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Ship Steering
Steering is a special case of maneuvering involved in
keeping an underway ship on a desired constant heading.
Elements of the steering system are the rudder and steering
gear.
Rudder have a streamlined section to give a good lift to drag
ratio and are of double-plate construction.
Ship Steering
Rudder area
Rudder area would be taken as a percentage of LT;
For merchant ships, the area of the rudder is usually about 2
percent of the product LT for ships 120 m long and over;
For smaller ships it may increase to about 3 percent for a 30
m ship;
Ships requiring special maneuverability will have more
rudder area;
Seagoing tugs may have rudder areas of 4 percent;
Harbor tug boats may have rudder areas of 6 to 8 percent of
LT.
Ship Steering
Types of rudders
Rudders can be categorized according to the degree of
balance (How close the centre of pressure is to the rudder
axis):
Unbalanced rudders have no area forward of the
rudderstock or pintles.
Semi-balanced rudders have area forward for part of the
rudder height (or span, as it is sometimes called).
Ballanced rudders have area forward for the full span.
Ship Steering
Types of rudders
The choice of rudder type
depends upon:
Shape of the stern,
Size of rudder required,
Capacity of the steering
gear available.
Ship or boat type and
size.
Ship Steering
Types of rudders (High-lift
rudders)
a) Flapped aerofoil
b) Schilling rudder
c) Wedge at tail
d) Gurney flap
e) J et flap
f) Blown flap gap
g) Rotating cylinder in isolation
h) Rotating cylinder in
association with rudder
i) Rotating cylinder in
association with flap
j) End plates
k) Robust simple rudder
l) Use of double/triple rudders
m) Active rudder
Ship Steering
Types of rudders
Flap rudder
Flettner rudder
Balanced reaction rudder
Ship Steering
Rudder structure and supports
Ship Steering
Rudder structure and supports
Unbalanced rudder
Ship Steering
Rudder structure and supports
Semi-balanced rudder
Ship Steering
Rudder structure and supports
Structural layout:
(a) Spade rudder;
(b) Skeg rudder
Ship Steering
Rudder bearings
Ship Steering
Rudder bearings
Ship Steering
Steering gear
Two types of hydraulically powered steering gear are in
common use,
Ram types
Rotary vane type
Ship Steering
Steering gear
Two-ram steering gear
Ship Steering
Steering gear
Four-ram steering gear
Ship Steering
Steering gear
Rotary vane steering gear
Propeller
Propeller reference line
The propeller blade is defined about a line normal to the
shaft axis called either the propeller reference line or the
directrix.
Propeller
Cylindrical blade section
The aerofoil sections which together comprise the blade of a
propeller are defined on the surface of cylinders whose axes
concentric with the shaft axis; hence the term cylindrical
sections is frequently encountered in propeller technology.
The section lies obliquely over the surface of the cylinder
and thus the line connecting the leading and trailing edges
of the section form a helix over the cylinder.
Propeller
Generator line
The point A where this helix intersects the plane defined by
the directrix and the x-axis forms one point, at the radius r of
the section considered, on the generator line. The
generator line is thus the locus of all such points between
the tip and root of the blade. Occasionally the term stacking
line is encountered, this is most frequently used as a
synonym for the generator line.
Propeller
Pitch
The term pitch in propeller technology refers to the helical
progress along a cylindrical surface.
If we consider a section of the propeller blade at a radius r
with a pitch angle and pitch P and imagine the blade to be
working in an unyielding medium, then in one revolution of
the propeller it will advance from A to A', a distance P. If we
unroll the cylinder of radius r into a flat surface, the helix
traced out by A will develop into the straight line AM.
The angle will be constant for a given helix, i.e., at a given
radius, but will increase in value from the tip of the blade
inwards to the hub.
Propeller
Pitch
In practice the pitch is not always the same at all radii, it
being fairly common to have a reduced pitch towards the
hub and, less usually, towards the tip.
In such cases the pitch at 0.7R is often taken as a
representative mean pitch, as this is approximately the point
where the maximum lift is generated.
Propeller
Pitch
Propeller
Rake and skew
Following the ITTC code, the skew angle 0
s
x of a
particular section is the angle between the directrix and a
line drawn through the shaft center line and the mid-chord
point of a section at its non-dimensional radius (x) in the
projected propeller outline; that is, looking normally, along
the shaft centerline, into the y-z plane.
Angles forward of the directrix that is in the direction of
rotation, in the projected outline are considered to be
negative.
The propeller skew angle 0
sp
is defined as the greatest
angle, measured at the shaft center line, in the projected
plane, which can be drawn between lines passing from the
shaft center line through the mid-chord position of any two
sections.
Propeller
Rake and skew
Propeller skew also tends to be classified into two types:
balanced and biased skew designs. The balanced skew
design is one where the locus of the mid-chord line
generally intersects with the directrix at least twice in the
inner regions of the blade. In the biased skew design the
mid-chord locus crosses the directrix not more than one;
normally only in the inner sections.
Propeller
Rake and skew
Propeller
Rake and skew
Propeller
Propeller outlines and area
In a marine propeller, the surface of the blade facing aft,
which experiences the increase in pressure when propelling
the ship ahead, is called the face of the blade, the forward
side being the back.
There are four basic outlines which describe the propeller
blade shape:
The projected outline
The developed outline
The expanded outline
Propeller
Propeller outlines and area
The projected outline is the view of the propeller blade that
is actually seen when the propeller is viewed along the shaft
center line that is normal to y-z plane. Convention dictates
that this is the view seen when looking forward. In this view
the helical sections are defined in their appropriate pitch
angles and the sections are seen to lie along circular arcs
whose center is the shaft axis.
The projected area of the propeller is the area seen when
looking forward along the shaft axis.
Propeller
Propeller outlines and area
The developed outline is related to the projected outline in
so far as it is a helically based view, but the pitch of each
section has been reduced to zero; that is the sections all lie
in the thwart-ship plane.
In general, the developed area is greater than the projected
area and slightly less than the expanded area.
The expanded outline is not really an outline in any true
geometric sense at all. It could more correctly be termed a
plotting of the chord lengths at their correct radial stations
about the directrix.
Blade area ratio is simply the blade area, either the
projected, developed or expanded depending on the
context, divided by the propeller disc area.
Propeller
Propeller outlines and area
Propeller
Blade thickness distribution
Typical representation of propeller
maximum thickness distribution
Propeller
Propeller drawing methods
The most commonly used method for drawing a propeller is
that developed by Holst.
This method relies on being able to adequately represent
the helical arcs along which the propeller sections are
defined by circular arcs, of some radius which is greater
than the section radius, when the helical arcs have been
swung about the directrix into the zero pitch or developed
view.
This drawing method is an approximation but does not lead
to significant errors unless used for very wide bladed or
highly skewed propellers; in these cases errors can be
significant and the alternative and more rigorous method of
Rosingh would then be used to represent the blade
drawings.
Propeller
Propeller drawing methods
A series of arcs with center on the shaft axis at O are
constructed at each of the radial stations on the directrix
where the blade is to be defined.
A length p 2n is then struck off along the horizontal axis for
each section and the lines AB are joined for each of the
sections under consideration.
A right angle ABC is then constructed, which in turn defines
a point C on the extension of the directrix below the shaft
center line.
An arc AC is then drawn with the center C and radius r
i
.
The distances from the directrix to the leading edge AA
L
and
the directrix to the trailing edge AA
1
are measured around
the circumference of the arc.
Propeller
Propeller drawing methods
Projections, normal to the directrix, through A
L
and A
1
meet
the arc of radius r, about the shaft center line, at P
L
and P
1
respectively.
These latter two points form two points on the leading and
trailing edges of the projected outline, whilst A
L
and A
1
lie
on the developed outline.
Consequently, it can be seen that distances measured
around the arcs on the developed outline represent true
lengths that can be formed on the actual propeller.
Propeller
Propeller drawing methods
Propeller
Propeller drawing methods
The design drawing for a propeller usually consists of four
parts:
a) A side elevation of the propeller,
b) An expanded blade outline with details of the section
shapes. The section shapes are shown with their pitch
faces all drawn parallel to the base line and at their correct
radii from the axis.
c) The pitch distribution if it is not uniform,
d) A transverse view.
Propeller
Propeller drawing methods
Propeller
Propeller drawing methods
Radius of curvature of the helix is given by R
n
=

cos
2
q
Propeller
Propeller drawing methods
Consider a section at radius r where the pitch is P.
If AB is set out equal to P 2n , and the line BCD drawn, the
angle ACB is the pitch angle and BCD is the pitch face line
for that section.
The transverse projection of the section EF will be E
1
CF
1
,
and if an arc of a circle of radius r is drawn with center A and
CE
i
= CE
1
and CF
i
= CF
1
are measured around this arc
from C, E
i
and F
i
will be points on the transverse projected
blade outline.
Propeller
Propeller drawing methods
In the same way, the longitudinal projection of the section on
the centerline plane will be E
2
CF
2
.
If the offsets CE
2
and CF
2
are set off in view (a) as shown,
and then the points E
2
and F
2
are dropped down to the
same levels as E
i
and F
i
in view (d), E
ii
and F
ii
will be
points on the longitudinal projected outline.
In this way the whole transverse and longitudinal projected
outlines can be drawn.
Propeller
Propeller drawing methods
For most purposes the developed outline is obtained by
expanding the section along an arc of a circle which has a
radius equal to the radius of curvature of the helix at the
point C. If BG is drawn perpendicular to BC, then C0 =
r cos
2
, which is the radius of curvature of the helix at the
point C having a radius r and pitch P.
Hence if CE and CF are set off from C around the arc of a
circle struck from G with radius GC, the resultant points E
ii
and F
ii
will be points on the developed blade outline.
This is nearly a correct construction for narrow and medium-
width blades, but is not so accurate in the case of wide
blades.
Propeller
Geometrical characteristics of propellers
The characteristics of propellers are customarily expressed in
the form of nondimensional ratios, the most commonly used
being:
Pitcb rotio PR =
PopcIIc ptch
popcIIc dumctc
=
P

isk orco A
o
= orco o tip circlc =
n
4

2
ExponJcJ orco rotio =
A
E
A
c
=
cxpundcd ucu o] uII bIudcs, outsdc hub
dsk ucu
c:clopcJ orco rotio,
AR =
A
D
A
c
=
dccIopcd ucu o] uII bIudcs, outsdc hub
dsk ucu
Propeller
XX
Pro]cctcJ orco rotio, PAR =
A
P
A
c
=
po]cctcd ucu o] uII bIudcs (on tunscsc pIunc), outsdc hub
dsk ucu
Hcon wiJtb rotio,
HwR =
mcun dccIopcd o cxpundcd wdth o] onc bIudc
dumctc
=
ucu o] onc bIudc outsdc hub Icngth o] bIudc outsdc hub
dumctc
BloJc wiJtb rotio, BwR =
muxmum wdth o] bIudc
dumctc
BloJc tbickncss roction =

muxmum bIudc thckncss poduccd to shu]t uxs
dumctc
=
t
c

Propeller
Section geometry and definition
The mean line or camber line is the locus of the mid-points
between the upper and lower surfaces when measured
perpendicular to the camber line.
The extremities of the camber line are termed the leading
and trailing edges of the aerofoil and the straight line joining
these two points is termed the chord line.
The distance between the leading and trailing edges when
measured along the chord line is termed the chord length (c)
of the section.
The camber of the section is the maximum distance
between the mean camber line and the chord line,
measured perpendicular to the chord line.
Propeller
Section geometry and definition
The aerofoil thickness is the distance between the upper
and lower surfaces of the section, also measured
perpendicularly to the chord line.
The leading edges are usually circular, having a leading
edge radius defined about a point on the camber line.