Erosion

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For morphological image processing operations, see Erosion (morphology). For use of
in dermatopathology, see Erosion (dermatopathology).
A natural arch produced by the erosion of differentially weathered rock in Jebel Kharaz,
Jordan
Erosion is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the arth!s surface by
e"ogenetic processes such as wind or water flow, and then transported and deposited in
other locations#
While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by $%&'% times the
rate at which erosion is occurring globally# "cessive erosion causes problems such as
desertification, decreases in agricultural productivity due to land degradation,
sedimentation of waterways, and ecological collapse due to loss of the nutrient rich upper
soil layers# Water and wind erosion are now the two primary causes of land degradation(
combined, they are responsible for )'* of degraded acreage, making e"cessive erosion
one of the most significant global environmental problems#
+$,+-,
.ndustrial agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban
sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on
stimulating erosion#
+/,
0owever, there are many prevention and remediation practices that
can curtail or limit erosion of denuded soils#
Contents
$ 1hysical processes
o $#$ 2ainfall
o $#- 2ivers and streams
o $#/ 3oastal erosion
o $#' 4laciers
o $#5 Floods
o $#6 Freezing and thawing
o $#7 Wind erosion
o $#) 4ravitational erosion
o $#8 "foliation
- Factors affecting erosion rates
o -#$ 1recipitation and wind speed
o -#- 9oil structure and composition
o -#/ :egetative cover
o -#' ;opography
/ 0uman activities that increase erosion rates
o /#$ Agricultural practices
o /#- <eforestation
o /#/ 2oads and urbanization
o /#' 3limate change
' 4lobal environmental effects
o '#$ =and degradation
o '#- 9edimentation of a>uatic ecosystems
o '#/ Airborne dust pollution
o '#' ;ectonic effects
5 ?onitoring, measuring, and modeling erosion
6 1revention and remediation
7 9ee also
) @otes
8 Further reading
$% "ternal links
Physical processes[edit]
Rainfall[edit]
A hillside covered in rills and gullies due to erosion processes caused by rainfall
;here are four primary types of erosion that occur as a direct result of rainfallAsplash
erosion,sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion# 9plash erosion is generally seen as
the first and least severe stage in the soil erosion process, which is followed by sheet
erosion, then rill erosion and finally gully erosion Bthe most severe of the fourC#
+',+5,
.n splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil,
eDecting soil particles# ;he distance these soil particles travel can be as much as two feet
vertically and five feet horizontally on level ground# Ence the rate of rainfall is faster
than the rate of infiltration into the soil, surface runoff occurs and carries the loosened
soil particles down the slope#
+6,
Sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow#
+6,
Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths which
function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hillslopes#
4enerally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are
active# Flow depths in rills are typically on the order of a few centimeters or less and
slopes may be >uite steep# ;his means that rills e"hibit very different hydraulic physics
than water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers#
+citation needed,
Gully erosion occurs when runoff water accumulates, and then rapidly flows in narrow
channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to a
considerable depth#
+7,+),+8,
Rivers and streams[edit]
For more details on water's erosive aility, see !ydraulic action.
<obbingstone Furn, 9cotlandA;his photo illustrates two different types of erosion
affecting the same place# :alley erosion is occurring due to the flow of the stream, and
the boulders and stones Band much of the soilC that are lying on the edges are glacial till
that was left behind as ice age glaciers flowed over the terrain#
"alley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature# ;he
erosion is both downward, deepening the valley, and headward, e"tending the valley into
the hillside# .n the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly
vertical, the valleys have a typical V cross&section and the stream gradient is relatively
steep# When some base level is reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion,
which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain# ;he stream gradient
becomes nearly flat, and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream
meanders across the valley floor# .n all stages of stream erosion, by far the most erosion
occurs during times of flood, when more and faster&moving water is available to carry a
larger sediment load# .n such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes: suspended
abrasive particles, pebbles and boulders can also act erosively as they traverse a surface,
in a process known as traction#
+$%,
#an$ erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river# ;his is distinguished
from changes on the bed of the watercourse, which is referred to as scour# rosion and
changes in the form of river banks may be measured by inserting metal rods into the bank
and marking the position of the bank surface along the rods at different times#
+$$,
%hermal erosion is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to moving water#
+$-,
.t can occur both along rivers and at the coast# 2apid river channel migration observed
in the =ena 2iver of 9iberia is due to thermal erosion, as these portions of the banks are
composed of permafrost&cemented non&cohesive materials#
+$/,
?uch of this erosion
occurs as the weakened banks fail in large slumps# ;hermal erosion also affects the Arctic
coast, where wave action and near&shore temperatures combine to undercut permafrost
bluffs along the shoreline and cause them to fail# Annual erosion rates along a $%%&
kilometre B6-&mileC segment of the Feaufort 9ea shoreline averaged 5#6 metres B$) feetC
per year from $855 to -%%-#
+$',
Coastal erosion[edit]
&ain article' (oastal erosion
See also' #each evolution
Wave cut platform caused by erosion of cliffs by the sea, at 9outherndown in 9outh
Wales
9horeline erosion, which occurs on both e"posed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs
through the action of currents and waves but sea level BtidalC change can also play a role#
!ydraulic action takes place when air in a Doint is suddenly compressed by a wave
closing the entrance of the Doint# ;his then cracks it# )ave pounding is when the sheer
energy of the wave hitting the cliff or rock breaks pieces off# *rasion or corrasion is
caused by waves launching seaload at the cliff# .t is the most effective and rapid form of
shoreline erosion Bnot to be confused with corrosionC# (orrosion is the dissolving of rock
by carbonic acid in sea water# =imestone cliffs are particularly vulnerable to this kind of
erosion# *ttrition is where particlesGseaload carried by the waves are worn down as they
hit each other and the cliffs# ;his then makes the material easier to wash away# ;he
material ends up as shingle and sand# Another significant source of erosion, particularly
on carbonate coastlines, is the boring, scraping and grinding of organisms, a process
termed ioerosion#
+citation needed,
9ediment is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current
Blongshore driftC# When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being
carried away, erosion occurs# When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or
gravel banks will tend to form as a result of deposition# ;hese banks may slowly migrate
along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and e"posing
parts of the coastline# Where there is a bend in the coastline, >uite often a build up of
eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank Ba spitC# Armoured beaches and
submerged offshore sandbanks may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion# Ever
the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different
parts of the shore#
+citation needed,
Glaciers[edit]
4lacial moraines above =ake =ouise, in Alberta, 3anada#
4laciers erode predominantly by three different processes: abrasionGscouring, plucking,
and ice thrusting# .n an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed,
polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood# 4laciers can
also cause pieces of bedrock to crack off in the process of plucking# .n ice thrusting, the
glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen
sediment at the base along with the glacier# ;his method produced some of the many
thousands of lake basins that dot the edge of the 3anadian 9hield# ;hese processes,
combined with erosion and transport by the water network beneath the glacier, leave
moraines, drumlins, ground moraine BtillC, kames, kame deltas, moulins, and glacial
erratics in their wake, typically at the terminus or during glacier retreat#
+citation needed,
Floods[edit]
At e"tremely high flows, kolks, or vortices are formed by large volumes of rapidly
rushing water# Kolks cause e"treme local erosion, plucking bedrock and creating pothole&
type geographical features called 2ock&cut basins# "amples can be seen in the flood
regions result from glacial =ake ?issoula, which created the channeled scablands in the
3olumbia Fasin region of eastern Washington#
+$5,
Freezing and thawing[edit]
3old weather causes water trapped in tiny rock cracks to freeze and e"pand, breaking the
rock into several pieces# ;his can lead to gravity erosion on steep slopes# ;he scree which
forms at the bottom of a steep mountainside is mostly formed from pieces of rock BsoilC
broken away by this means# .t is a common engineering problem wherever rock cliffs are
alongside roads, because morning thaws can drop hazardous rock pieces onto the road#
+citation needed,
Wind erosion[edit]
Hrbol de 1iedra, a rock formation in the Altiplano, Folivia sculpted by wind erosion#
&ain article' *eolian processes
Wind erosion is a maDor geomorphological force, especially in arid and semi&arid regions#
.t is also a maDor source of land degradation, evaporation, desertification, harmful
airborne dust, and crop damageAespecially after being increased far above natural rates
by human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture#
+$6,+$7,
Wind erosion is of two primary varieties: deflation, where the wind picks up and carries
loose soil particles( and arasion, where surfaces are worn down as they are struck by
airborne particles carried by wind# <eflation is divided into three categories: B$C surface
creep, where larger, heavier particles slide or roll along the ground( B-C saltation, where
particles are lifted a short height into the air, and bounce and saltate across the surface of
the soil( and B/C suspension, where very small and light particles are lifted into the air by
the wind, and are often carried for long distances# 9altation is responsible for the maDority
B5%&7%*C of wind erosion, followed by suspension B/%&'%*C, and then surface creep B5&
-5*C#
+$),+$8,
Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas, and during times of drought# For
e"ample, in the 4reat 1lains, it is estimated that wind erosion soil loss can be as much as
6$%% times greater in drought years, than in wet years#
+-%,
Gravitational erosion[edit]
Wadi in ?akhtesh 2amon, .srael, showing gravity collapse erosion on its banks#
&ass movement is the downward and outward movement of rock and sediments on a
sloped surface, mainly due to the force of gravity#
+-$,+--,
?ass movement is an important part of the erosional process, and is often the first stage
in the breakdown and transport of weathered materials in mountainous areas#
+-/,
.t moves
material from higher elevations to lower elevations where other eroding agents such as
streams and glaciers can then pick up the material and move it to even lower elevations#
?ass&movement processes are always occurring continuously on all slopes( some mass&
movement processes act very slowly( others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous
results# Any perceptible down&slope movement of rock or sediment is often referred to in
general terms as a landslide# 0owever, landslides can be classified in a much more
detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement and the velocity
at which the movement occurs# Ene of the visible topographical manifestations of a very
slow form of such activity is a scree slope#
+citation needed,
Slumping happens on steep hillsides, occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within
materials like clay that, once released, may move >uite rapidly downhill# ;hey will often
show a spoon&shaped isostatic depression, in which the material has begun to slide
downhill# .n some cases, the slump is caused by water beneath the slope weakening it# .n
many cases it is simply the result of poor engineering along highways where it is a
regular occurrence#
+citation needed,
Surface creep is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity which is usually
not perceptible e"cept through e"tended observation# 0owever, the term can also describe
the rolling of dislodged soil particles %#5 to $#% mm B%#%- to %#%' inC in diameter by wind
along the soil surface#
+citation needed,
Efoliation[edit]
E+foliation is a type of erosion that occurs when a rock is rapidly heated up by the sun#
;his results in the e"pansion of the rock# When the temperature decreases again, the rock
contracts, causing pieces of the rock to break off# "foliation occurs mainly in deserts
due to the high temperatures during the day and cold temperatures at night#
+-',
Factors affecting erosion rates[edit]
Precipitation and wind speed[edit]
3limatic factors include the amount and intensity of precipitation, the average
temperature, as well as the typical temperature range, seasonality, wind speed, and storm
fre>uency# .n general, given similar vegetation and ecosystems, areas with high&intensity
precipitation, more fre>uent rainfall, more wind, or more storms are e"pected to have
more erosion#
2ainfall intensity is the primary determinant of erosivity, with higher intensity rainfall
generally resulting in more erosion# ;he size and velocity of rain drops is also an
important factor# =arger and higher&velocity rain drops have greater kinetic energy, and
thus their impact will displace soil particles by larger distances than smaller, slower&
moving rain drops#
+-5,
!oil str"ct"re and composition[edit]
rosional gully in unconsolidated <ead 9ea B.sraelC sediments along the southwestern
shore# ;his gully was e"cavated by floods from the Judean ?ountains in less than a year#
;he composition, moisture, and compaction of soil are all maDor factors in determining
the erosivity of rainfall# 9ediments containing more clay tend to be more resistant to
erosion than those with sand or silt, because the clay helps bind soil particles together#
+-6,

9oil containing high levels of organic materials are often more resistant to erosion,
because the organic materials coagulate soil colloids and create a stronger, more stable
soil structure#
+-7,
;he amount of water present in the soil before the precipitation also
plays an important role, because it sets limits on the amount of water that can be absorbed
by the soil Band hence prevented from flowing on the surface as erosive runoffC# Wet,
saturated soils will not be able to absorb as much rain water, leading to higher levels of
surface runoff and thus higher erosivity for a given volume of rainfall#
+-7,+-),
9oil
compaction also affects the permeability of the soil to water, and hence the amount of
water that flows away as runoff# ?ore compacted soils will have a larger amount of
surface runoff than less compacted soils#
+-7,
Vegetative cover[edit]
See also' "egetation and slope staility
:egetation acts as an interface between the atmosphere and the soil# .t increases the
permeability of the soil to rainwater, thus decreasing runoff# .t shelters the soil from
winds, which results in decreased wind erosion, as well as advantageous changes in
microclimate# ;he roots of the plants bind the soil together, and interweave with other
roots, forming a more solid mass that is less susceptible to both water and wind erosion#
;he removal of vegetation increases the rate of surface erosion#
+-8,
#opography[edit]
;he topography of the land determines the velocity at which surface runoff will flow,
which in turn determines the erosivity of the runoff# =onger, steeper slopes Bespecially
those without ade>uate vegetative coverC are more susceptible to very high rates of
erosion during heavy rains than shorter, less steep slopes# 9teeper terrain is also more
prone to mudslides, landslides, and other forms of gravitational erosion processes#
+/%,+/$,+/-,
$"man activities that increase erosion rates[edit]
%gric"lt"ral practices[edit]
;illed farmland such as this is very susceptible to erosion from rainfall, due to the
destruction of vegetative cover and the loosening of the soil during plowing#
Insustainable agricultural practices are the single greatest contributor to the global
increase in erosion rates#
+//,
;he tillage of agricultural lands, which breaks up soil into
finer particles, is one of the primary factors# ;he problem has been e"acerbated in
modern times, due to mechanized agricultural e>uipment that allows for deep plowing,
which severely increases the amount of soil that is available for transport by water
erosion# Ethers include mono&cropping, farming on steep slopes, pesticide and chemical
fertilizer usage Bwhich kill organisms that bind soil togetherC, row&cropping, and the use
of surface irrigation#
+/',+/5,
A comple" overall situation with respect to defining nutrient
losses from soils, could arise as a result of the size selective nature of soil erosion events#
=oss of total phosphorus, for instance, in the finer eroded fraction is greater relative to the
whole soil#
+/6,
"trapolating this evidence to predict subse>uent behaviour within
receiving a>uatic systems, the reason is that this more easily transported material may
support a lower solution 1 concentration compared to coarser sized fractions#
+/7,
;illage
also increases wind erosion rates, by dehydrating the soil and breaking it up into smaller
particles that can be picked up by the wind# "acerbating this is the fact that most of the
trees are generally removed from agricultural fields, allowing winds to have long, open
runs to travel over at higher speeds#
+/),
0eavy grazing reduces vegetative cover and
causes severe soil compaction, both of which increase erosion rates#
+/8,
&eforestation[edit]
.n this clearcut, almost all of the vegetation has been stripped from surface of steep
slopes, in an area with very heavy rains# 9evere erosion occurs in cases such as this,
causing stream sedimentation and the loss of nutrient rich topsoil#
.n an undisturbed forest, the mineral soil is protected by a layer of leaf litter and an
humus that cover the forest floor# ;hese two layers form a protective mat over the soil
that absorbs the impact of rain drops# ;hey are porous and highly permeable to rainfall,
and allow rainwater to slow percolate into the soil below, instead of flowing over the
surface as runoff#
+'%,
;he roots of the trees and plants
+'$,
hold together soil particles,
preventing them from being washed away#
+'%,
;he vegetative cover acts to reduce the
velocity of the raindrops that strike the foliage and stems before hitting the ground,
reducing their kinetic energy#
+'-,
0owever it is the forest floor, more than the canopy, that
prevents surface erosion# ;he terminal velocity of rain drops is reached in about ) metres
B-6 feetC# Fecause forest canopies are usually higher than this, rain drops can often regain
terminal velocity even after striking the canopy# 0owever, the intact forest floor, with its
layers of leaf litter and organic matter, is still able to absorb the impact of the rainfall#
+'-,
+'/,
<eforestation causes increased erosion rates due to e"posure of mineral soil by removing
the humus and litter layers from the soil surface, removing the vegetative cover that binds
soil together, and causing heavy soil compaction from logging e>uipment# Ence trees
have been removed by fire or logging, infiltration rates become high and erosion low to
the degree the forest floor remains intact# 9evere fires can lead to significant further
erosion if followed by heavy rainfall#
+'',
4lobally one of the largest contributors to erosive soil loss in the year -%%6 is the slash
and burn treatment of tropical forests# .n a number of regions of the earth, entire sectors
of a country have been rendered unproductive# For e"ample, on the ?adagascar high
central plateau, comprising appro"imately ten percent of that country!s land area,
virtually the entire landscape is sterile of vegetation, with gully erosive furrows typically
in e"cess of 5% metres B$6% ftC deep and $ kilometre B%#6 milesC wide# 9hifting cultivation
is a farming system which sometimes incorporates the slash and burn method in some
regions of the world# ;his degrades the soil and causes the soil to become less and less
fertile#
+citation needed,
Roads and "r'anization[edit]
Irbanization has maDor effects on erosion processesAfirst by denuding the land of
vegetative cover, altering drainage patterns, and compacting the soil during construction(
and ne"t by covering the land in an impermeable layer of asphalt or concrete that
increases the amount of surface runoff and increases surface wind speeds#
+'5,
?uch of the
sediment carried in runoff from urban areas Bespecially roadsC is highly contaminated
with fuel, oil, and other chemicals#
+'6,
;his increased runoff, in addition to eroding and
degrading the land that it flows over, also causes maDor disruption to surrounding
watersheds by altering the volume and rate of water that flows through them, and filling
them with chemically polluted sedimentation# ;he increased flow of water through local
waterways also causes a large increase in the rate of bank erosion#
+'7,
Climate change[edit]
&ain article' ,and degradation
;he warmer atmospheric temperatures observed over the past decades are e"pected to
lead to a more vigorous hydrological cycle, including more e"treme rainfall events#
+'),

;he rise in sea levels that has occurred as a result of climate change has also greatly
increased coastal erosion rates#
+'8,+5%,
9tudies on soil erosion suggest that increased rainfall amounts and intensities will lead to
greater rates of erosion# ;hus, if rainfall amounts and intensities increase in many parts of
the world as e"pected, erosion will also increase, unless amelioration measures are taken#
9oil erosion rates are e"pected to change in response to changes in climate for a variety
of reasons# ;he most direct is the change in the erosive power of rainfall# Ether reasons
include: aC changes in plant canopy caused by shifts in plant biomass production
associated with moisture regime( bC changes in litter cover on the ground caused by
changes in both plant residue decomposition rates driven by temperature and moisture
dependent soil microbial activity as well as plant biomass production rates( cC changes in
soil moisture due to shifting precipitation regimes and evapo&transpiration rates, which
changes infiltration and runoff ratios( dC soil erodibility changes due to decrease in soil
organic matter concentrations in soils that lead to a soil structure that is more susceptible
to erosion and increased runoff due to increased soil surface sealing and crusting( eC a
shift of winter precipitation from non&erosive snow to erosive rainfall due to increasing
winter temperatures( fC melting of permafrost, which induces an erodible soil state from a
previously non&erodible one( and gC shifts in land use made necessary to accommodate
new climatic regimes#
+citation needed,
9tudies by 1ruski and @earing indicated that, other factors such as land use not
considered, it is reasonable to e"pect appro"imately a $#7* change in soil erosion for
each $* change in total precipitation under climate change#
+5$,
Glo'al environmental effects[edit]
World map indicating areas that are vulnerable to high rates of water erosion#
<uring the $7th and $)th centuries, aster .sland e"perienced severe erosion due to
deforestation and unsustainable agricultural practices# ;he resulting loss of topsoil
ultimately led to ecological collapse, causing mass starvation and the complete
disintegration of the aster .sland civilization#
+5-,+5/,
<ue to the severity of its ecological effects, and the scale on which it is occurring, erosion
constitutes one of the most significant global environmental problems we face today#
+-,
(and degradation[edit]
Water and wind erosion are now the two primary causes of land degradation( combined,
they are responsible for )'* of degraded acreage#
+$,
ach year, about 75 billion tons of soil is eroded from the landAa rate that is about $/&'%
times as fast as the natural rate of erosion#
+5',
Appro"imately '%* of the world!s
agricultural land is seriously degraded#
+55,
According to the Inited @ations, an area of
fertile soil the size of Ikraine is lost every year because of drought, deforestation and
climate change#
+56,
.n Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent
might be able to feed Dust -5* of its population by -%-5, according to I@I!s 4hana&
based .nstitute for @atural 2esources in Africa#
+57,
;he loss of soil fertility due to erosion is further problematic because the response is
often to apply chemical fertilizers, which leads to further water and soil pollution, rather
than to allow the land to regenerate#
+5),
!edimentation of a)"atic ecosystems[edit]
9oil erosion Bespecially from agricultural activityC is considered to be the leading global
cause of diffuse water pollution, due to the effects of the e"cess sediments flowing into
the world!s waterways# ;he sediments themselves act as pollutants, as well as being
carriers for other pollutants, such as attached pesticide molecules or heavy metals#
+58,
;he effect of increased sediments loads on a>uatic ecosystems can be catastrophic# 9ilt
can smother the spawning beds of fish, by filling in the space between gravel on the
stream bed# .t also reduces their food supply, and causes maDor respiratory issues for them
as sediment enters their gills# ;he biodiversity of a>uatic plant and algal life is reduced,
and invertebrates are also unable to survive and reproduce# While the sedimentation event
itself might be relatively short&lived, the ecological disruption caused by the mass die off
often persists long into the future#
+6%,
Ene of the most serious and long&running water erosion problems worldwide is in the
1eople!s 2epublic of 3hina, on the middle reaches of the Jellow 2iver and the upper
reaches of the Jangtze 2iver# From the Jellow 2iver, over $#6 billion tons of sediment
flows into the ocean each year# ;he sediment originates primarily from water erosion in
the =oess 1lateau region of the northwest#
+citation needed,
%ir'orne d"st poll"tion[edit]
9oil particles picked up during wind erosion are a maDor source of air pollution, in the
form of airborne particulatesAKdustK# ;hese airborne soil particles are often
contaminated with to"ic chemicals such as pesticides or petroleum fuels, posing
ecological and public health hazards when they later land, or are inhaledGingested#
+6$,+6-,+6/,
+6',
<ust from erosion acts to suppress rainfall and changes the sky color from blue to white,
which leads to an increase in red sunsets# Ever 5%* of the African dust that reaches the
Inited 9tates affects Florida#
+65,
<ust events have been linked to a decline in the health of
coral reefs across the 3aribbean and Florida, primarily since the $87%s#
+66,
9imilar dust
plumes originate in the 4obi desert, which combined with pollutants, spread large
distances downwind, or eastward, into @orth America#
+67,
#ectonic effects[edit]
;his section re>uires e"pansion# (*pril -./-)
&ain article' Erosion and tectonics
;he removal by erosion of large amounts of rock from a particular region, and its
deposition elsewhere, can result in a lightening of the load on the lower crust and mantle#
;his can cause tectonic or isostatic uplift in the region#
+6),+68,
*onitoring+ meas"ring+ and modeling erosion[edit]
;erracing is an ancient techni>ue that can significantly slow the rate of water erosion on
cultivated slopes#
See also' Erosion prediction
;his section re>uires e"pansion# (*pril -./-)
?onitoring and modeling of erosion processes can help us better understand the causes,
make predictions, and plan how to implement preventative and restorative strategies#
0owever, the comple"ity of erosion processes and the number of areas that must be
studied to understand and model them Be#g# climatology, hydrology, geology, chemistry,
physics, etc#C makes accurate modelling >uite challenging#
+7%,+7$,
rosion models are also
non&linear, which makes them difficult to work with numerically, and makes it difficult or
impossible to scale up to making predictions about large areas from data collected by
sampling smaller plots#
+7-,
;he most commonly used model for predicting soil loss from water erosion is the
0niversal Soil ,oss E1uation (0S,E), which estimates the average annual soil loss as:
+7/,
where R is the rainfall erosivity factor, 2 is the soil erodibility factor, , and S are
topographic factors representing length and slope, and ( and 3 are cropping management
factors#
rosion is measured and further understood using tools such as the micro&erosion meter
B??C and the traversing micro&erosion meter B;??C# ;he ?? has proved helpful
in measuring bedrock erosion in various ecosystems around the world# .t can measure
both terrestrial and oceanic erosion# En the other hand, the ;?? can be used to track
the e"panding and contracting of volatile rock formations and can give a reading of how
>uickly a rock formation is deteriorating#
+citation needed,
Prevention and remediation[edit]
See also' Erosion control
and section Erosion control e+amples
A windbreak Bthe row of treesC planted ne"t to an agricultural field, acting as a shield
against strong winds# ;his reduces the effects of wind erosion, and provides many other
benefits#
;he most effective known method for erosion prevention is to increase vegetative cover
on the land, which helps prevent both wind and water erosion#
+7',
;erracing is an
e"tremely effective means of erosion control, which has been practiced for thousands of
years by people all over the world#
+75,
Windbreaks Balso called shelterbeltsC are rows of
trees and shrubs that are planted along the edges of agricultural fields, to shield the fields
against winds#
+76,
.n addition to significantly reducing wind erosion, windbreaks provide
many other benefits such as improved microclimates for crops Bwhich are sheltered from
the dehydrating and otherwise damaging effects of windC, habitat for beneficial bird
species,
+77,
carbon se>uestration,
+7),
and aesthetic improvements to the agricultural
landscape#
+78,+)%,
;raditional planting methods, such as mi"ed&cropping Binstead of
monocroppingC and crop rotation have also been shown to significantly reduce erosion
rates#
+)$,+)-,
!ee also[edit]
Fadland
Fiorhe"istasy
Fridge scour
3ellular confinement
3oastal sediment supply
<enudation
Food security
4eomorphology
4roundwater sapping
0ighly erodible land
.ce Dacking
=essivage
?arine terrace
2iparian strips
2iver anticlines
9ediment transport
9phericity scale
;2E@ B;illage erosionC
:egetation and slope stability
:etiver 9ystem
,otes[edit]
$# L
a

b
Flanco, 0umberto M =al, 2attan B-%$%C# K9oil and water conservationK# 3rinciples
of Soil (onservation and &anagement# 9pringer# p# -# .9F@ 87)&8%&')$&)5-8&%#
-# L
a

b
;oy, ;errence J# et al B-%%-C# Soil Erosion' 3rocesses, 3redicition, &easurement, and
(ontrol# John Wiley M 9ons# p# $# .9F@ 87)&%&'7$&/)/68&7#
/# - Julien, 1ierre J# B-%$%C# Erosion and Sedimentation# 3ambridge Iniversity 1ress# p# $#
.9F@ 87)&%&5-$&5/7/7&7#
'# - ;oy, ;errence J# et al B-%%-C# Soil Erosion' 3rocesses, 3redicition, &easurement, and
(ontrol# John Wiley M 9ons# pp# 6%N6$# .9F@ 87)&%&'7$&/)/68&7#
5# - Oachar, <uPan B$8)-C# K3lassification of soil erosionK# Soil Erosion# :ol# $%# lsevier#
p# ')# .9F@ 87)&%&'''&887-5&)#
6# L
a

b
Food and Agriculture Erganization B$865C# K;ypes of erosion damageK# Soil Erosion
y )ater' Some &easures for 4ts (ontrol on (ultivated ,ands# Inited @ations# pp# -/N-5# .9F@
87)&8-&5&$%%'7'&6#
7# - 1oeson, Jean et al# B-%%7C# K4ully erosion in uropeK# .n Foardman, John M 1oeson,
Jean# Soil Erosion in Europe# John Wiley M 9ons# pp# 5$6N5$8# .9F@ 87)&%&'7%&)58$$&7#
)# - 1oeson, Jean et al# B-%%-C# K4ully erosion in dryland environmentsK# .n Full, =ouise J#
M Kirby, ?#J# 5ryland Rivers' !ydrology and Geomorphology of Semi6*rid (hannels# John
Wiley M 9ons# .9F@ 87)&%&'7$&'8$-/&$#
8# - Forah, <eva K# et al B-%%)C# KWatershed sediment yieldK# .n 4arcia, ?arcelo 0#
Sedimentation Engineering' 3rocesses, &easurements, &odeling, and 3ractice# A93 1ublishing#
p# )-)# .9F@ 87)&%&7)''&%)$'&)#
$%# - 2itter, ?ichael # B-%%6C K4eologic Work of 9treamsK %he 3hysical Environment' an
4ntroduction to 3hysical Geography Iniversity of Wisconsin, E3=3 78%%6--5
$$# - @ancy <# 4ordon B-%%'&%6&%$C# Krosion and 9courK# Stream hydrology' an
introduction for ecologists# .9F@ 87)&%&'7%&)'/57&'
$-# - K;hermal rosionK# 7S45( Glossary# @ational 9now and .ce <ata 3enter# Archived
from the original on -%$%&$$&$)# 2etrieved -$ <ecember -%%8#
$/# - 3ostard, F#( <upeyrat, =#( 4autier, #( 3arey&4ailhardis, # B-%%/C# KFluvial thermal
erosion investigations along a rapidly eroding river bank: application to the =ena 2iver Bcentral
9iberiaCK# Earth Surface 3rocesses and ,andforms ./ B$-C: $/'8# Fibcode:-%%/91=###-)#$/'83#
doi:$%#$%%-Gesp#58-#
$'# - Jones, F#?#( 0inkel, K#?#, Arp, 3#<# and isner, W#2# B-%%)C# K?odern rosion 2ates
and =oss of 3oastal Features and 9ites, Feaufort 9ea 3oastline, AlaskaK# *rctic BArctic .nstitute of
@orth AmericaC 01 B'C: /6$N/7-#
$5# - 9ee, for e"ample: Alt, <avid B-%%$C# Glacial ,a$e &issoula 8 its !umongous Floods#
?ountain 1ress# .9F@ 87)&%&)7)'-&'$5&/#
$6# - Oheng, QiaoDing M 0uang, @ing B-%%8C# &echanics of )ind6#lown Sand &ovements#
9pringer# pp# 7N)# .9F@ 87)&/&5'%&))-5/&'#
$7# - 3ornelis, Wim 9# B-%%6C# K0ydroclimatology of wind erosion in arid and semi&arid
environmentsK# .n <!Edorico, 1aolo M 1orporato, Amilcare# 5ryland Ecohydrology# 9pringer# p#
$'$# .9F@ 87)&$&'%-%&'-6$&'#
$)# - Flanco, 0umberto M =al, 2attan B-%$%C# KWind erosionK# 3rinciples of Soil
(onservation and &anagement# 9pringer# pp# 56N57# .9F@ 87)&8%&')$&)5-8&%#
$8# - Falba, A# ?onem B$885C# K<esertification: Wind erosionK# &anagement of 3rolem
Soils in *rid Ecosystems# 323 1ress# p# -$'# .9F@ 87)&%&)7/7$&)$$&%#
-%# - Wiggs, 4iles F#9# B-%$$C# K4eomorphological hazards in drylandsK# .n ;homas, <avid
9#4# *rid 9one Geomorphology' 3rocess, Form and (hange in 5rylands# John Wiley M 9ons# p#
5))# .9F@ 87)&%&'7%&7$%76&%#
-$# - :an Feek, 2ens B-%%)C# K0illside processes: mass wasting, slope stability, and erosionK#
.n @orris, Joanne # et al# Slope Staility and Erosion (ontrol' Ecotechnological Solutions#
9pringer# .9F@ 87)&$&'%-%&6675&7#
--# - 4ray, <onald 0# M 9otir, 2obbin F# B$886C# K9urficial erosion and mass movementK#
#iotechnical and Soil #ioengineering Slope Staili:ation' * 3ractical Guide for Erosion (ontrol#
John Wiley M 9ons# p# -%# .9F@ 87)&%&'7$&%'87)&'#
-/# - @ichols, 4ary B-%%8C# Sedimentology and Stratigraphy# John Wiley M 9ons# p# 8/#
.9F@ 87)&$&'%5$&8/78&5#
-'# - 9ee: 4lennie, K#W# B$87%C# K<esert erosion and deflationK# 5esert Sedimentary
Environments, "olume /;# lsevier# .9F@ 87)&%&'''&'%)5%&$#
-5# - Flanco, 0umberto M =al, 2attan B-%$%C# KWater erosionK# 3rinciples of Soil
(onservation and &anagement# 9pringer# pp# -8N/$# .9F@ 87)&8%&')$&)5-8&%#
-6# - ?irsal, .brahim A# B-%%)C# K9oil degradationK# Soil 3ollution' <rigin, &onitoring 8
Remediation# 9pringer# p# $%%# .9F@ 87)&/&5'%&7%775&-#
-7# L
a

b

c
Flanco, 0umberto M =al, 2attan B-%$%C# KWater erosionK# 3rinciples of Soil
(onservation and &anagement# 9pringer# p# -8# .9F@ 87)&8%&')$&)5-8&%#
-)# - ;orri, <# B$886C# K9lope, aspect and surface storageK# .n Agassi, ?enachem# Soil
Erosion, (onservation, and Rehailitation# 323 1ress# p# 85# .9F@ 87)&%&)-'7&)8)'&)#
-8# - 9tyczen, ?## M ?organ, 2#1#3# B$885C# Kngineering properties of vegetationK# .n
?organ, 2#1#3# M 2ickson, 2# Jane# Slope Staili:ation and Erosion (ontrol' * #ioengineering
*pproach# ;aylor M Francis# .9F@ 87)&%&'$8&$56/%&7#
/%# - Whisenant, 9teve 4# B-%%)C# K;errestrial systemsK# .n 1errow ?ichael 2# M <avy,
Anthony J# !andoo$ of Ecological Restoration' 3rinciples of Restoration# 3ambridge Iniversity
1ress# p# )8# .9F@ 87)&%&5-$&%'8)/&-#
/$# - Flanco, 0umberto M =al, 2attan B-%$%C# KWater erosionK# 3rinciples of Soil
(onservation and &anagement# 9pringer# pp# -)N/%# .9F@ 87)&8%&')$&)5-8&%#
/-# - Wainwright, John M Frazier, 2ichard # B-%$$C# K9lope systemsK# .n ;homas, <avid
9#4# *rid 9one Geomorphology' 3rocess, Form and (hange in 5rylands# John Wiley M 9ons#
.9F@ 87)&%&'7%&7$%76&%#
//# - 3ommittee on -$st 3entury 9ystems Agriculture B-%$%C# %oward Sustainale
*gricultural Systems in the -/st (entury# @ational Academies 1ress# .9F@ 87)&%&/%8&$')86&-#
/'# - Flanco, 0umberto M =al, 2attan B-%$%C# K;illage erosionK# 3rinciples of Soil
(onservation and &anagement# 9pringer# .9F@ 87)&8%&')$&)5-8&%#
/5# - =obb, <#A# B-%%8C# K9oil movement by tillage and other agricultural activitiesK# .n
Jorgenson, 9ven # *pplications in Ecological Engineering# Academic 1ress# .9F@ 87)&%&'''&
5/'')&'#
/6# - 1oirier, 9#&3# Whalen, J#K#, ?ichaud, A#2# B-%$-C# KFioavailable phosphorus in fine&
sized sediments transported from agricultural fieldsK# Soil Science Society of *merica =ournal 20
B$C: -5)N-67# doi:$%#-$/6GsssaD-%$%#%''$#
/7# - 9calenghe, 2#, dwards, A#3#, and Farberis, # B-%%7C# K1hosphorus loss in
overfertilized soils: ;he selective 1 partitioning and redistribution between particle size separatesK#
European =ournal of *gronomy .2 B$$C: 7-N)%# doi:$%#$%$6GD#eDa#-%%7#%-#%%-#
/)# - Whitford, Walter 4# B-%%-C# KWind and water processesK# Ecology of 5esert Systems#
Academic 1ress# p# 65# .9F@ 87)&%&$-&7'7-6$&'#
/8# - .meson, Anton B-%$-C# K0uman impact on degradation processesK# 5esertification,
,and 5egradation and Sustainaility# John Wiley M 9ons# p# $65# .9F@ 87)&$&$$8&87776&6#
'%# L
a

b
9ands, 2oger B-%%5C# K;he environmental value of forestsK# Forestry in a Gloal
(onte+t# 3AF.# pp# 7'N75# .9F@ 87)&%&)5$88&%)8&7#
'$# - ;he mycelia of forest fungi also play a maDor role in binding soil particles together#
'-# L
a

b
4oudie, Andrew B-%%%C# K;he human impact on the soilK# %he !uman 4mpact on the
7atural Environment# ?.; 1ress# p# $))# .9F@ 87)&%&-6-&57$/)&)#
'/# - 9tuart, 4ordon W# M dwards, 1amela J# B-%%6C# K3oncepts about forests and waterK#
7orthern =ournal of *pplied Forestry .3 B$C#
''# - 4oudie, Andrew B-%%%C# K;he human impact on the soilK# %he !uman 4mpact on the
7atural Environment# ?.; 1ress# pp# $86N$87# .9F@ 87)&%&-6-&57$/)&)#
'5# - @Rr, <ov B$8)/C# &an, a Geomorphological *gent' *n 4ntroduction to *nthropic
Geomorphology# 9pringer# pp# $-$N$--# .9F@ 87)&8%&-77&$'%$&5#
'6# - 2andhir, ;imothy E# B-%%7C# )atershed &anagement' 4ssues and *pproaches# .WA
1ublishing# p# 56# .9F@ 87)&$&)'//8&$%8&)#
'7# - James, William B$885C# K3hannel and habitat change downstream of urbanizationK# .n
0erricks, dwin # M Jenkins, Jackie 2# Stormwater Runoff and Receiving Systems' 4mpact,
&onitoring, and *ssessment# 323 1ress# p# $%5# .9F@ 87)&$&5667%&$58&'#
')# - .ntergovernmental 1anel on 3limate 3hange B.133C B$885C# K9econd Assessment
9ynthesis of 9cientific&;echnical .nformation relevant to interpreting Article - of the I@
Framework 3onvention on 3limate 3hangeK# p# 5#
'8# - Ficknell, Jane et al, ed# B-%%8C# *dapting (ities to (limate (hange' 0nderstanding
and *ddressing the 5evelopment (hallenges# arthscan# p# $$'# .9F@ 87)&$&)''%7&7'5&)#
5%# - For an overview of other human activities that have increased coastal erosion rates, see:
4oudie, Andrew B-%%%C# KAccelerated coastal erosionK# %he !uman 4mpact on the 7atural
Environment# ?.; 1ress# p# /$$# .9F@ 87)&%&-6-&57$/)&)#
5$# - 1ruski, F# F#( @earing, ?# A# B-%%-C# K2unoff and soil loss responses to changes in
precipitation: a computer simulation studyK# =ournal of Soil and )ater (onservation 42 B$C: 7N$6#
5-# - <angerfield, Whitney BApril $, -%%7C# K;he ?ystery of aster .slandK# Smithsonian
&aga:ine#
5/# - ?ontgomery, <avid BEctober -, -%%)C# K.slands in timeK# 5irt' %he Erosion of
(ivili:ations B$st ed#C# Iniversity of 3alifornia 1ress# .9F@ 87)&%&5-%&-5)%6&)#
5'# - Ouazo, :ictor 0#<# M 1leguezuelo, 3armen 2#2# B-%%8C# K9oil&erosion and runoff
prevention by plant covers: a reviewK# .n =ichtfouse, ric et al# Sustainale agriculture# 9pringer#
p# 7)5# .9F@ 87)&8%&')$&-665&$#
55# - 9ample, .an BAugust /%, -%%7C# K4lobal food crisis looms as climate change and
population growth strip fertile landK# %he Guardian#
56# - 9mith, Kate M dwards, 2ob B?arch ), -%%)C# K-%%): ;he year of global food crisisK#
%he !erald (Scotland)#
57# - Africa may be able to feed only -5* of its population by -%-5
5)# - 1otter, Kenneth W# et al B-%%'C# K.mpacts of agriculture on a>uatic ecosystems in the
humid Inited 9tatesK# .n <eFries, 2uth 9# et al# Ecosystems *nd ,and 0se (hange# American
4eophysical Inion# p# /'# .9F@ 87)&%&)758%&'$)&'#
58# - <a 3unha, =#:# B$88$C# K9ustainable development of water resourcesK# .n Fau, JoSo#
4ntegrated *pproaches to )ater 3ollution 3rolems' 3roceedings of the 4nternational Symposium
(S4S433*) (,ison, 3ortugal />?-@ =une />A>)# ;aylor M Francis# pp# $-N$/# .9F@ 87)&$&)5$66&
658&$#
6%# - ?errington, 4raham B-%%-C# K9oil erosionK# *gricultural 3ollution' Environmental
3rolems and 3ractical Solutions# ;aylor M Francis# pp# 77N7)# .9F@ 87)&%&'$8&-$/8%&$#
6$# - ?aDewski, ?ichael 9# M 3apel, 1aul <# B$886C# 3esticides in the *tmosphere'
5istriution, %rends, and Governing Factors# 323 1ress# p# $-$# .9F@ 87)&$&575%'&%%'&-#
6-# - 9cience <aily B$888&%7&$'C# KAfrican <ust 3alled A ?aDor Factor Affecting 9outheast
I#9# Air TualityK# 2etrieved -%%7&%6&$%#
6/# - @owell, =isa 0# et al B$888C# 3esticides in Stream Sediment and *1uatic #iota'
5istriution, %rends, and Governing Factors# 323 1ress# p# $88# .9F@ 87)&$&5667%&'68&'#
6'# - 9hao, Japing B-%%)C# KWind&erosion and wind&erosion researchK# 3hysics and
&odelling of )ind Erosion# 9pringer# p# /# .9F@ 87)&$&'%-%&))8'&%#
65# - 9cience <aily B-%%$&%6&$5C# K?icrobes And ;he <ust ;hey 2ide .n En 1ose 1otential
0ealth 2isksK# 2etrieved -%%7&%6&$%#
66# - I# 9# 4eological 9urvey B-%%6C# K3oral ?ortality and African <ustK# 2etrieved -%%7&
%6&$%#
67# - James K# F# Fishop, 2uss # <avis, and Jeffrey ;# 9herman B-%%-C# K2obotic
Ebservations of <ust 9torm nhancement of 3arbon Fiomass in the @orth 1acificK# Science ->A#
pp# )$7N)-$# Archived from the original on -%$%&$$&$)# 2etrieved -%%8&%6&-%#
6)# - @ichols, 4ary B-%%8C# Sedimentology and Stratigraphy B-nd ed#C# John Wiley M 9ons#
p# 88# .9F@ 87)&$&'%5$&8/78&5#
68# - Furbank, <ouglas W# M Anderson, 2obert 9# B-%$$C# K;ectonic and surface uplift
ratesK# %ectonic Geomorphology# John Wiley M 9ons# pp# -7%N-7$# .9F@ 87)&$&'''/&'5%'&8#
7%# - Flanco, 0umberto M =al, 2attan B-%$%C# K?odeling water and wind erosionK#
3rinciples of Soil (onservation and &anagement# 9pringer# .9F@ 87)&8%&')$&)5-8&%#
7$# - 9ee also: 9hai, Japing B-%%)C# 3hysics and &odelling of )ind Erosion# 9pringer# .9F@
87)&$&'%-%&))8'&%#and 0armon, 2ussell 9# M <oe, William W# B-%%$C# ,andscape Erosion and
Evolution &odeling# 9pringer# .9F@ 87)&%&/%6&'67$)&8#
7-# - Frazier, 2## et al B-%$$C# K9caling soil erosion models in space and timeK# .n ?organ,
2oyston 1#3# M @earing, ?ark# !andoo$ of Erosion &odelling# John Wiley M 9ons# p# $%%#
.9F@ 87)&$&'%5$&8%$%&7#
7/# - Ward, Andrew <# M ;rimble, 9tanley W# B-%%'C# K9oil conservation and sediment
budgetsK# Environmental !ydrology# 323 1ress# p# -58# .9F@ 87)&$&5667%&6$6&-#
7'# - 3onnor, <avid J# et al B-%$$C# (rop Ecology' 3roductivity and &anagement in
*gricultural Systems# 3ambridge Iniversity 1ress# p# /5$# .9F@ 87)&%&5-$&7''%/&'#
75# - For an interesting archaeologicalGhistorical survey of terracing systems, see ;reacy,
John ?# M <enevan, William ?# B$88)C# K;he creation of cultivable land through terracingK# .n
?iller, @aomi A# %he *rchaeology of Garden and Field# Iniversity of 1ennsylvania 1ress# .9F@
87)&%&)$--&$6'$&7#
76# - Forman, 2ichard ;#;# B$885C# KWindbreaks, hedgerows, and woodland corridorsK# ,and
&osaics' %he Ecology of ,andscapes and Regions# 3ambridge Iniversity 1ress# .9F@ 87)&%&5-$&
'78)%&6#
77# - Johnson, 2#J# et al B-%$$C# K4lobal perspectives on birds in agricultural landscapesK# .n
3ampbell, W# Fruce M Ertiz, 9ilvia =opez# 4ntegrating *griculture, (onservation and
Ecotourism' E+amples from the Field# 9pringer# p# 76# .9F@ 87)&8'&%%7&$/%)&6#
7)# - Idawatta, 2anDith 1# M 9hibu, Jose B-%$$C# K3arbon se>uestration potential of
agroforestry practices in temperate @orth AmericaK# .n Kumar, F# ?ohan M @air, 1#K#2# (aron
Se1uestration 3otential of *groforestry Systems' <pportunities and (hallenges# 9pringer# pp# /5N
/6# .9F@ 87)&8'&%%7&$6-8&-#
78# - Flanco, 0umberto M =al, 2attan B-%$%C# KWind erosionK# 3rinciples of Soil
(onservation and &anagement# 9pringer# p# 68# .9F@ 87)&8%&')$&)5-8&%#
)%# - @air, 1#K#2# B$88/C# *n 4ntroduction to *groforestry# 9pringer# pp# ///N//)# .9F@ 87)&
%&78-/&-$/5&'#
)$# - =al, 2attan B$885C# %illage Systems in the %ropics' &anagement <ptions and
Sustainaility 4mplications, 4ssue B/# Food and Agriculture Erganization of the Inited @ations#
pp# $57N$6%# .9F@ 87)&8-&5&$%/776&)#
)-# - 9ee also: 4aDri, 1#2# et al B-%%-C# %illage for sustainale cropping# 1sychology 1ress#
.9F@ 87)&$&56%--&8%/&-#and Iri, @oel <# B$888C# (onservation %illage in 0nited States
*griculture# 1sychology 1ress# .9F@ 87)&$&56%--&))'&'#
F"rther reading[edit]
Foardman, John( 1oesen, Jean B-%%6C# Soil erosion in Europe# Wiley# .9F@ 87)&%&'7%&
)58$%&%#
?ontgomery, <avid BEctober -, -%%)C# 5irt' %he Erosion of (ivili:ations B$st ed#C#
Iniversity of 3alifornia 1ress# .9F@ 87)&%&5-%&-5)%6&)#
?ontgomery, <avid 2# B-%%7C 9oil erosion and agricultural sustainability 1@A9 $%':
$/-6)&$/-7-#
Frown, Jason( <rake, 9imon B-%%8C# (lassic Erosion# Wiley#
:anoni, :ito A# Bed#C# K;he nature of sedimentation problemsK# Sedimentation
Engineering# A93 1ublications# .9F@ 87)&%&7)''&%)-/&%#
?ainguet ?# M <umay F#, -%$$# Fighting wind erosion# Ene aspect of the combat against
desertification# =es dossiers thUmati>ues du 39F<# @V/# ?ay -%$$# 39F<GAgropolis
.nternational, ?ontpellier, France# '' pp#
Eternal lin5s[edit]
Find more about Erosion at Wikipedia!s sister proDects
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