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PLiBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE O}' THE LI\I\ ERi
The Pitt Building, Tiumpington Street, Carrbriclge, LJnirc.i K:::::
CAMBRIDCE LJNIVERSITY PRESS
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
40 llest 20th Strcet, Neu' York, NY 1001 1-421 1, USA
477
\X/illiamstou'n
Road, Port Melbournc, VIC 3207. Ausrr.r:.:
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http://wr.w.cambridge.org
O
Janet
Richards 2005
fhir I'ook i- irr eo riuhr. \rrl.tr. r Lo \r.lrurorv ( \\cpliun
and to the provisiorrs of relevant collectir.e licensing agrccmenrs,
no reproductiol of an,v part may take place without
the written permission of Cembridgc LJnilcrsity Prcss.
First published 2005
Printed in tire United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambriclge
T,t,peface Sabon MT 10/14..5 pt. S1s/ern
QuarkXP..rrr\r1.1 lTBl
A catalog record
for
this book is du,tiLdble
from
the British Librart,.
Library of Congres-. Cataloging in PubLictirn Ddtd
Richards,
Janct
E.
Society and death in alcient Egypt: lnortuary landscapcs of thc N,iiclclle rnji:,:
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical refcrcnces and index.
ISBN 0-.521 -84033-3
1. Tombs Egvpt.2. Funclai rites and ceremonies-Eg,vpt.3. Egvpt Social con.iirii,::
4. Egypt Civilization-To 332 B.C. I. Title.
t)T62.T6R53 2005
306'.0932-dc22
ISBN 0 -521 8403.1 3 hardback
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LIST OF FIGURES
AND TABLES
28. $/ealthl and
r/eaith2
indices
29. Haraga Cemete r:y A: Grave sizes
30. Haraga Cemetcry A: Sizes of most securely. clated Tr,velfth
Dynastv graves
3i. Haraga Cemetery A:
plot
of grave sizes
32. Percenrages
of graves containing
selectecl materials in cemeteries
and B at Har:rga
33. Haraga Cemetery A: \Vealthl index
34' Har:rga Cemetery A: \ilealthr incrices of most securely clatecl Ti'elfh
D,ynastt graves
35. Haraga Cemerery A:
\Wealth2
Inclex
36. Haraga Cemerery A:
plot
of graves by Vealthl index
37. Haraga Ccmererv A: Diversity index
38. Haraga: Effort expenditure
by \ferlth1
39. Haraga: Effort expencliture
b1, Dir.ersitv
10. Haraga Cemetery B: Grave sizes
41. Haraga Cemerery B: Sizes of most securely dated T\r,elfrl.r
Dynastl, graves
12. Haraga Cemererv B:
plot
of graves by size
43. Haraga Cenerery B: \Vealthl
jndex
14. Haraga Cemetery B: \ilealth1 inclices of mosr securely clated Twelftn
Dynasty graves
45. Haraga Cemeterl. B: Wealth2 index
16. Haraga Cemetery B:
plot
of graves b,v size
47. Haraga Cemetery B: Diversity index
4x. Riqqa. r ieu of bunrl ehemher of grere 306
49. Riqqa Cernetery A: Grar.e sizes
50. Riqqa Cemeter,v A:
plot
of graves by size
51. Riqqa Cemeteries A and B:
percentages
of materials
52. Riqqa Cen'retery A:
r/ealthl
index
-53. Riqqa Cemetery.A:
plot
of graves by \ealthl index
54. Riqqa Cemetery B: Grave sizes
55. Riqqa Cemcterl' B: \fealthl index
-56. Earlv rnap of Abydos from the Description
de l.Egypte
57. O'.erall map of Abydos showing areas of Middle Kingdom a*i\.irv
58. Magnerometric
map of rhe exrensive Old Kingclom
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Firr,
Ilrtemediate pei
od cemeterv
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
(]+.
65.
Vierv across the Nortl'r Cemetery
with the Early Dynastic funerary
enclosure of Khasekhemwy
visible in the background
Peet's sketc}r map of Abydos
Conrposite map of Abydos Northern
Cemeterv
lu{ace Cernetery D
Garstang Cemetev L.
Famil,v graves in the Abvdos cemereries: Section of Currelly grave
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
108. E 840/N 780 Burial 11
109. E 8,+0/N 780 Burial12
110. Burial 12 objects
111. Plan of F,860/N 600 area
112. E 860/N 600 Burial 4
TABLES
1. Peet Cemetery S Recorded Graves
2. Sex/Age Distribution by Grave Type
115-9
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of 200'1. r'vas a precious touchstone for mc on all of nrv tril-rs to Egvpt, and her generous ancl
kincl spirit r'vill be sorel.- missed bv me ancl evervone r.vho knelv her.
Thc 1988 Abyclos field crerv norkecl tirelcssh., rnd rnv gratitude to ancl rdrniration for them
hirs ouh'ir-rtcnsificd in the vers surcc we communally sulvir-ed "the hottest
1.ear
in ten in the
N4ecliterranean": Brcndr Baker,
Jacqui
Cron'le1., Elizabeth Hamilton, Steve Han.c]., and Lisa
l(calhofer, in cooperation rvith the li,rte Rcis N,ioharlrmcd Ali, his son (and norv Reis) lbrahim
Mohammed Ali, specialsrs fom thc villagc of
Qift,
and a large crer,r' of local peoplc u<rrkirrg
fctr the proiect. The ouse sttrff at Abvdos, Musrafa Hanafi, Abclu Alfur r\'fol.rarnmecJ S:rleh,
Abdel Latif Itrahim Abdel Latif, :rncl Hassur Mutu,ellr Abdulla, kept us comfortable, killecl
suakcs, and suppliecl endlcss colcl drinks er.en aftur the refngur-rtol broke dorvn. Spccial thanks
must go to Lisa l(ealhofer ancl Brenda Baker, to w.hom goes:r l:,Lrge por:tion of the creclit for the
overall success of the seasort. The rvork wrs supported financiallr- b-v a National Scicnce
Founclation Disscrtation ltnpror-enrent Grant, an Americrn Rescarch Center in Egvpt/Unitcd
Statcs Informatiorr Agencv fellon'ship, and funds from the Deparrmenrs of Anthropologl',
LJrrir,crsit,v of Pcnnsvlvalria, and the Egvptiar-r Section, Universitv t\4useum.
For morc rcceltt work, I thank the personnel of thc Abyclos -N{icldle Cemeterr, Projcct u,ho par-
ticipatecl iu the :rspects of thc n'orl< most rclevant to the topic of tl-ris book: Penny Minturn ancl
Atrtra I(onsttntatos, \\,ho excavated tlie X,liddle Kingclonr pair statue of Intef ancl Ita n 1999;
Amrncla Sprochi, rvhose ccramic ana]r'sis establishcd tlrat tl're srrrue \\'1s Iiddle l(ingdon'r, not
Saire Pcriod(!); I(orri Tr,rrner, r.vhose p1-rotographl. of its conrexr and arel aclorns tliese pagcs;
(ieoff
Comptot.t, the project survc\or; Tot-nasz Herbich ancl l(rzl.stztof Stilr,varz, n'ho carricd ollt the
magnetic surrev in 2002; Rcis Ibrahim l{ohammecl Ali ancl his crerv of srecialists from
Qift;
and
A1'rrnct Rageb, House X4au:Lger of the Pennsl'lvania-Yale Institute of Fine Arts Expedition housc
and the clrrrent staff of thc l.rouse (Hassan N4itr,r'alli, Mustafr Hanafi, Sinjab AbdLrl Rahim,
Abclcl Latif Abclel Latif, Lashiin Al-rmccl Lasl-riin, Abdin, Zacaria Abdul Nur, and Walicl
Hammen). Thc AN4C project is and h:,Ls been prornoted in er.crv rvr'bv Elaine Gazcla anci
Sharon Herbert, past ancl current Directcrs of the I(elser'-N'luseum, :rnd supportecl fitrancially b-v
the Universrt)'of Michigarr (l(else' Nfuscum; Office of the Vice Provosr for Research; Collegc of
Liter,rture, Sciencc, rn.l the Arts; ancl Nerr F,astern Stuclies Departnrent), the Institutc of Fine
ArtsiNelv York Universitr; tl.re National Geographic Societl', Terry Rakolta, N.'larjorie Fishcr,
aud an anon-vmous donor.
For thc tcchnicrl preparation of this book, I ern ver)'grateful to man-v friencls ancl colleagues:
I(av Clahasser'- and Lars Fogclin for large numbers of bcautifulll. executcd figures (arrcl all clone
undcr a tight deadline); i(arcn O'Bnen for soldiering on r,vith the referenccs; M:rrgaret Lourie for
assistance r.vith the figr-rres; Terr:r'Vilforrg for: the gorgcorls graphic of :L generalized Xrlidclle
I(ingdom rock-cut gravc; Gall' Beckmrn for eclitorial suggestions; Helen Bal<er,
.fackie
N{onk,
Jcnnifer
Nester, ancl Debbie Fitch of the l(elsev Muscr.rm front officc for hanclling financial ancl
computer and suppl,v issucs; and Donna Hcrron formerlv of the I(else,r,; Maric Mcl(night of the
Mltseum of Antl-rrorologr'-, ancl Susarr Pettc,vs of Near Eastern Studies, also for hclp u'ith financial
issues. I am gr:ateful to mcmbers of rnv book "bucldl'" groups for their support, enc()uragement!
arrd frienclship over thc
ycars:
Ca:la Sinopoli, Lisa Young, Thelma Thomas, ancl Marjorie Fisher;
Christina r\Iclntosh, no organizecl much of the fielcl material;anc1 Brcncla Brkcr for once again
stepping into the breach to help out r'vith upclatecl bioarcl-raeological information on the 1988
\ liddlc l(ingdonr hunrn renr.rin'.
For help n'ith sccuring permission to reproduce imagcs, I thank Stephen
Qurrke
at thc Petric
Muscum of Arc}raeologt', Universitv College Lonclon; Patricja
J.
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pra
re\',
SOCIETY
AND DEATH
IN ANCIENT
EGYPT
Thus' the cluestio't
of social
change
in the Micldle
Ki'rgciom
has
'ever
been systerr.rat
caJJ assessed
frot, a nLtrtidinrcnsio,r"r
p"rrp"rtive,
itrtegratin
arc-haeorogrcar,
represenra
tional, ancl textual
datl ancj contemplaring
whole lanclscares _
cemeter)
and setrlemen
alike
-
in evaluating
ancient
social svstems.
crucial to such a perspecti'e
shoulc
be rl-rr
study of cerleterv
lar.rdscapes
.f the pe riod; the e'tie range
of morruary
behavior
insteac
of a simple focus ou elite renrrins'
Given clocumented
rncienr Egvptran
attitucres
toward
cemeteries
rs loci for the recreatiot
of ideal ancl real social orders and the close connection
betrveen these landscapes
of death a'd the li'ing lanclscapes
to nl.rich tl.rey were adjacent,
these data can rnd should play a central role r' reconstructing
sociar :lncl political
process.
Tl-ris book explores
the connection
benveen
society
ancl dearh in the specific historical
setti'g .f Micldle I(ingdorn
Eg)'pt, ir.rvestigaring
the reality
of an ancierr
Egyptian
middle
class and considering
it es eu example
of cliffere'tirtion
and char-rge rn comprex
societies
ge'eralll:
Taking
a rultidimension:rl
perspective
tor"",ard
archaeological,
rextual,
and pic-
torial data' the book seeks also to bridge humaniries
ancl socirl screr.rtific
approaches
in
tntegr:ating
the archaeology
o1: indivicluals
r,vith the archaeology
of commul.rities
ar.rd
reiro1's as irn importrnt
'rethod
in the reconstrucriolr
of socirl ancl political
process.
rwith
the archaeological
consequences
of :r spike in access to previously
restrictec.l
aspects
ancj
spaces of ritual and mortuarv
culture,
the grcater
accessibilitv
of settlemenrs,
ard the sucl-
derr explosion
of texrs of all kinds r,vritten
more revers or societv rhan in earlier period:,r".i'Ti:ruT,I,:11':t*ll'],l'il;::lJ
provides
a fruitful grourrd
for such research.
The Historical
Setting
and the
problem:
Middle
Kingdom,
Middle
Class
The Middle I(ingdom (2010_1650
BCF) rvas a period
of political
and curtural
unity folror,r,-
ing the politic:rl
al.rd cultural
clecentralizarion
of the First Intermediate period
(ca.
2260'2010
ecr) (see
Figure 1)' It comprisecl
the ele'enth
dl,nasty from tr.re reunificrtion
of
upper and Lorver Egvpt under King Nebheptre
Montuhotep
II (2(J40-r991ecr);
the
twelftlr dvnastli
"rhe mosr stabre royal line e'er to rule Egypt,, (euirke
19gg:4) (r991_r7g3
lcn); and the thirteenth
dl',nasrv (1783-1650
ecr), less polirically
stable tha' rhe twelfth
d}'n:rst
but mainraining
significant
political
ar_rthority
throughout
Egvpt (euirke
19gg;
Bourriau
1981;
euirke 1990;
p:rrkins
on 1991).
At the heart of this centralized
period la1-the
t'veifth dvnasrr,;
chrracrerrzed
by political
cotrtttlr-titv'
with relativell'few
rulers ascenciing
the rhrore
over t\,vo centu'es.
c)ne possible
explar.ration
for this stabilitv
r'vas tl.re practice
of coregency
b1, several kings of the dynasty
(x4urnane
1977;
Iarrsen-\finkern 1997; \x/egne r 1996a;
bur see Deria 19g0 rnd obsomer
1995 nor dissentir.rg
opinions);
one inclex of tl.re degrce
of cel.rtralization
rnd economic
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hon'l
abour
SOCIETY
AND DEATH tN ANCIENT
EGYPT
Parkinson
1991
)'
believcd
to lie at the mouth .f the Fayum,
a'd ki'gs focusecr
'.ruch
of their
roval
b.ilding
activity
in the vicinity
of this city. For rheir morturry
monumenrs.
Ament'rh
rarrr rris sr'rccc\\ors
rcsurrecfed
trre prranrid.rs
r prorrint,''l.,-n,,,
o.-l"rr_
ing tl"rc la'rdscapc
and c.mmunicating
royal porve r, and constructed
elalroratc
complexes
at
el-Lishr,
el-Lahun,
Hawara,
Dahshu
ancl Abydos (see
Chirptcr.Five),
nestecl in a s.pporr_
rve string of towr.rs housir.rg
the populations
that carricd
ou,lnd
supported
erch r.r_al
mor_
tU:lr) cult ,Figrrr.c
2).
Royal building programs
at this time also emphasized
the consrrucrron
and embeilish_
menr of gods' tempres
the lenEh
of rhe Nile (r.nost
notabry,
at Ezber Rr-rshdi,
Heliop.iis,
Kirrnilk'
Medamud'
and Tbc{), materializir.rg
ar increasing
stress on roy.l piety in the cen-
tral ide.l.g1'(Frarlke
I99-5).
Archaeological
ad textual
evide'ce
for the goverrlmenr_
org:rnized
quarrviug
expcditio's
connecrecl
to fhese buirdi'g progr1ms
abouncls (Goyon
1957; I(ernp 1989; Franke
1995); the governmerr
als. initiatecl
exresi'e
irrigati.n
projects
u'ithin Egvpt a'd dedicated
ertensive
resources
to militarism
ol a scare
'ot
previousry
rlanifested
in Egl,ptian
historv
The twelfth dyt]astv
sau' the begirrning
of true imperi:rl
activity on the part ()1:
the
Eg1'ptian
state
'
inclr-rcling
a n:rssive fortificati.n
proaram
t. the south, r,r,ith thirteen forts
attesteci
archaeologicall'
and/or tertu.llf
in Nirbia; rhere mav also have been additiona]
fortifications
along trre easrcrlr
eclge of the Delta (Kemp
19g3; o,con'or
19g6; Fr,rnkc
1999)' There is e'idence
for a sig'ificant
numbcr
of rnilitar:y
rorr,",
abroacl arcl for Egypr,s
first stancling
arm1" rvith a co'c.mitant
rvealth
of irscriptio'al
eviclc'ce for profcssion:rl
srldiers (Leprohorr
r97g; Bai'cs r9g7; Snape 199,r;
euirke
1990).
sir,uita'eorsrl;
erhnic
cliversity
r'r'rs increasing
rvitl.rin the Egyptianpoptrlation,
perl.raps
in part rclated to thc irre_
vcrsiblc
cntry i'to a u'ider *.rlcl preci.ritatecl
by this r.'ilitarism.
The rncreasing
migration
of scminomrdic
peoples
from both rhe Levant
and Lib1,a into Lor,ver L,gvpt (p:rrkinson
1991:11
Bietak 1996a)
nou' parallelecl
rhe conrrnuing
incorporation
of Nubiars ir.rro
Egyptian
society (Fischer
1961; Bourriau
1991b).
Iu contemplating
thls cly'amic
historical
setrrrg,
ser.eral themes
emerfle reiati'g
to
social change'
one issue of long-statcling
interest
has been the allegec.l suppressio'
of the
provi'cial
nobility by senr'r'osr:et
III i'the later t'velfth dvnast."-
1.".
tsoz-ts+.1
ncn), tlccom_
p.rricd
b,v a globai
reorganization
of the bureaucr:rcy
(Erman
1g94
Llggj_7 l;Hall r92r;
Haves 196i; Bottrriau
1988)'
closcll'relatecl
is thc rraditional
theorv that a miclclle class
arosc cluring the N{iddlc
I(ingdo'n,
believecl
b s,mc ro bc a,"r,,,r.,
this clelibcrate
go\ernmcntal
leveling.f
elite factio's.
I'the literarure,
this latter issue is als. li'kecl to a
s.-c'rlled
clem.cratizrtio'
of the osiris m1'tir anc'l r rvide rirg of access to fhe ccntrlj
mor-
tuary religion
and practices
previ'r-rsrv
resrricecl
to the ki'g ancl elites.
Further
issucs are the irnplications
of the ver1. existencc
ef a standing p16fessional
army, the practice
of rotrtrrg g.rrris.ns
in rhc Nubian forrs, rnd the impact
of both on the
'I JrtlxrJ
'9002
l)zr:fer1 _ratr ii;sr-erJc1.
)
strs ,\rI rJlrj\ tdi8q
lo
dll\
. eu$uEqdeE VlenN H31v1Ol
I
N
i
1d^93
gSddn
eUJBUV
rlgrlsre-le
JlO
UBSBH tueg.
tdAeS
31QO[^
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l,r.n'n^",
ld^03
u3MO]
B@O-13
llol.
ueaue_uaapaw
NOIDNOOUINI
I
F.
.\,
..
'
SOCIETY
AND DEATH
tN ANCTENT
EGYPT
organtzatiolt
of Eg'ptiarr
s.jt't- cspcciell'
rvith rcgarcl
to ol.rportr:niries
for social and
political
rnobilitr':
Finaliv,
since the late i980s
somc sch.lars
h.ve char,rcterized
tl.re period
as.ne in rvhich the central go\crnmcnt
esp.used
a "prescripti,".e,'r,isio'
of socrct1.,
u,ith:r
rigicl :icl-rrinistrltioll
erercisin
ntore c.ntr.l
than pre'ror:slv
enf.rccd
o\cr every:-rs-rg
sf
the li'cs
'f
tl.re Egvptian
ropr-rlation rnd a tu,.-tieecl
org:rnizati.n
of the pop.larion
into
elite ancl ronclire
crasscs (Herck
1963; I(emp 19g9;
euirkc 1990;
parkinson
1991),
an ide-
ologv expressed
in buildil-tgs,
ro1'al mo'umertal
texts, litcrarl.
tropes,
and the cxistence
of
imperialisnr
itsclf' sr-rch rn oricntrti.r'r
coulcl be expecred
to ha'c significant
consecr'elrces
for the organization
:rnd operation
of societr,:
I
i:
t-
a
i
\'
1.,
"l
pl
LC
i
k
ts
F,
I
3
h
The "Suppression"
of the
and the Reorganization
of
Provincial
Nobility
the Bureaucracy
To r'r'-hat degree do thcsc theorles holcl r-rr? ir manr. instrnces
thc clata lsed to argue therr
boii dorv'to
one categorl-
of $'idence.
For exarnple,
tl.re disapl.rearance
of pror.ir.rciar
erite
dec'rated gr.r'es
after the reign of se'r,r,osret
III has been p.t forrvard:rs
thc nrai' er.idence
for an acltninistrati'c
refotn
b1' tl-rat king clesigned
t. curb tlre porvcr of an elite facri.n
_
the pro'inciirl
nobiiity
-
ancl simultrttcousi'
e'hance
the c'rtror
ancr scopc
'f
the ce'trar
bure :rucrircl' (Deria
19g0:16-r;
I(c.p rggi:r r 1;
eLrirke 1990:5).
During
rr-ris proccss,
senu.sret
III hac'l allegedly "shot
the p.rvi'ci:rl
'obles
of their rraclirio'al
rights ancl prir,-
ileges and rcduccd
rhem to rrre srarus of political
non_enriries,,
(Havcs
r961:50-5_6),
in an
inc'itable
shift fronr feudarism
r. bureaucracv
(Hall
192r:31g).
As recentry
as 19gg,
B.urriau
stated tl-rat senl'.sret
III's profo''cl
reorganrzatior
of tl-re government
,,had
the
cffect of redrtcing
the por'vcr
of tl.re local f'rmilics
r"",ho cont.llecl
tire pror.inces
(nomes)
ir.rto
n'hiclr Eg'pt u'as cliviclcd" (BoLrrriau
iggg:.39;
see als. Grajctzki
2007a .
This argu'cnt
is rvelkened,
horve'e r, b,v the li.rtc tw.elfth clr-rasty
clate of the largest of
these pro'incial
tombs at
Qa'el-l(ebir (Quirkc
1990:5)
ancl the fact that the c.li'ri'Lrtion
in
freqr:encv
of these tombs has ne'cr bcer demonstrarcd
t. bc a result.f
r..al policv (Dclia
1980:167)'
Furthcr'
t(cmp has p.irrteci
out that r,r,ithi' o'e gencrarion
rrre size of
^rval
t.rnbs also clccrirecr,
doubtrcss
as a rcsulr
of irstabiritv
*,ithin ,;; ;;-:;;r";J;
1983:112)'
Previouslv'
Helck hacl suggestecl
that rhc disr.'antling
of tl.rc pr.r.ir.rcial
pon,er
strlrcture
began rnuch errlier in the Middle I(i'gcionr (Helck
19-g: lg-19),
and rhe evcnrul
disappear:rrlcc
of the large elite tombs r'vas only a part of tl.re process;
rvhile ltanke sa*, rhe
process
Iess as a violeut "stlppressi.t"
than a gracltr:rl
alro.uvance
of the office,f
nomarch
(provincial
govcrrlor)
to frli int. clisr-rse (Fra'ke
1gg1,1gg5),
a less abrLrpt elir,rnation
of
poter.rtial
political
cornpetitors
thror-rgh
maragemcnr
of thc office over trme (cf.
B^rrnfiel
1989).
'JJLll,rnJ:.\.trlpLlL]
prrc JZrs rlLIl Lro pesEai JEIels e,\nr?iorueurllroa
pLrE,i.lrnt;oru asLIl Lr. ..
pJnpJp (sr,t,r1snor,rc1o pur) ac1 plnotr sJsnlrls llLuouoleolros
1o
afiuu1 pli\\ y
.J-rllt
\.-.
-uror ocfuuct sr-rrso qt ot tuettfpe,sop,icl
Jo
JJrs Llllltnos JL[] lp arroz (,.qc{uouar...r .\.1
rLll putr srr,rtrLlrar rrlt Lrro.rj rElels ruop8lrl)l alppll\r;o clno,ri e3-re1 eqt rcl ol sLLr\.1
,ro,i1sn.,su,r JaqlJLI.\\'uorrctun.^sl srrp rJoddns or psn frrcpr,\e rueloclur lsorlr rP i-.
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'(ntleal
uo:^LIIl.rud)
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prlrllrrl r
JO
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uu przr,rEruLulrs pLrt (gIt:tZ6
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l.Lrls ssrllr1o.t eql ur pur saanluts l,r.1cl
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trlC) srrlsPu.tp qlrtorr-trrr
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.IJlllt rlftlru rtniiccl aSrrurr
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ssc--to,tcl r:4o l-rrci;r-rJ,\\:^JIII sJLlt ltrlt aclrssod sl tr..ilrqo
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-pns,i13urruos Jrll',r,lJ,\\oq,ptssntsrp sl sy.slLrrultfop J.\rlr-rlsrLtrruprr Lll pul suorssa;chur
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uorsse.rclcftts ar-1t rllrr\ lrolltLlltfuol
ttr a:rt1d trJll 3.\1rtl ol Ll;rs purr
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tJrs-o,$oJs yo lrira-t Jqt ot pJln(irJIE oslt,.rrr:ltnrr;nc1
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NOtItncourNt
SOCIETY AND DEATH IN ANCIENT EGYPT
tirc eristence attd
yartetl', or lllsencc, of titles also contribr-1tes to the it1lltrctsit'lr trf erul.t-
sive diffcrenti atior.r (Sirr pson 1 97'1; O' Conn or 1 98'5)'
That:r rnicldle class:rLose rn L.gr,pt cluring the N4idcllc I(ir-rgdom scems thercforc to have
bee. positecl on lirrgelv the sarne categorv of eviclencc citcd for the "re.rrg:luiz-tion uf thu
burearcrac,v" The appealaucc of ncrv textuL eviclencc ilt thc archaeologicirl rccorcl lorver
ler,cl bureeucratic titlcs, on either rrortlrr\'or \-otivc rtt()ltllnlcllts ol in aclmirlistr:rti\e
clocumets srlggestecl this social change to schttlars, provicling vet allother cx.'-mple of the
prir-necy of cbcumcntar,v cr..idence irr thc rvriting of Egr.'ptiirrt historll Thc tertuel evic'lcttcc
is
''der-riahlv
intriguing ar"rcl suggcstir,c; but in cLrntrast. trother prol'rosed line of cviclcnce
for this social shift
-
the rlchacologicallt' attcsted e risteucc of cxtensit c lon-.r
'
)rLlcr cctllc-
tcrics f.l the periocl
-
hirs not bccn foregroundecl in treclitionrl cljscussious of thc prol'tlenr'
Firalll; tirc hvpotl-resis of r clenrocratizetion of the aftcrlifc, u-ith r'r'rclcl social access to
rlre clir.ine
(Parkison 1991:11) t1'rrough clirbolrte burial erlcl voti\c conrlremoriltlorr
(Bor-rrr.ia. l99la), has lso bcen usecl as inclircct er,ic'lencc for the rjse of thc mjclclle clrss, as
it u,as bclier,ccl to bc relatecl ro rhat proccss (Hall 192't:323; Hrrvcs 197 1:59 Plrkinsorr 1991;
Frarkc 1998;
parkinson
2002). Hall sln the national clevotictr.r to
(Jsiris
rt Abvclos orr the
part.f t1-rc Egr,ptian population as a clcliberate icleological utatlcutcr
()il the
Frrf
of
trl,elftl-r-c1r,n.rstr.
kirrgs to foster a fceling of ctlnrrntllt Upper F,gv-ltialr r.raticlnalitt'(Hall
192.1:323),irnplving
tht such ctlntmur.rin spifit rvas clccnrcd llccess1r\-ltoI tl-rc 5ss* of
the statc. Llltimirteh', ,Lncl irr r.cry circular fasl-rion, this hvpothcsis rcsts I.lro\th-ol1 th s'1ln(
tertual clata usecl ro subsrantjrre rhe "rise of r nriclclle class" (Frankc 1998; Parkinson 2002)'
Thc datr usccl to slrpporr thc pro.rosecl lise of thc miclclle clrss arc tar-rtalizrng but prob-
lelrrtic. The appearence Of a n.idel range of titles thilrr prer-ioush'attestccl oll lllortllar)'
arcl v.tir,e monllrnents or of lou'cl orcler rortuarv monuntcnts rvith no 'Lssocirtccl inscrip-
ti.rs is s.bjcct ro the snme criticisn-r brought to bear ott thcorlcs regarJirl'J lllu lctrgrlriz'r-
tior-r of the burcrucrtCV: thrt t1-rc "llc1r," categorics or clrsses of prcrs'rtrs l'cpfe\tlltcLl by
tl-rese titlcs ma\.alwrys or previouslv l-r:rve existecl rn F.gvptian socletr bn f.,r r'tiulv ul:
reasous *,erc recorclccl or prescrr,ccl or-rlv es of the X4idclle I(irtgclon-r' Thu crisenct of tig-
r.rificart lorvel:rlrcler cer.neterics fcr tl-ris pcriocl, noted elrlicr rs rclclrti"rl,rl
\upPort f'rr'hc
thc.rr,,, was not in fact :L phcn,rrnenon unic-rc to thc beginr-ring of the seconcl rnillcnlliul-r'l
LCF_. llrn.t.rr clocunrcrrtecl such l:rlge pror,inci:rl cer-neteries alreadr: bv the tinrc of the First
Intcrmccliate Periocl, most notablr,:rt
Qau
acl Bacleri (Brttntor-r 1927)
,
rllcl reccrrt \\'t'rk itl
rhe larer Olcl I(ingc|rm ar-rcl First Ir.rterncc'liate Pcriocl ccmetcries at Abt'clos hls est,l[.tlished
that such ce t.netcries rlso eristcd hcl:e
(Richards 2003a, Hcrbich ancl Rich.rrds in press)' Thc
,,lor,r.er
orcler" gr:,Lves of those ccmctcrics drsplavecl r remark:rble retlge oi size ancl u'cllth,
aEiarlr srlggestlng:r c()mpar,rble r:Lngc of socjrl cliffererttiatiorr cxisting prior to thc liddle
I(ir-rgclorn. Fiallr.. it Ias Lcet-r c]cnronstratecl thirt thc ttrrogatiotl of ror-al sl'nlbols of strtus
to prir,ete iclivtclurls
(sLrcl"r irs thc right to beconre C)siris aftel cleath erl.l fhu ttse
''f
ror-'rl
rfl
r#
l
E
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NOIIDNOOUINI
10
SOCIETY
AND DEATH
IN ANCIENT
EGYPT
In this b.ok' I takc a nr'lticlinc'sional
appr-rach
ro rhe srare-rcver
societl-
,f sec.rcJ
millerrtritrn'r
ncl Egt'pt'
espcciallv
rhnr of the tr'fidclle
1(ingclo' (20.+0-1
650 BCI), clra'iing
prim:lrilv.ll
atr:Ll1'sis
of the archac.logical
rcmilil.ls.f
nlortrarr.behavirr
bur r,r-ith rcfe-
crce also ro colrrempol'a^'scrrjemcnr,
rexrr:rr,
"u.t
i.,.,,r,,*.,;;r;:
;;;" Fr.m rhis irtcrc'isci-
plrnarl'perspecti'c'
call a mlclcilc clrss or gro.p,
s. often rcferrec]
to rn the Egr.ptol.gical
litcrltlrrc
(e'g''
Hall 19?'3; Havcs t96 l), reallv be substantirtecl
for this pcr:rocJ,
ancl, if so. h'* cl.cs it fit irlt. broacler piltte r' .f social arcl cconrrnic
clf'fcrc'ti:rricn
f.r the r{iclclle
l(ingclorn?
\xlhat rrle clicl it plav in thc [roaclcr
s.cia] a'c1 political
cler-eropnrents
of elrrr-
scconcl
mille nnium Egt-pt?
--
vr!!ra'
As a prelucle
t. aclclrcssiltg
thesc clLresti''rs,
chaptcr
c)'e consicrers
social svster.ns
ilr r-nore general
alrd theoreticll
terms ,urcl cJefines
kcl.col_rcepts
usecl thnrLrghout
the book.
chaptcr:
Tu'o prcsents
in nlorc clet'ril tl-re texturl
arcl r-eprcsentrtirnrl
clrta rh,rt h:r'e bec'
tri'rclti.nrllv
cnlphasizcd
i'c.nsicicr-rrrg
the cl.cstio
of srcrcn,in
the r,Iidclle
I(ingciom,
*'hile Ch.rptc Thrce rc'i*r's
the achacolc,gi.ri
.tid.,r..
t.r;,',,:;;r;orrlr1r\-
r:rncrscapes,
incluclirg
scttlemelrt
ancl temrrc
contc\ts.
Iu cr.,r-,1.,t..,
Four lrcl Fi'e, l m.ve to an ir_
clcpth c,nsiclcr'rtion
.f Egr
tr-rti:tt
ccrre rcrr, lanclscapcs,
bcgi'rirg
r.r,ith a gc'eral
discrs-
sion of sch.larll-
bias etl ssi'11
r1'1'1'1.1',..
i,r the Egr,1'rtia'
Nilc Vairer.
ancr co'tiruirg
r'r'ith a sur'e''f
thc t.t.lrt'of
nr.rtu:r11'practicc
cluri'e
the r\,lidclle
l(r'gcl.'.
'r
Chapters
six ancl se'cn, If'cus
rtn thrce c-asc stirclies:
rhc ertensi'e,\ridcile
I{ingcronr
cctlrcteics
at Haraga
ancl Riclcla in thc north rncl rr Abvclos
i, thc s.urh. Finallr,,
in the
book's
c.nclusiotl'
i irltegratc
the rcsults
fro'r rhcse
'ort.lrv
strclics r,r.ith clat:r disc.ssecl
i'the
first part of the bo,k to achie'c
a richer
ancr more c11.n.mrc
'rer.,..f
Micjdrc
I(ingclonr
soclctl'thatl
atrl'o1lc
l\e.Llc
of c'iclencc
allor,r.s.
I' this *,av r c.'r als. colrsicler
the rarurc of socier :rnd politic:rr
process
i,, L,gr-pr
";.r;,;.;;r;;ll-r,,carions
for trre
stuclv of ancient
sociefi. r-norc ge ne rallr:
\.
t
tr
F
n
E
r.i
fr
t
ShEISAS ]VIDOS
INEIDNV CO
ACINIS EHI
gNO
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t1
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