=OA (as shown in Fig. 37.44a) necessary to produce normal
voltage (as obtained from OCC) and
(ii) The field AT necessary to neutralize the armature reaction AB
1
(as shown
in Fig. 37.44a). The total field AT are represented by OB
1
in Fig 37.44(a)
and equals the vector sum of OA and OB
1
.

If the PF is zero leading, the armature reaction is wholly magnetizing. Hence, in that
case, the field AT required is OB
2
which is less than OA by the field AT=AB
2
required to
produce full load current on short-circuit [Fig. 37.44(b)].

If the PF is unity, the armature reaction is wholly cross-magnetizing. Hence, in that
case, the field AT required is OB
3
i.e. vector sum of OA and AB
3
which is drawn at right
angles to OA as in Fig. 37.44(c).


General Case [1/37.23/1440]
Let us consider the general case when the PF has any value between zero (lagging and
leading) and unity. Field AT OA corresponding to V (or V+IR
a
cos) is laid of horizontally.
Then AB1 representing full-load (FL) short-circuit (SC) field AT=AB
1
is drawn at angle of
(90
o
+) for a lagging PF. The total field AT are given by OB
1
as in Fig. 35.45(a). For a
02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 10 of 12


leading PF, SC AT=AB
2
is drawn at an angle of (90
o
+) as shown in Fig. 37.45(b) and for
unity PF, AB
3
is drawn at right angles as shown in Fig. 37.45(c).
In those cases where the number of turns on the field coil is not known, it is usual to
work in terms of the field current as shown in Fig 37.46.
In Fig. 37.46 is shown the complete diagram along with OC and SC characteristics.
OA represents field current for normal voltage V. OC represents field current required for
producing FL current on SC.
Vector AB=OC is drawn at an angle of (90
o
+) to OA (if then PF is lagging). The total
field current is OB for which the corresponding OC voltage is E
0
.
100 regulation %
0

=
V
V E



This method gives results which are less than the actual results, that is why it is
sometimes referred to as optimistic method.

Zero PF or Potier Method 1/37.24/1444]
This method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance drop and the
armature reaction effects. Hence, it gives more accurate results. It makes use of the first two
methods to some extent.
The experiment data required is:
02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 11 of 12


(i) NL curve, and
(ii) FL zero PF curve also called wattles load characteristic. It is the curve of
terminal volts against excitation when armature is delivered FL curve at zero
PF.
The reduction in voltage due to armature-reaction is found from above and (ii) and
voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance X
L
(also called Potier reactance) is found
from both. By combining these two, E
0
can be calculated.
If we vectorially add to V the drop due to the resistance and leakage reactance X
L
, we
get E. if to E is further added the drop due to armature reaction (assuming lagging PF) then
we get E
0
.
The zero PF lagging curve can be obtained
(a) if a similar machine is available which may be driven at NL as a
synchronous motor at practically zero PF, or
(b) by loading the alternator with pure reactors,
(c) by connecting the alternator to 3-phase line with ammeters and wattmeters
connected for measuring current and power and by so adjusted the field
current that we get FL current with zero wattmeter reading.
Point B (Fig. 37.56) was obtained
in this manner when wattmeter was
reading zero. Point A is obtained from
the SC test with FL armature current.
Hence, OA represents field current
which is equal and opposite to the
demagnetizing armature reaction and
for balancing leakage reactance drop at
FL. Knowing these two points, FL zero
PF curve AB can be drawn as under.
From B, BH is drawn equal to
and parallel to OA. From H, HD is
drawn parallel to initial straight part of
NL curve i.e. parallel to OC, which is
tangential to NL curve. Hence, we get
point D no NL curve, which
corresponds to point B on FL zero PF
curve. The triangle BHD is known as
Potier triangle.
This triangle is constant for a
given armature current and hence can
be transferred to give us other points
like M, L etc. Draw DE perpendicular
to BH. The length DE represents the
drop in voltage due to armature leakage
reactance X
L
i.e. IX
L
. BE gives field
current necessary to overcome
demagnetizing effect to armature
reaction at FL and EH for balancing the
armature leakage reactance drop DE.
02-Alternators
Prepared by Dr. M. A. Mannan Page 12 of 12


Let V be the terminal voltage on FL, then if we add to it vectorially the voltage drop
due to armature leakage reactance alone (neglecting R
a
), then we get voltage E=DF (and not
E
0
). Obviously, field excitation corresponding to E is given by OF. NA (=BE) represents the
field current needed to overcome armature reaction. Hence, if we add NA vectorially to OF
(as in AT method) we get excitation for E
0
whose value can be read from NL curve.
In Fig. 37.56, FG (=NA) is drawn at an angle of (90
o
+) for a lagging PF (or it is
drawn at an angle of 90
o
- for leading PF). The voltage corresponding to this excitation is
JK=E
0
.
100 regulation %
0

=
V
V E

The vector diagram is also shown separately in Fig. 37.57.
Assuming a lagging PF with angle , vector for I is drawn at angle of to V. IR
a
is
drawn parallel to current vector and IXL is drawn perpendicular to it. FG (=NA=BE in Fig.
37.56) representing field current equivalent to FL armature reaction, is drawn parallel to
current vector OI. The closing side OG gives field excitation for E
0
. Vector for E
0
is 90
o

lagging behind OG. DL represents voltage drop due to armature reaction.
Procedural Steps for Poteier method [1/37.25/1445]
1. Suppose we are given V-the terminal voltage/phase.
2. We will be given or else we can calculate armature leakage reactance X
L
and hence
can calculate IX
L
.
3. Adding IX
L
(and IR
a
if given) vectorially to V, we get voltage E.
4. We will next find from NL curve, field excitation for voltage E. Let it be I
f1
.
5. Further field current I
f2
necessary for balancing armature reaction is found from Potier
triangle.
6. Combine I
f1
and I
f1
vectorially (as in AT method) to get I
f
.
7. Read from NL curve, the EMF corresponding to I
f
. This gives us E
0
. Hence,
regulation can be found.


References
[1] B. L. Theraja, A. K. Theraja, A Textbook of ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY in SI Units
Volume II, AC & DC Machines, S. Chand & Company Ltd., (Multicolour illustrative
Edition).
[2] A. F. Puchstein, T. C. Lloyd, A.G. Conrad, Alternating Current Machines, 1942,
Asia Publishing House, Third Edition (Fully revised and corrected Edition 2006-07).
[3] Jack Rosenblatt, M. Harold Friedman, Direct and Alternating Current Machinery,
Indian Edition (2
nd
Edition), CBS Publishers & Distributors.
[4] A. E. Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Jr. Stephen D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 5
th

Edition in SI units, 1992 Metric Edition, McGraw Hill Book Company.
[5] Irving L. Kosow, Electrical Machinery and Transformers, Second Edition, Prentice Hall
India Pvt. Limited.