ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND

METALLURGY
AUTONOMOUS


For fourth SEMESTER(II YEAR)
PREPARED BY
S.ARAVINDHA BALAJI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
SONA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
SALEM:636005
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
Application of EMAM(In Industry):
Steel industry( e.g. steel plants, (SAIL) Essar
steels, jindal steel ltd.(JSW))
Pipe maufacturing industry, Plastic
industry.
Some jewelry industry(Grades of the gold)
Manufacturing industry.
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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
OBJECTIVE

Knowledge on the structure
Properties of the materials
Treatment
Testing and applications of metals and non-metallic
materials
Suitable materials for various engineering application


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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
Review (Not for Exam)
Crystal structure
BCC, (Body cubic centre) structure
FCC, (Face cubic centre) structure and
HCP, (Hexagonal close packing)structure
Unit cell
Crystallographic planes and directions
Miller indices
Crystal imperfections for point, line, planar and
volume defects.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
Review (Not for Exam)
Grain size
ASTM grain size number
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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
UNIT:I CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Constitution of alloys-Solid solution,
substitutional and interstitial-Phase
diagrams, Isomorphous, eutectic,
peritectic, and peritectroid reactions,
Iron-Iron carbon equilibrium diagram.

Classification of steel and cast Iron,
Microstructure, Properties and
applications.
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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
UNIT:II HEAT TREATMENT
Definition-Full annealing, stress relief,
recrystallisation and spheroidizing-
normalising, hardening and tempering of
steel. Isothermal transformation
diagrams-cooling curves superimposed on
I.T.diagram, CCR-Hardenability, Jominy
and quench test- Austempering,
Martempering-case hardening-
carburising, nitriding, cyaniding,
carbonitriding, flame and induction
hardening .
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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
UNIT:III
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING
Mechanism of plastic deformation, slip and
twinning-types of fracture-testing of materials
under tension, compression and shear loads-
Hardness tests (Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell),
Impact test-Izod and charpy, Fatigue and creep
tests, fracture toughness tests.
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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
UNIT:IV
FERROUS AND NON FERROUS METALS
Effect of alloying elements on steel(Mn, Si,
Cr, Mo, V, Ti & W) Stainless and tool steels
HSLA-maraging steels-Cast irons-Grey,
White malleable, spheroidal-Graphite, Alloy
cast irons,
Copper and copper alloys-Brass, Bronze and
Cupronickel-Aluminum and Al-Cu alloy-
Precipitation hardening-Bearing alloys.

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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
UNIT V
NON-METALLIC MATERIALS
Polymers-Types of polymer, commodity and
Engineering polymers-properties and
applications of PE, PP, PS, PVC, PMMA, PET,
PC, PA, ABS, PI, PAI, PPO, PPS, PEEK, PTFE
Polymer-Urea and Phenol formaldehydes-
Engineering ceramics-Introduction to fiber
reinforced plastics.
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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY







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Metals and alloys
Ceramics and
glasses
Polymers
Engineering Materials
Application
Structures
Machines Devices
Each category of engineering application requires material from any or all of
these three group of materials
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
Organic polymers
Plastics,
Pvc,PTFE,
polyethylene
Fibers:Terylene,nylo
n,cotton,
natural, and
synthetic
rubbers ,
leathers

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Metals and alloys
Steels, aluminum,
copper, silver
,gold, Brasses,,
bronze s, maganin
invar, super alloys
boron rare earth
magnetic alloys
Ceramic and
glasses
Mgo, cds,
Al2O3,
S iC, BaTio3,Silica,
soda-time-glass,
Concrete, cement
ferrites and garnets
ceramic
superconductors
Glass fiber- reinforced
plastics
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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
Structure:
The internal structure of a material,
simply called the structure.
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NON-METALLIC MATERIALS:
PE (polyethylene)
PP (Polypropylene)
PS(Polystyrene)
PMMA(Polymethyl methacrylate)
PET(Polyethylene teraphthalate)
PC(Polycarbonates)
PA(Polyamides)
ABS(Acryknitrile-Butadiene-styrene)
PI(Polyimide)
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NON-METALLIC MATERIALS:
PAI( Polyamideimide)
PPO(Polyphenylene oxide)
PPS(Polyphenylene sulphide)
PEEK(Polyether ether ketone)
PTFE(Polytetra fluoro ethylene)

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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
UNIT:I CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Constitution of alloys-Solid solution, substitutional
and interstitial-Phase diagrams Isomorphous,
eutectic, peritectic, and peritectroid reactions,
Iron-Iron carbon equilibrium diagram.
Classification of steel and cast Iron,
Microstructure, Properties and applications.

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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS
AND PHASE DIAGRAMS
CONSTITUTION- establishment, foundation,
creation, formation, structure, organization,
charter, bill.

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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS
AND PHASE DIAGRAMS
SOME TECHNICAL TERMS AND
DEFINITIONS:
1.SYSTEM: It is a combination of phases of one or
more components.
2.PHASE: It is a Physically and chemically
homogenous part of a system under study, one
phase is different from the other in structure or
composition

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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
3.COMPONENTS:
The elements present in the
system are called component. A system may
consist of two or more components.
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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS
AND PHASE DIAGRAMS

CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS:
4.ALLOY:
An alloy is defined as a combination of two or
more elements, of which one of the element should be
a metal in major proportion.
The others could be metals or non-metals, for eg:
Brass (CU-Zn), Steel (Fe-C)
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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Alloy find very wide application in the industry than pure metals.
Uses of pure metals
1. High electrical conductivity
2. High ductility
3. Corrosion resistance are required.
These properties are generally at a maximum value in pure metals.
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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Mechanical properties
1. Tensile strength
2. Yield point
3. Hardness are
improved by alloying.
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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND PHASE
DIAGRAMS
CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOYS

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CLASSIFICATION OF
ALLOYS
Pure metals
Solid
Solution
Intermedia
te phase
UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Alloy can be either a single phase or a mixture
of phases.
A phases is anything which is homogeneous and
physically distinct.
In solid state alloys of three are three possible
phase.

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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
If an alloy has a single phase, it could be either
a solid solution or an intermediate phase.
If the alloy is a mixture it could be composed of
any combination of the above three phases.

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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
The major element which is large in
amount is called base metal or parent
metal or solvent.
The other element that is lesser in
amount is called the alloying element or
solute, it is the minor part (such as salt or
sugar which is less in amount, being
mixed in water- solvent).
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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
5. MIXTURE:
It is a material more than one phase.
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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS

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SOLID SOLUTION
Substitutinal
Solid solution
Interstitial
solid solution
Disordered
(or) Random
Ordered
(or) regular
UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Solid solutions:
A solid solution is the simplest type of alloys.
A Solution can be defined as a homogeneous mixture
in which the atoms or molecules of one substance are
dispersed at random into another substance.


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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
A solid solution may be defined as a solid
that consist of two or more elements
atomically dispersed in a single-phase
structure.
A solid solution is composed of two parts.
1 . Solute: A solute is the minor part of
the solution or the material which is
dissolved.
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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
2. Solvent: Solvent constitutes the major portion of
the solution.
Both the solute and the solvent can be solid,
liquid or gas.
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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Solid solution:
Simply a solution in the solid state.
Solid solution may be defined as a
solution In the solid state which consists of two
kinds of atoms combined in one type of space
lattice.
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UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
space lattice:
Space lattice is defined as an array of
points in three dimensions in which every point
has surroundings identical to that every other
point in the array.
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SOLID SOLUTION
Case:
In certain cases, the solidification of an
alloy results in the formation of one kind of
crystal.
In which both metals are present, but they
cannot be detected by the microscope
Although properties of the crystals are
profoundly( deeply,strongly) changed.
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SOLID SOLUTION
In such a case we have a solid metal in which the
interatomic state which existed in the liquid solution
has been persevered after solidification, and it is
known as a solid solution.
In a solid solution the atom occur in a definite
geometrical pattern, which is usually a slightly
distorted form of one of the constituent metals.
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SOLID SOLUTION
Soildsolution are conductors, but not so good as
the pure metals on which they are based.
Some examples of solid solutions are:
Cu-Zn alloys (Brasses)
Ni-Cu alloys (Monel metal)
Au-Ag alloys(Sterling silver)
Fe-Cr-Ni alloys (Certain stainless steels)
Fe-C alloys (Steels)
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SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION












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Solute Atoms
SOLVENT OR
MATRIX ATOMS
solute-Atom of Metal-B Solvent-Atoms of zinc Metal-A
zinc(Solute) Copper(Solvent)
Disordered substitutinal solid solution(random,)

SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION
Ordered subsitutional solid solution
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Solute
Atoms
SOLVENT OR
MATRIX ATOMS
SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION
In substitutional solid solution, there is a direct
substitution of one type of atom for another.
so that solute atoms(cu) enter the crystal to take
positions normally occupied by solvent atoms (e.g.,
Nickel atoms);


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SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION
The alloy is said to be in a disordered condition if
in the formation of a substitutional solid
solution, the solute atoms do not occupy any
specific position but are distributed at random in
the lattice structure of the solvent.
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SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION
An ordered subsititutional solid solution is shown
fig Cu-Zn, Al-Cu, -Brass are some examples of
ordered structures.

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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
The four elements hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
and boron have such small diameters that they
can occupy the empty spaces (Interstices) in the
crystal lattices of many metals.






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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION

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Solvent or
matrix atoms
Solute atoms
INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
CARBON
(solute)
IRON
( SOLVENT)
INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
Interstitial solid solution usually have a limited
composition range and are generally considered
of secondary importance, but there are a few
instances worthy of special attention.
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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
The interstitial solution of carbon in iron
constitutes the basis of steel hardening.
Very small amount of hydrogen introduced into
steels during acid pickling(cleaning), plating, or
welding operations causes a Sharpe decrease in
ductility, known as hydrogen embrittlement.
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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
Interstitial nitrogen is useful not only in
nirtriding process but also as an important factor
in maintaining 18Cr-8Ni
Stainless steel in the austenitic condition.
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HUME - ROTHERYS RULES OF SOLID
SOLUBILITY
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Hume - Rotherys Rules of solid solubility
HUME - ROTHERYS RULES OF
SOLID SOLUBILITY
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Hume - Rotherys Rules of solid solubility
INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
HUME ROTHERYS RULES OF SOLID SOLUBILITY
The solubility limit of solute in solvents depends on
various factors. These were stated by Hume-rothery
and are as follows:
1. Critical structure factor (or) Crystal structure:
Metals that have the same crystal stucture (Lattice
structure) have a greater solubility.
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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
2. Relative atomic size factor(or) size factor:
The solid solution will tend to form if the
difference in size of solute and solvent is less than
15%.
If the difference is greater than 15% formation of
solid solution will be limited.
For good solid solubility the difference should be less
than 8%

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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
3. Chemical affinity factor (or) Electronegativity:
Formulation of solid solution is
favoured for metals that have less chemical affinity
is more, then a compound is formed instead of a solid
solution.
The metal which are separated in widely in the
periodic table are not suitable for making alloys
because of their high affinity.
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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
4. Relative valency factor(or)valence:
A metal that has a higher valency will
disslove only a small amount of a lower valency
metal, where as the metal with low valency
will have good solubility for the higher valency
metal.
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INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
In some alloys both interstitial and
substitutional solid solution are formed to an
appreciable extent.
For Eg: A Cr-Ni steel contains interstitially
dissolved carbon and substitution ally dissolved
chromium, nickel, and minor elements.
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POSSIBILITIES OF SOLID SOLUTIONS
There are three possible solid solutions based on
the amount of their elements. They are:
1.Unsaturated solid solution: In the solvent is
dissolving small amount of solute as well as at a
given temperature and pressure, it is called
unsaturated solid solution.
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POSSIBILITIES OF SOLID SOLUTIONS
2. Saturated solid solution:
If the solvent is dissolving
limiting amount of solute, it is called saturated
solid solution.

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POSSIBILITIES OF SOLID SOLUTIONS
3. Supersaturated solid solution:
If the solvent is dissolving more of solute that it
should, under equilibrium, it is called
supersaturated solid solution.
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PHASE DIAGRAM
Types of phase diagram
1. Isomorphous
2. Eutectoid system
3. Eutectic system
4.Peritectic system
5. Peritectroid reactions
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PHASE DIAGRAM
Phase Diagrams
Phase diagrams are graphical
representation of what phases are present in an
alloy system at various
Temperatures, pressures, and compositions.
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PHASE DIAGRAM
(or)
A phase diagram is a map showing the
structure or phase present as the
temperature and overall composition of
the material are varied.
Phase diagrams are also known as equilibrium
diagrams or constitutional diagrams.
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WHY SHOULD PHASE DIAGRAMS BE
STUDIED?
The phase diagrams can answer the following
important questions:
What condition is the material in?
Is the composition uniform throughout?
If not, how much of each component is present?

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WHY SHOULD PHASE DIAGRAMS BE
STUDIED?
Is something present that may give undesired
properties?
What will happen if temperature is increased or
decreased; pressure is changed or composition is
varied?
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WHY SHOULD PHASE DIAGRAMS BE
STUDIED?
Phase diagrams are used by engineers and
scientists to understand and to predict many
aspects of the behavior of materials.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
1. Components
2. System
3. Alloy
4. Solid solution
5. Solute Solution



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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
6. Solvent
7. Phase
8. Equilibrium
9. Solubility limit
10.Degrees of freedom

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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
The various terms used in the study of phase
diagrams have been explained below:
1. COMPONENT: Component are pure metals
and or compounds of which an alloy is composed.
Eg: In a copper-zinc brass, the components are
CU and Zn.

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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
2. SYSTEM: The system has two meanings in this
context
i. System: May refer to a specific body of
material under consideration. For Eg: A
ladle of molten steel is referred as a system.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
(ii)system: May also refer to the series of possible
alloys consisting of the same components. For
example, the Iron-Carbon system.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
A system having one components is called a
Unary system, and the system having two, three
and four components are known as Binary,
ternary and quaternary systems, respectively.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
3. ALLOY:
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals
or a metal (metals) and a non-metal (non-metals).
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
4.SOLID SOLUTION:
It is a solid that consist of two or
more elements atomically dispersed in a single-
phase structure.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
5. SOLUTE SOLUTION:
It is the minor part of the
solution or the material which is dissolved.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
6. SOLVENT:
The material which contributes the
major portion of the solution.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
7. PHASE:
A phase may be defined as a homogenous
portion of a system that has uniform physical
and chemical characteristics.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
8. EQUILIBRIUM:
Equilibrium is said to exit when
enough time is allowed for all possible reactions
to be completed.


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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
The equilibrium state refers to the
characteristics of the system that remain
constant indefinitely. Equilibrium occurs when
the free energy of the system is at its minimum
value.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
The term phase equilibrium refers to
equilibrium as it applies to systems in which
more than one phase may exist.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
9. SOLUBILITY LIMIT:
It is the maximum concentration of
solute that may be added without forming a new
phase.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
NOTE: The addition of solution in excess
of the solubility limit results in the formation of
another solid solution or compound.
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TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
10. DEGREES OF FREEDOM:
It is the number of
independent variables ( such as temperature,
pressure, and composition).
That can be changed independently without
changing the phase or phases of the system.
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WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM PHASE?

A phase may be a portion of matter which is
homogenous
A phase may be defined as any physical distinct
homogenous and mechanically separable portion
of a substance.
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WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM PHASE?
In Laymans term, a phase requires a unique
structure, uniform composition, and well-defined
boundaries or interfaces
Examples: A pure substance such as water is a
single phase.


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WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM PHASE?
The pure substance water can exist in solid,
liquid and vapour, each of these states being a
single phase, as shown in fig (a)
Now consider the effect of adding salt(Nacl) to
water. Salt will dissolve in water to give a
homogeneous solution.
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WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM PHASE?
Thus the salt- water solution forms a single
phase as shown if fig(b)
If more salt is added into water, then we have
two different phases as shown if fig(c)

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WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM PHASE?
A Single phase system is also termed as
homogeneous system

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WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM PHASE?
System composed of two or more phases are
termed as mixtures or heterogeneous systems.
Fig (d)
Most metallic alloys, ceramic, polymers, and
composite are heterogenous.
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ILLUSTRATION OF PHASES




WATER(2)




ILLUSTRATION OF PHASES:
(A) Three forms of water: 1) Ice 2)water 3)
water vapour are each a phase.

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WATER
ICE (1)
WATER VAPOUR(3)
ILLUSTRATION OF PHASES
salt






(b) Salt and water have unlimited solubility
(Homogeneous solution)- from a single phase



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ILLUSTRATION OF PHASES







(C) Salt and water have limited solubility
(Heterogenous solution)-from two distinct phases

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Saturated brine
Excess salt
ILLUSTRATION OF PHASES
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OIL
WATER
OIL AND WATER HAVE VIRTUALLY NO SOLUBILITY FROM TWO
DISTINCT PHASES
PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE
SUBSTANCE
One- Component Phase diagram
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PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE
SUBSTANCE
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PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE
SUBSTANCE
A pure substance such as water can exist in
solid, liquid, or vapour phases, depending on the
condition of temperature and pressure
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PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE
SUBSTANCE
The phase relationships may be represented on
a pressure- temperature (PT) diagram, known as
a one-component (or unary) phase diagram, for
the H2O System.
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PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE
SUBSTANCE
The phase diagram is composed of regions of
pressure and temperature where only a single
phase is stable.
The line OA indicates the vapourisation line
and the line OB indicates the freezing line.
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PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE
SUBSTANCE
Liquid and vapour phase exist along the
vapourisation line and liquid and solid phases
along the freezing line, shows in figure. These
lines are also known as Two phase equilibrium
lines.
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PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE
SUBSTANCE
The point O is know as Triple point.
Triple point is the point at which three phases
(Solid, liquid, and vapour phases(gas)).
of a single material coexit. This triple point of
water exists at temperature 0.00980C
and at pressure 4.58 mm of Hg.
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PHASE DIAGRAMS

The properties of an alloy depend on nature,
amount, size, distribution and orientation of the
phases.
A phase is the chemically and structurally
homogeneous portion of the microstructure.
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PHASE DIAGRAMS
It has the following characteristics
1. Same structure throughout.
2. Roughly the same composition and
properties throughout.
3. Definite interface between the phase
and surrounding.
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J.W. GIBBS
( JOSIAH WILLARD GIBBS)
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J.W. GIBBS( JOSIAH WILLARD
GIBBS)
JOSIAH WILLARD GIBBS PROPOSAL
(OR)
J.W. GIBBS LAW
(OR)
GIBBS PHASE RULE
(or)
PHASE RULE
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GIBBS PHASE RULE
J.W. Gibbs, American physicist derived an
equation which established relationship in a
system between the number of phases,
The number of degree of freedom and the
number of components.


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GIBBS PHASE RULE
The phase rule indicates the phases that exists
at equilibrium.
The Gibbs phase rule satisfies the following
relation:
P+F=C+n
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GIBBS PHASE RULE
P- Number of phases that exist in a
system under certain conditions.
C-Number of components in the system.
n- It represents the number of variables,
examples: Temperature, pressure and
concentration.
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GIBBS PHASE RULE
F- Degree of freedom. It is the number of
variables such as temperature or
pressure or concentration which can
be change independently without
changing the number of phases that
are present in the system.
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GIBBS PHASE RULE
In most studies the pressure is constant

i.e., 1 atmospheric pressure and hence pressure
is not considered a variable.

Usually the only variable under consideration is
temperature and hence the Gibbs phase rule
becomes;

P+F=C+1
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USES OF PHASE RULE
The phase rule predicts maximum number of
phases present in the alloy under equilibrium
conditions at any point of diagram.
If the number of phases are known, one can
determine the degree of freedom using phase
rule.
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USES OF PHASE RULE
Thus the phase rule is useful to know whether
the temperature or pressure or both variables
can be changed without changing the structure of
the alloy.
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ILLUSTRATION OF THE USE OF THE
PHASE RULE
Let us consider the application of gibbs phase rule
to the phase diagram of water system

Case 1 : Consider a triple point in the diagram.
At the triple point, three phases coexist in
equilibrium .

P=3. Since there is one component (water) in the
system C= 1


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THE USE OF THE PHASE RULE
The number of degree of freedom can be
calculated using the Gibbs phase rule as,
F=1- 3+2
F=0 (Zero degree of freedom)
This means that one of the variables
(Temperature or pressure) can be changed
at the triple point.
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THE USE OF THE PHASE RULE
Note: Since the variables temperature or
pressure cannot be changed and still keep the
three phases of coexistence.
The triple point is called an invariant point.
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THE USE OF THE PHASE RULE
Case 2: Next consider a point along liquid-
solid freezing curve
P=2
Then for water system
C=1
Applying the phase rule, we get:
F=1- 2+ 2
F=1 (one degree of freedom)

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THE USE OF THE PHASE RULE
This means that one variable
( Temperature or pressure) can be changed
independently and still maintain a system
with two coexisting phases.
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THE USE OF THE PHASE RULE
Case:3
Now consider a point on the phase
diagram of water inside a single phase in this
case there will be only one phase present.
P=1 ,
Then for water system, C=1
Now the phase rule gives
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THE USE OF THE PHASE RULE
F=1-1+2

F=2 ( two degree of freedom)
This means that two variables ( Temperature
and pressure) can be varied independently and
the system will still remain in a single phase.
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THE USE OF THE PHASE RULE
Note: In many application (especially for most
binary alloy) the pressure is kept constant at 1
atmosphere.
In this case Gibbs phase rule is modified as
F=C-P+1



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THE USE OF THE PHASE RULE
The above equation is known as condensed phase
rule.
This equation can be applied to most of
the binary phase diagram.

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OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. -----------May be visualized as forming from a
centre of freezing, or nucleus, which is composed
of a small group of atoms oriented into one of the
common crystal patterns.

Crystal
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OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
2.Perfect crystal of proper external shape can be
obtained only if crystallisation develops under
conditions
when degree of ----------------is very slight and the
metal has a very high purity.
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MICRO-CONSTITUENTS OF IRON-CARBON
ALLOYS
There are different micorscope constituents of
Iron-Carbon alloys exit.
The study of these micro-constituents is
essential in order to understand iron-iron
carbide (Fe-Fe3C) equilibrium phase diagram.
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VARIOUS MICRO-CONSTITUENTS OF IRON-
CARBON ALLOYS ARE:
1.Ferrite
2.Austenite
3.Cementite
4.Pearlite
5.Ledeburite
6.Martensite
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VARIOUS MICRO-CONSTITUENTS OF IRON-
CARBON ALLOYS ARE:
7. Troosite

8. Sorbite, and

9.Bainite
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VARIOUS MICRO-CONSTITUENTS OF IRON-
CARBON ALLOYS ARE:
1. Ferrite (or -Iron)
Ferrite is a primary solid solution based on iron
having BCC structure.
It is Nothing but the interstitial solid solution of
carbon in iron.
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FERRITE
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VARIOUS MICRO-CONSTITUENTS OF IRON-
CARBON ALLOYS ARE:
Maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 0.025% carbon
at 723C, While its solubility at room temperature is
only 0.008%.
Ferrite is soft, ductile, and highly
Magnetic.
It can undergo extensive cold working

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VARIOUS MICRO-CONSTITUENTS OF IRON-
CARBON ALLOYS ARE:
2. Austenite(or -Iron)
Austenite is a primary solid solution based on
iron having FCC structure.
This is also an interstitial solid solution of
carbon in iron


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O
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A
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AUSTENITE
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AUSTENITE
It is also a non-magnetic (paramagnetic)
Austentite has a greater electrical resistance
and coefficient of expansion than ferrite.

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CEMENTITE
Cementite is the name given to the carbide of
iron(Fe3c).
It is the hard, brittle, intermetallic compound of
iron with 6.69% of carbon.

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A
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CEMENTITE
The hardness and brittleness of cast iron is
believed to be due to the presence of the
cementite.
It is Magnetic below 250c


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CEMENTITE
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130
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PEARLITE
Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture of ferrite
(87.5%) and cementite (12.5%).
It is formed when austenite decomposes
during cooling. It contains 0.8% of carbon


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PEARLITE
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132
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S
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A
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PEARLITE
LAMELLAR-PEARLITE BEADED BAG
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PEARLITE
It consist of alternate thin layers (or lamellae) of
ferrite and cementite shown in fig.
The name derives from its lustrous apperance
(similar to mother of pearl) when viewed in
white light under a microscope.

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PEARLITE
The properties of pearlite is midway between
ferrite and cementite. It is relatively strong, hard
and ductile.
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LEDEBURITE
Ledeburite is the eutectic mixture of austenite(-Iron) and
cementite (Fe3C) Containing 4.3% carbon.
In pure iron-carbon alloy, it forms at 1140 C.
Most of the engineering alloy materials belong to
this range of alloy.
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LEDEBURITE
Pig iron, the most important engineering
material, is ledeburite.

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LEDEBURITE
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LEDEBURITE
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MARTENSITE
Martensite is the super saturated solid solution
of carbon in -Iron.
It is formed when steel is very rapidly cooled from the
austenitic state.
It exhibits a characteristic acicular or needle like
structure.
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140
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MARTENSITE
It is very hard more brittle and low ductility
properties.
There is an increase in specific volume during
formation of martensite from austenite.
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141
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MARTENSITE
As a result internal stresses are set up in the
materials leading to the formation of minute
cracks.

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142
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S
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MARTENSITE (RED AND YELLOW
MARTENSITE. GREEN: AUSTENITE)
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TROOSTITE
Troosite is the mixture of radial lamella of
ferrite and cementite. In fact, it differs from
pearlite only in the degree of fitness.
This constituents is also known as troostite
pearlite.
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144
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A
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TROOSTITE
It is the microstructure consisting ferrite and
finely divided cementite, produced on tempering
martensite below 450 C
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TROOSTITE
It is formed by the decomposition of austenite
when cooled at a rate slower than that which
will yield a martensitic structure and faster than
that which will produce a sorbitic structure.

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146
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S
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A
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TROOSTITE
It has hardness intermediate between
martensite and sorbite.
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147
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TROOSTITE
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148
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S
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A
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SORBITE
Sorbite is the microstructure consisting ferrite,
and finely divided cementite, produced on
tempering martensite above 450C
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149
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S
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A
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SORBITE
This constituents is also known as sorbitic
pearlite.
It is formed by the decomposition of austenite
when cooled at a rate slower than that which
will produce a pearlitic structure
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150
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S
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A
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T

SORBITE
Though sorbitic steel is slightly less ductile than
pearlite steel, its tensile and yield strength are
high.
The sorbite steels are often known as Toughened
steels.
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151
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SORBITE
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152
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S
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A
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T

SORBITE
Note:
All the pearlite, troosite and sorbite are ferrite-
cementite mixtures having lamellar structure.
However they are distinguished by their degree of
dispersion.
Pearlite has corase pearlite.
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153
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A
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T

SORBITE
Troosite has fine pearlite
And sorbite has medium pearlite

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154
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A
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T

BAINITE
Bainite is a decomposition product of austenite,
consisting of an aggregate of ferrite and carbide.
Bainite is obtained by transformation of pearlite
higher temperature ( has a feathery structure) is
called upper bainite.
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155
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S
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N
A
C
T

BAINITE
Lower bainite provides high mechanical
properties and that is why it is extensively
used for components of machine and structures.
Bainite has hardness in between the hardness
of pearlite and martensite.
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156
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A
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T

BAINITE
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157
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A
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T

IRON/CARBON ALLOY PHASE DIAGRAM
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158
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/
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H

S
O
N
A
C
T

1
/
5
/
2
0
1
3

159
S
A
B
-
A
P
/
M
E
C
H

S
O
N
A
C
T