Chapter One

Introduction: Themes in
the Study of Life

I nstructor: Beverly Cochran
I nquiring About the World of Life
What is Biology?
Biology is the science of life
Traditionally divided into three divisions:

- Botany
- Zoology (NOT Zoo-ology!)
- Microbiology
Modern Biology
Many diverse
subdivisions, such as:
- Wildlife Biology
- Cellular Biology
- Anatomy & Physiology
- Ecology
- Genetics
- Evolutionary Biology
- Molecular Biology
- Developmental Biology
- Immunology
- Behavioral Ecology
- Marine Biology
There are two main types
of biologists . . .
- Laboratory
- Field
- asking questions and seeking science-based answers
The central activity of biology: scientific inquiry
Biologists ask questions such
as:
- how a single cell develops into
an organism

- how the human mind works

- how living things interact in
communities
Biology is therefore a quest an ongoing inquiry about the
nature of life
The living world is tremendously varied

- how do biologists make sense of the diversity
and complexity of life?
Birthwort
How do we define life?
Order
Evolutionary
adaptation
Response
to the
environment
Reproduction
Growth and
development
Energy
processing
Regulation
Characteristics of life
1) Order
living things are
highly organized
structures made up
of cells
2) Evolutionary
adaptation
adaptations that evolve
over many generations by
the reproductive success of
those individuals with
heritable traits that are
best suited for their
environment
3) Response to the
environment
all living things can
sense their
environment and
react to it
4) Reproduction
all living things
reproduce
5) Growth and development
all living things inherit information (carried by
genes) that control the pattern of growth and
development
6) Energy processing
all organisms
need energy for
all life activities;
plants get energy
through
photosynthesis,
and animals get
energy from
cellular
respiration
7) Regulation
all living things
carry out
homeostatsis
(maintaining a
stable, constant
internal
temperature)
There are seven themes that connect the
concepts of Biology:
Theme 1: New properties emerge at each level in the
biological hierarchy
Life can be studied at different levels
from molecules to the entire living
planet
1) THE BIOSPHERE
10) molecules
The study of life can therefore be divided into different levels of
biological organization, from largest (biosphere) to smallest
(molecules)
1) The Biosphere consists of all of the environments
on Earth that are inhabited with life
2) Ecosystems consists of
all living things and
nonliving components in a
particular area
- soil, water, light,
atmospheric gases
3) Communities
All of the organisms
that live in a particular
ecosystem; plants,
animals, fungi,
microorganisms, etc.
4) Populations
consists of all of the
individuals of a
species living within
an area
- e.g., all of the white-tailed
deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
in a certain forest in East Texas
- e.g., all of the striped skunks
(Mephitis mephitis) in
Commerce, TX

5) Organisms every individual
living thing
- each tree in a forest
- each squirrel
- each microbe
Actinomyces
6) Organs and Organ Systems
Organs: body parts consisting of
two or more tissues that carry out a
particular function in the body
Ex: heart, kidneys, brain
Organ System: team of organs
that work together for a specific
function
Ex: tongue, stomach, intestines,
etc. = Digestive System
7) Tissues
integrated groups of
cells with a common
function, structure, or
both
e.g., different types of
muscle cells make up
different muscle tissue
8) Cells
lifes fundamental unit of
structure and function; cells
form tissues
RBCs form a type of
connective tissue called blood
Adipocytes form a type of connective
tissue called adipose tissue.
Muscle cells
9) Organelles
any of several membrane-
enclosed structures with
specialized functions,
suspended in the cytosol of
eukaryotic cells
e.g., mitochondria, nucleus,
etc.
Nucleus
10) Molecules
Chemical structure consisting of two or more small
chemical units called atoms
e.g., H
2
O the water molecule
Biologists can use reductionism
to understand complex
systems
Reductionism is the reduction of
complex systems to simpler
components that are more
manageable to study
e.g., studying just the
molecular structure of
DNA
Reductionism is useful however!
Biologists must balance the reductionist strategy with the larger-
scale understanding
- how parts of cells, organisms, ecosystems, etc. work together
This is called Systems Biology
A system is a combination of components that function together
Systems biology constructs models for the dynamic behavior of
whole biological systems
The systems approach poses questions such as:
- How does a drug for blood pressure affect other organs?
- How does increasing CO
2
alter the biosphere?
Theme 2: Organisms interact with other organisms and their
environments
Every organism interacts with the living and the nonliving parts
of their environment
- both organisms and their environments are affected by these
interactions
e.g., a tree takes up water and minerals from the soil and carbon
dioxide from the air; the tree releases oxygen to the air and
roots help form soil
The interaction between
organisms and their
environment is called
Ecosystem Dynamics
The dynamics of an
ecosystem include two
major processes:
1) The flow of energy from
sunlight to producers to
consumers
2) Cycling of nutrients, in
which materials
acquired by plants
eventually return to the
soil
Sunlight
Ecosystem
Heat
Heat
Cycling
of
chemical
nutrients
Producers
(plants and other
photosynthetic
organisms)
Chemical energy
Consumers
(such as animals)
#1
#2
Theme 3: All of the activities of life require energy transfer and
transformation
e.g., light, chemical, kinetic, or thermal
Energy flows through an ecosystem, usually entering as light and
exiting as heat
Theme 4: Structure and function
are correlated at all levels of
biological organization
Structure and function of living organisms are closely
related
e.g., a leaf is thin and flat, maximizing the capture of
light by chloroplasts
Example: The structures of birds function to enable
them to fly
Structures that function for flight:
1) Shape of the bird and its wings extremely
aerodynamic!
2) Skeleton and hollow bones
makes the bird very light, struts
make bones strong
3) Feathers flight feathers
Primaries: long and stiff, allow for
thrust (flapping flight)
Secondaries: tightly overlapping, allow
for lift

Theme 5: Cells are an organisms
basic unit of structure and
function
The cell is the lowest level of organization that can
perform all activities required for life
All cells:

- are enclosed by a membrane

- use DNA as their genetic information

The ability of cells to divide is the basis of all reproduction, growth,
and repair of multicellular organisms
A eukaryotic cell has membrane-enclosed organelles
- largest is usually the nucleus
e.g., plants, animals, fungi, etc.
A prokaryotic cell is simpler and usually smaller
- no nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles
e.g., bacteria and Archaea
Theme 6: The continuity of life is based on heritable information
in the form of DNA
Chromosomes contain most of a
cells genetic material in the
form of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)
Chromosomes contain genes made
of DNA

- genes are the units of inheritance
that transmit information from
parents to offspring
Chromosome
Each chromosome has one long DNA
molecule with hundreds or thousands
of genes

Nuclei
containing
DNA
Sperm cell
Egg cell
Fertilized egg
with DNA from
both parents
Embryos cells with
copies of inherited DNA
Offspring with traits
inherited from
both parents
DNA
Inherited DNA directs the development of an organism
Each link of a chain is one of
four kinds of chemical
building blocks called
nucleotides
Each DNA molecule is made up
of two long chains arranged in
a double helix
Nucleus
DNA
Cell
Nucleotide
(a) DNA double helix (b) Single strand of DNA
DNA in genes also control protein
production
Why are proteins important?
Proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in every
process within cells


Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze (speed up) biochemical
reactions and are vital to metabolism
Theme 7: Feedback mechanisms
regulate biological systems
Feedback mechanisms allow biological processes to self-regulate
1) Negative feedback a change in a physiological variable triggers a
response that counteracts the initial fluctuation
2) Positive feedback a change in a physiological variable triggers
mechanisms that amplify the change
Negative feedback:
Like a thermostat in the home: as the temperature rises (above the
ideal normal temperature), the thermostat detects the change and
triggers the air-conditioning to turn on and cool the house.
Once the temperature reaches its thermostat setting, the air
conditioning turns off.
Positive feedback:
The onset of contractions in childbirth: when a contraction occurs,
the hormone oxytocin is released into the body, which stimulates
further contractions.
This results in contractions increasing in amplitude and frequency.
The Core Theme in Biology: Evolution is the fundamental
organizing principle of biology
Biological evolution is the scientific explanation for all unity and
diversity on Earth
- organisms on Earth today are the modified descendants of
common ancestors
The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity
and diversity of life
Biologists agree the most important
theme of all
Nothing in biology makes sense except
in the light of evolution
Evolution unifies all of biology
throughout the history of life on Earth
How Do We Organize the
Diversity of Life?
Approximately 1.8 million
species have been identified
and named to date
- thousands more are identified
each year
Estimates of the total number of species that actually exist range
from 10 million to over 100 million
Grouping Species: The Basic Idea
Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names and classifies
species into groups of increasing size
Domains, followed by kingdoms, are the broadest units of
classification
Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom Domain
Ursus americanus
(American black bear)
Ursus
Ursidae
Carnivora
Mammalia
Chordata
Animalia
Eukarya
The Three Domains of Life
The three-domain system is currently used, and replaces the old
five-kingdom system
Domain Bacteria and domain Archaea comprise the prokaryotes
Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic organisms
(a) DOMAIN BACTERIA the most diverse and widespread of the
prokaryotes

- there are approximately ten times as many bacterial cells in the
human body as there are human cells in the body

e.g., Staphylococcus spp., Lactobacillus spp., Streptomyces spp.
E. coli
(b) DOMAIN ARCHAEA - prokaryotes that live in extreme
environments, such as salt lakes and boiling hot springs (sometimes
called extremophiles); believed to be the oldest organisms on Earth
1) Plantae
2) Fungi
3) Animalia

Within these kingdoms are also
Protists
Domain Eukarya: includes three multicellular kingdoms:
Protists are in multiple kingdoms; unicellular eukaryotes and their
relatively simple multicellular relatives
e.g., Amoebas, Euglena (unicellular animal-like protists); Algae
(multicellular plant-like protists)


Kindom Fungi absorb nutrients after decomposing organic matter
(leaf litter, animal feces)
Kingdom Plantae consists of multicellular eukaryotes
that carry out photosynthesis
convert light energy into the chemical energy in food
Kingdom Animalia consists of multicellular
eukaryotes that ingest other organisms
I n all of this diversity there is unity!
For example:
- DNA is the universal genetic language common to all organisms
- unity is evident in many features of cell structure
Cilia of
Paramecium
Cross section of a cilium, as viewed
with an electron microscope
Cilia of trachea
cells
Charles Darwin and the Theory of
Natural Selection explain diversity and
unity in life
Fossils and other evidence document the
evolution of life on Earth over billions of
years
Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection in 1859
Darwin made two main points:
Species showed evidence of descent with modification
from common ancestors
Natural selection is the mechanism behind descent with
modification
Darwins theory explained the duality of unity and
diversity
Darwin observed that:
Individuals in a population have traits that vary
Many of these traits are heritable (passed from parents
to offspring)
More offspring are produced than survive
Competition is inevitable
Species generally suit their environment
Darwin inferred that:
Individuals that are best suited to their environment are
more likely to survive and reproduce
Because of this, over time, more individuals in a population
will have the advantageous traits
In other words, the natural environment selects for beneficial
traits
Natural selection is often evident in adaptations of organisms to their
way of life and environment
Scientists make observations and
then form and test hypotheses:
Science is a way of knowing
- use inquiry: search for
information and explanation,
focusing on specific questions
Science describes natural structures and processes
- based on observation and the analysis of data
European black caps
Types of Data
Data are recorded observations or items of information
Data fall into two categories:
1) Qualitative: descriptions rather than measurements
2) Quantitative: recorded measurements, sometimes
organized into tables and graphs
FYI the word data is plural, datum is singular!
e.g., The data were collected from 120 nests.
Qualitative data:
GTGrackle Nestling Data
2009 Percentage Male 33.33 Female 66.17
Gender Outcome Mites?
Date Time Nest Est. Age M=1 F=2
Mass
Bird Mass Bag
Mass
Total ROP Rtarsus
Dead=1
Unknown=2
Yes=1
No=2
161 1209 937021 11 2 94.0 16.0 78.0 29.07 33.89
161 1209 937023 10 2 68.0 16.0 52.0 25.34 30.72 1
161 1209 937023 10 2 83.0 16.0 67.0 34.25 33.73
161 1315 938005 10 2 75.0 16.0 59.0 28.42 33.32
161 1315 938005 10 2 101.0 16.0 85.0 25.04 34.84
161 1315 938009 9 2 83.0 17.0 66.0 19.93 29.33
161 1315 938009 9 2 73.0 17.0 56.0 27.40 32.12
161 1315 938014 12 2 50.0 18.0 32.0 22.89 26.87 1 1
161 1315 938014 12 2 96.0 18.0 78.0 46.98 37.74 1
161 1315 938014 12 2 91.0 18.0 73.0 41.88 38.92 1
161 1315 938019 12 1 120.0 17.0 103.0 35.66 38.97
161 1315 938019 12 2 59.0 17.0 42.0 26.33 26.46
163 0845 927038 9 1 102.0 17.0 85.0 25.27 35.82
163 0845 927038 9 2 57.0 17.0 40.0 20.77 25.94 1
163 0845 927022 10 1 110.0 17.0 93.0 28.96 37.74
163 0845 927022 10 2 78.0 17.0 61.0 26.32 31.86
163 0845 927044 10 2 66.0 18.0 48.0 19.37 29.21
163 0845 927044 10 2 71.0 18.0 53.0 16.18 28.87
163 0845 933049 10 2 76.0 18.0 58.0 24.49 29.90
163 0845 933049 10 2 82.0 17.0 65.0 29.91 32.92
163 0845 937026 9 1 102.0 18.0 84.0 21.56 33.70
163 0845 937026 9 2 63.0 18.0 45.0 18.56 26.40
163 0845 937017 10 2 79.0 17.0 62.0 9.24 27.37
163 0845 937016 9 2 50.0 17.0 33.0 14.19 22.06
163 0845 938026 9 2 40.0 17.0 23.0 9.26 20.64
163 0845 938026 9 1 96.0 17.0 79.0 22.24 32.66
163 0845 938026 9 2 71.0 17.0 54.0 28.41 18.39
166 0900 938012 11 2 103.0 30.0 73.0 39.09 36.33
166 0935 937001 11 2 87.0 30.0 57.0 19.79 30.01
166 0935 937001 11 2 92.0 32.0 60.0 23.27 30.84
166 0935 937008 11 1 94.0 17.0 77.0 25.20 35.32
166 0935 937002 9 2 64.0 30.0 34.0 16.49 26.81 1
166 0935 937002 9 2 53.0 17.0 36.0 16.89 26.00 1
166 0935 937024 10 1 142.0 34.0 108.0 41.99 42.43
166 0935 933055 10 2 81.0 17.0 64.0 26.02 33.05 1
166 0935 933055 10 1 119.0 17.0 102.0 33.34 39.11 1
166 0935 933048 11 1 87.0 17.0 70.0 26.79 34.66
166 0935 933050 10 2 73.0 17.0 56.0 26.73 30.49
166 1430 927030 9 2 62.0 18.0 44.0 25.60 29.62 1
166 1430 927030 9 2 60.0 18.0 42.0 23.53 29.67 1
Quantitative data:
Forming and testing hypotheses involves explaining
nature
Observations can lead to questions
- questions can lead to hypothetical explanations
called hypotheses
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a well-framed
question
A scientific hypothesis leads to
predictions

- predictions are tested by
observation or experimentation
For example:
Observation: Your flashlight doesnt work
Question: Why doesnt your flashlight work?

Hypothesis 1: The batteries are dead
Hypothesis 2: The bulb is burned out

Both of these hypotheses are testable
The Scientific Method
The scientific method is an process of
inquiry

Science is based on the textbook
scientific method but rarely
follows all the ordered steps
1) Define the question

2) Gather information and resources
(observe)

3) Form hypothesis

4) Perform experiment and collect data


5) Analyze data

6) Interpret data and draw
conclusions that serve as a starting
point for new hypothesis

7) Publish results

8) Retest (frequently done by other
scientists)
How Scientists Do I t!
Designing Controlled Experiments
A controlled experiment compares
an experimental group with a
control group


Ideally, only the variable of interest
differs between the control and
experimental groups

- hard to do in field research

Limitations of Science
In science, observations and experimental
results must be repeatable
Science cannot support or falsify
supernatural explanations
- outside the bounds of science
Theories in Science
In the context of science, a theory is different than a hypothesis:
1) Broader in scope than a hypothesis
2) General, and can lead to new testable hypotheses
3) Supported by a large body of evidence in comparison to a
hypothesis

In ordinary speech, "theory" is
often used to mean "guess" or
"hunch"

- in scientific terminology, a theory
is a set of universal statements that
explain some aspect of the natural
world

- held with a high degree of
confidence

- supported by enough physical
evidence and research to make its
abandonment unlikely
Examples of a theories in Biology:
- The Cell Theory (1838) - all known living things are made up of
cells
- Darwins Theory of Evolution (1859)
- Mendels Laws of Inheritance (1865) - transmission of hereditary
characteristics from parent organisms to their children
Robert Hookes cork
cells
Theories are not easily discarded
New discoveries are first assumed
to fit into the existing theory


It is only when, after repeated
experimental tests, the new
phenomenon cannot be
accommodated that scientists
seriously question the theory and
attempt to modify it
Scientific theories represent the reality of the physical world

To say It's only a theory is nave and exhibits a lack of
basic understanding of science, research, and the scientific
method
Example:

It is unlikely that a person
will step off a tall building on
the assumption that they will
not fall, because "Gravity is
only a theory."
Science benefits from cooperation
Most scientists work in teams, which often include graduate and
undergraduate students
Must share results
- seminars, publications, and websites
Results are subject to peer-review:
other biologists review experiment; can
only publish if passes peer-review
Science, Technology, and Society
The goal of science is to understand natural phenomena
The goal of technology is to apply scientific knowledge for some
specific purpose
Science and technology are interdependent
Biology is marked by discoveries, while technology is marked
by inventions
Ethical issues often have as much to do with politics, economics, and cultural
values as with science and technology
The combination of science and technology
has dramatic effects on society
Example: the discovery of DNA by James Watson and Francis
Crick allowed for advances in DNA technology

However, ethical issues can arise:

- Who should have access to personal genetic information, and
how will it be used?

- Should parents have the right to have their minor children
tested for adult-onset diseases?

- What are the larger societal issues raised by new
reproductive technologies?

- How does genomic information affect members of minority
communities?


The end