Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.

National Sun Yat-sen University Institute of Communications Engineering

Introduction to Digital
Communications System
2
Recommended Books
Digital Communications / Fourth Edition (textbook)
-- J ohn G. Proakis, McGraw Hill
Communication Systems / 4th Edition
-- Simon Haykin, J ohn Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Digital Communications Fundamentals and Applications /
2nd Edition
-- Bernard Sklar, Prentice Hall
Principles of Communications / Fifth Edition
-- Rodger E. Ziemer and William H. Tranter, J ohn Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems
-- B.P. Lathi, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
3
Example of Communications System
Switch
Transmission
Equipment
Local
Loop
regenerator
T1/E1 Facilities
Switch
Transmission
Equipment
Local
Loop
regenerator
T1/E1 Facilities
M
U
X
SONET
SDH
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
A/D Conversion
(Digitization)
A/D Conversion
(Digitization)
A/D Conversion
(Digitization)
Central Office
Central Office
Central Office
T1/E1 Facilities
Switch
Transmission
Equipment
Local
Loop
regenerator
T1/E1 Facilities
Mobile
Switching
Center
Mobile
Switching
Center
Base
Station
Base
Station
4
Basic Digital Communication Nomenclature
Textual Message: information comprised of a sequence of
characters.
Binary Digit (Bit): the fundamental information unit for all
digital systems.
Symbol (m
i
where i=1,2,M): for transmission of the bit
stream; groups of k bits are combined to form new symbol
from a finite set of Msuch symbols; M=2
k
.
Digital Waveform: voltage or current waveform representing
a digital symbol.
Data Rate: Symbol transmission is associated with a symbol
duration T. Data rate R=k/T [bps].
Baud Rate: number of symbols transmitted per second [baud].
5
Nomenclature Examples
6
Messages, Characters, and Symbols
7
Typical Digital Communications System
Information Bits
) ( t s
i
Format
Source
Encoding
Encryption
Channel
Encoding
Multiplexing Modulation
Frequency
Spreading
Multiple
Access
TX
RF
PA
Bit
Stream
Digital
Waveform
Synchronization
C
H
A
N
N
E
L
Source Bits Channel Bits
Channel Bits Source Bits
) (t s
i
Digital
Input
i
m
Digital
Output
i
m
Information Sink
From Other Sources
To Other Destinations
Optional
Essential
Interleaving
Format
Source
Decoding
Decryption
Channel
Decoding
Demultiplexing Demodulation
Frequency
Despreading
Multiple
Access
RX
RF
IF
Deinterleaving
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
National Sun Yat-sen University Institute of Communications Engineering
Format
9
Typical Digital Communications System
Information Bits
) ( t s
i
Format
Source
Encoding
Encryption
Channel
Encoding
Multiplexing Modulation
Frequency
Spreading
Multiple
Access
TX
RF
PA
Bit
Stream
Digital
Waveform
Synchronization
C
H
A
N
N
E
L
Source Bits Channel Bits
Channel Bits Source Bits
) (t s
i
Digital
Input
i
m
Digital
Output
i
m
Information Sink
From Other Sources
To Other Destinations
Optional
Essential
Interleaving
Format
Source
Decoding
Decryption
Channel
Decoding
Demultiplexing Demodulation
Frequency
Despreading
Multiple
Access
RX
RF
IF
Deinterleaving
10
Formatting and Baseband Transmission
11
Sampling Theorem
12
Sampling Theorem
Sampling Theorem: A bandlimitedsignal having no
spectral components above f
m
hertz can be determined
uniquely by values sampled at uniform intervals of T
s
seconds, where
In sample-and-hold operation, a switch and storage
mechanism form a sequence of samples of the
continuous input waveform. The output of the sampling
process is called pulse amplitude modulation (PAM).
m
S
f
T
2
1

m S
f f 2 rate sampling or
13
Sampling Theorem

=
= =
n
S
S
S
nf f X
T
f X f X f X ) (
1
) ( ) ( ) (

14
Spectra for Various Sampling Rates
15
Natural Sampling
16
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
PCM is the name given to the class of baseband
signals obtained from the quantized PAM signals by
encoding each quantized sample into a digital word.
The source information is sampled and quantized to
one of L levels; then each quantized sample is digitally
encoded into an -bit (=log
2
L) codeword.
17
Example of Constructing PCM Sequence
18
Uniform and Non-uniform Quantization
19
Statistical Distribution of Single-Talker
Speech Amplitudes
50% of the time, speech voltage is less than RMS.
Only 15% of the time, voltage exceeds RMS.
Typical voice signal dynamic range is 40 dB.
20
Problems with Linear Quantization
Fact: Unacceptable S/N for small signals.
Solution:
Increasing quantization levels price is too high.
Applying nonlinear quantization achieved by first
distorting the original signal with a logarithmic
compression characteristic and then using a uniform
quantizer.
At the receiver, an inverse compression characteristic,
called expansion, is applied so that the overall
transmission is not distorted. The processing pair is
referred to as companding.
21
Implementation of Non-linear Quantizer
22
Companding Characteristics
In North America: -law compression:
In Europe: A-law compression:

<
+
=

+
+
=
0 for 1
0 for 1
sgn
where
sgn
) 1 ( log
)] / ( 1 [ log
max
max
x
x
x
x
x x
y y
e
e

<
+
+
<
+
=
1
1
sgn
log 1
)] / ( [ log 1
1
0 sgn
log 1
) / (
max
max
max
max
max
max
x
x
A
x
A
x x A
y
A x
x
x
A
x x A
y
y
e
e
e
23
Compression Characteristics
Standard values of is 255 and A is 87.6.
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
National Sun Yat-sen University Institute of Communications Engineering
Source Coding
25
Typical Digital Communications System
Information Bits
) ( t s
i
Format
Source
Encoding
Encryption
Channel
Encoding
Multiplexing Modulation
Frequency
Spreading
Multiple
Access
TX
RF
PA
Bit
Stream
Digital
Waveform
Synchronization
C
H
A
N
N
E
L
Source Bits Channel Bits
Channel Bits Source Bits
) (t s
i
Digital
Input
i
m
Digital
Output
i
m
Information Sink
From Other Sources
To Other Destinations
Optional
Essential
Interleaving
Format
Source
Decoding
Decryption
Channel
Decoding
Demultiplexing Demodulation
Frequency
Despreading
Multiple
Access
RX
RF
IF
Deinterleaving
26
Source Coding
Source coding deals with the task of forming efficient
descriptions of information sources.
For discrete sources, the ability to form reduced data
rate descriptions is related to the information content
and the statistical correlation among the source
symbols.
For analog sources, the ability to form reduced data
rate descriptions, subject to a fixed fidelity criterion I
related to the amplitude distribution and the temporal
correlation of the source waveforms.
27
Huffman Coding
The Huffman code is source code whose average word
length approaches the fundamental limit set by the
entropy of a discrete memorylesssource.
The Huffman code is optimum in the sense that no other
uniquely decodable set of code-words has smaller
average code-word length for a given discrete
memorylesssource.
28
Huffman Encoding Algorithm
1. The source symbols are listed in order of decreasing
probability. The two source symbols of lowest
probability are assigned a 0 and a 1.
2. These two source symbols are regarded as being
combined into a new source symbol with probability
equal to the sum of the two original probabilities. The
probability of the new symbol is placed in the list in
accordance with its value.
3. The procedure is repeated until we are left with a final
list of source statistics of only two for which a 0 and a 1
are assigned.
4. The code for each (original) source symbol is found by
working backward and tracing the sequence of 0s and 1s
assigned to that symbol as well as its successors.
29
Example of Huffman Coding
Symbol
S0
S1
S2
S3
S4
Probability
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
Code Word
00
10
11
010
011
Symbol
S0
S1
S2
S3
S4
Stage 1
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
Stage 2
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
Stage 3
0.4
0.4
0.2
Stage 4
0.6
0.4
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
30
Properties of Huffman Code
Huffman encoding process is not unique.
Code words for different Huffman encoding process
can have different lengths. However, the average
code-word length is the same.
When a combined symbol is moved as high as
possible, the resulting Huffman code has a
significantly smaller variance than when it is moved
as low as possible.
Huffman code is a prefix code.
A prefix code is defined as a code in which no code-word
is the prefix of any other code-word.
31
Bit Compression Technologies for Voice
Differential PCM (DPCM)
Adaptive DPCM
Delta Modulation (DM)
Adaptive DM (ADM)
Speech Encoding
.
.
.
32
Differential PCM (DPCM)
33
Delta Modulation (DM)
Delta modulation is a one-bit DPCM.
Advantage: bit compression.
Disadvantage: slope overload.
34
Speech Coding Objective
Reduce the number of bits needed to be transmitted,
therefore lowering the bandwidth required.
35
Speech Properties
Voiced Sound
Arises in generation of vowels and latter portion of some consonants.
Displays long-term repetitive pattern corresponding to the duration of a
pitch interval
Pulse-like waveform.
Unvoiced Sound
Arises in pronunciation of certain consonants such as s, f, p, j,
x, , etc.
Noise-like waveform.
36
Categories of Speech Encoding
Waveform Encoding
Treats voice as analog signal and does not use properties of
speech:
Source Model Coding or Vocoding
Treats properties of speech to preserve word information
Hybrid or parametric methods
Combines waveform and vocoding
37
Linear Predictive Coder (LPC)
38
Multi-Pulse Linear Predictive Coder
(MP-LPC)
39
Regular Pulse Excited Long Term Prediction
Coder (RPE-LPT)
40
Code-Excited Linear Predictive (CELP)
41
Speech Coder Complexity
42
Speech Processing for GSM
Composition of the 13 kbps signal:
36 bits for filter parameters every 20 ms.
9 bits for LTP every 5 ms.
47 bits for RPE every 5 ms.
Thus, in a 20 ms (2080-bit block, or 260 sample) interval,
we need a total of
36+9*20/5+47*20/5=260 bits.
Data Rate = 260/(20 ms) = 13 kbps.
43
Speech Processing for IS-54
Composition of the 7.95 kbps signal:
43 bits for filter parameters every 20 ms.
7 bits for LTP every 5 ms.
88 bits for codebook every 20 ms.
Thus, in a 20 ms (2080-bit block, or 260 samples) interval, we
need a total of:
43+7*20/5+88=159 bits.
Data Rate = 159/(20ms) = 7.95 kbps.
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
National Sun Yat-sen University Institute of Communications Engineering
Channel Coding
45
Typical Digital Communications System
Information Bits
) ( t s
i
Format
Source
Encoding
Encryption
Channel
Encoding
Multiplexing Modulation
Frequency
Spreading
Multiple
Access
TX
RF
PA
Bit
Stream
Digital
Waveform
Synchronization
C
H
A
N
N
E
L
Source Bits Channel Bits
Channel Bits Source Bits
) (t s
i
Digital
Input
i
m
Digital
Output
i
m
Information Sink
From Other Sources
To Other Destinations
Optional
Essential
Interleaving
Format
Source
Decoding
Decryption
Channel
Decoding
Demultiplexing Demodulation
Frequency
Despreading
Multiple
Access
RX
RF
IF
Deinterleaving
46
Channel Coding
Error detecting coding: Capability of detecting errors so
that re-transmission or dropping can be done.
Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC)
Error Correcting Coding: Capability of detecting and
correcting errors.
Block Codes: BCH codes, RS codes, etc.
Convolutional codes.
Turbo codes.
Low Density Parity Check (LDPC) Code
47
CRC in WCDMA
g
CRC24
(D) = D
24
+ D
23
+ D
6
+ D
5
+ D + 1;
g
CRC16
(D) = D
16
+ D
12
+ D
5
+ 1;
g
CRC12
(D) = D
12
+ D
11
+ D
3
+ D
2
+ D + 1;
g
CRC8
(D) = D
8
+ D
7
+ D
4
+ D
3
+ D + 1.
48
Channel Coding Adopted in WCDMA
No coding
1/3 Turbo coding
1/3, 1/2
CPCH, DCH, DSCH,
FACH
RACH
PCH 1/2
Convolutional
coding
BCH
Coding rate Coding scheme Type of TrCH
49
Convolutional Coding in WCDMA
Output 0
G
0
=557 (octal)
Input
D D D D D D D D
Output 1
G
1
=663 (octal)
Output 2
G
2
=711 (octal)
Output 0
G
0
=561 (octal)
Input
D D D D D D D D
Output 1
G
1
=753 (octal)
(a) Rate 1/2 convolutional coder
(b) Rate 1/3 convolutional coder
50
Turbo Coder in WCDMA
x
k
x
k
z
k
Turbo code
internal interleaver
x
k
z
k
D
D D D
D D
Input
Output
Input
Output
x
k
1st constituent encoder
2nd constituent encoder
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
National Sun Yat-sen University Institute of Communications Engineering
Interleaving
52
Typical Digital Communications System
Information Bits
) ( t s
i
Format
Source
Encoding
Encryption
Channel
Encoding
Multiplexing Modulation
Frequency
Spreading
Multiple
Access
TX
RF
PA
Bit
Stream
Digital
Waveform
Synchronization
C
H
A
N
N
E
L
Source Bits Channel Bits
Channel Bits Source Bits
) (t s
i
Digital
Input
i
m
Digital
Output
i
m
Information Sink
From Other Sources
To Other Destinations
Optional
Essential
Interleaving
Format
Source
Decoding
Decryption
Channel
Decoding
Demultiplexing Demodulation
Frequency
Despreading
Multiple
Access
RX
RF
IF
Deinterleaving
53
Bursty Error in Fading Channel
54
Interleaving Mechanism (1/2)
Bit
Interleaver
x
y
y
j x n-bit
Shift registers
x
Write Clock Read Clock
Bit Stream before entering bit interleaver:
x=(a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
a
j1
a
j2
a
jn
)
55
Interleaving Mechanism (2/2)
Conceptually, the WRITE clock places the bit stream
x by the row while the REA clock takes the bit stream
y by the column:
Bit stream at the output of the bit interleaver:

jn j j
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a
. . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . .
. . .
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
( )
jn n n j j
a a a a a a a a a y ... ... ... ...
2 1 2 22 12 1 21 11
=
56
Burst Error Protection with Interleaver
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
National Sun Yat-sen University Institute of Communications Engineering
Modulation
58
Typical Digital Communications System
Information Bits
) ( t s
i
Format
Source
Encoding
Encryption
Channel
Encoding
Multiplexing Modulation
Frequency
Spreading
Multiple
Access
TX
RF
PA
Bit
Stream
Digital
Waveform
Synchronization
C
H
A
N
N
E
L
Source Bits Channel Bits
Channel Bits Source Bits
) (t s
i
Digital
Input
i
m
Digital
Output
i
m
Information Sink
From Other Sources
To Other Destinations
Optional
Essential
Interleaving
Format
Source
Decoding
Decryption
Channel
Decoding
Demultiplexing Demodulation
Frequency
Despreading
Multiple
Access
RX
RF
IF
Deinterleaving
59
Modulation
Digital Modulation: digital symbols are transformed into
waveforms that are compatible with the characteristics of the
channel.
In basebandmodulation, these waveforms are pulses.
In bandpassmodulation, the desired information signal
modulates a sinusoid called a carrier. For radio transmission,
the carrier is converted in an electromagnetic (EM) wave.
60
Digital Modulations
Basic digital modulated signal:
v(t) = A(t) cos(t + )
Where A(t) = Amplitude; = Frequency; = Phase;
61
Basic Digital Modulations
62
Extended Modulated Signals M-FSK
Example: 16-FSK
Every 4 bits is encoded as: 16 , , 2 , 1 ) cos( = j t A
j

Gray Coding.
63
Extended Modulated Signals M-PSK
Example: 16-PSK
Every 4 bits is encoded as:
sin( ) 1,2, ,16
j
A t j + =
Dotted lines are decision boundaries.
Gray Coding.
64
Extended Modulated Signals 16-QAM
Every 4 bits is represented by one point in the signal constellation.
Every point has its unique amplitude and phase.
65
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
66
Spectrum of QPSK Signals
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
sin sin
c s c s
QPSK b
c c
f f T f f T
P f E
f f T f f T






= +






67
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
For QPSK, the occasional phase shift of radians can cause the
signal envelope to pass through zero for just an instant.
The amplification of the zero-crossings brings back the filtered
sidelobessince the fidelity of the signal at small voltage levels is
lost in transmission.
To prevent the regeneration of sidelobesand spectral widening, it
is imperative that QPSK signals that use pulse shaping be
amplified only using linear amplifiers, which are less efficient.
A modified form of QPSK, called offset QPSK (OQPSK) or
staggered QPSK is less susceptible to these deleterious effects
and supports more efficient amplification.
OQPSK ensures there are fewer baseband signal transitions.
Spectrum of an OQPSK signal is identical to that of QPSK.
68
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
The time offset waveforms that are applied to the in-phase and
quadraturearms of an OQPSK modulator. Notice that a half-
symbol offset is used.
69
/4-DQPSK
70
Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
71
Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) arises because of
imperfections in the overall frequency response of the
system. When a short pulse of duration T
b
seconds is
transmitted through a band-limited system, the
frequency components constituting the input pulse
are differentially attenuated and differentially delayed
by the system. Consequently, the pulse appearing at
the output of the system is dispersed over an interval
longer than T
b
seconds, thereby resulting in inter-
symbol interference.
Even in the absence of noise, imperfect filtering and
system bandwidth constraints lead to ISI.
72
Nyquist Channels for Zero ISI
The Nyquist channel is not physically realizable since it
dictates a rectangular bandwidth characteristic and an infinite
time delay.
Detection process would be very sensitive to small timing
errors.
Solution: Raised Cosine Filter.
73
Raised Cosine Filter
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 2
: Factor Off - Roll
: Bandwidth Excess
2
1
for
2 for
2 for

0
)
2
4
( cos
1
) (
W
W W
r
W W
T
W
W f
W f W W
W W f
W W
W W f
f H

=
>
< <
<

+
=

74
Raised Cosine Filter Characteristics
75
Raised Cosine Filter Characteristics
76
Equalization
In practical systems, the frequency response of the
channel is not known to allow for a receiver design that
will compensate for the ISI.
The filter for handling ISI at the receiver contains
various parameters that are adjusted with the channel
characteristics.
The process of correcting the channel-induced distortion
is called equalization.
77
Equalization
78
Introduction to RAKE Receiver
Multiple versions of the transmitted signal are seen at
the receiver through the propagation channels.
Very low correlation between successive chips is in
CDMA spreading codes.
If these multi-path components are delayed in time
by more than a chip duration, they appear like
uncorrelated noise at a CDMA receiver.
Equalization is
NOT necessary
Combine
Coherently
79
Introduction to RAKE Receiver
To utilize the advantages of diversity techniques,
channel parameters are necessary to be estimated.
Arrival time of each path, Amplitude, and Phase.
Maximal Ratio Combiner (MRC): The combiner that
achieves the best performance is one in which each
output is multiplied by the corresponding complex-
valued (conjugate) channel gain. The effect of this
multiplication is to compensate for the phase shift in the
channel and to weight the signal by a factor that is
proportional to the signal strength.
80
Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC)
MRC: G
i
=A
i
e
-jq
i
Coherent Combining
Channel Estimation
Best Performance
G
1
Receiver
G
2
G
L
81
Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC)
1
2
2 2
,
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
,
1
2
2
,
1 1
,
Received Envelope:
Total Noise Power:
SNR:
2
2
Since
L
L l l
l
L
n l n l
l
L
l l
l
L
L
L
n
l n l
l
L L
l
l l l n l
l l
n l
r G r
G
G r
r
SNR
G
r
G r G

=
=
=
=
= =
=
=

= =

82
Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC)
*
,
*
,
1 1
2
,
2
1
2
,
2
1 1
2
,
2
,
1 1
2
,
2
,
2
1
@ branches all from SNRs of Sum SNR Output
: hold equality With
2
1
2
1
: Inequality s Chebychev'
l l
l n
l
l n l
L
l
l
L
l
l n
l
L
l
l n l
L
l
L
l
l n
l
l n l
L
L
l
L
l
l n
l
l n l
L
l
l l
r G
r
k G
SNR
r
G
r
G
SNR
r
G r G
=
=
= =

= =
=
= =
= = =

83
Advantages of RAKE Receiver
Consider a receiver with only one finger:
Once the output of a single correlator is corrupted by
fading, large bit error is expected.
Consider a RAKE receiver
If the output of a single correlator is corrupted by fading,
the others may NOT be.
Diversity is provided by combining the outputs
Overcome fading
Improve CDMA reception