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Heat and temperature

• Heat is energy it can do work.

• Temperature is a man-made, arbitrary scale indicating which direction heat is

flowing…is heat going into the system, temperature rising or is heat leaving
the system, temperature declining.

• Heat is measured with an instrument called a calorimeter.

• Heat is NOT measured with a thermometer.

• Temperature is measured with a thermometer.

• Heat is measured in Joules.

• Temperature is measured in degrees.

There are 3 thermometers which measure temperature

Recall that a thermometer is a man made scale simply indicating the direction of
heat flow. It is also a relative measure of the motion of molecules in the system.

If the molecules are moving fast with lots of KE then the temperature is high
because a lot of heat is in the system.

If the temperature is low then we may assume there’s not as much heat in the
system and we can expect the molecules to be moving slower with less KE…
generally less energy in the system.

Gabriel Fahrenheit and Anders Celsius

• In the briefest terms, Fahrenheit took a glass tube and graduated it…made
marks, 1,2,3 etc. He used water as the standard. We often do use water as
our standard for things, it is cheap and plentiful and easy to get.

• He froze some water and the mercury in the tube dropped to the mark he
had made…32 degrees. When water boiled the mercury in the tube rose to
212 degrees.

• That is the thermometric scale we use in the USA.

Anders Celsius
 • When Celsius investigated the subject of temperature he did something a
little differently. He did not mark off the glass tube. He simply put it into
frozen water and where the mercury landed he called that 0 degrees. When
water was boiling and the mercury rose and leveled off he called that 100
degrees.

• This is the one use most around the world.

• Although in science we use a third thermometer when dealing with extreme

temperatures.

Lord Kelvin

• Kelvin was interested in a more philosophical approach to the behavior of

matter at different temperatures. He wondered, for example, what would
happen if there was a condition of NO HEAT. At “absolute” zero what would
the conditions be?

• At zero Kelvin, at absolute zero, all motion would cease since temperature is
an indirect measure of the motion of molecules. So if there was no heat there
would be no motion and thus no temperature. But a condition of absolute
zero cannot exist since there is no absolute NO motion. Everything moves
relative to SOME frame of reference. So EVERYTHING has SOME temperature.

• Atoms vibrate. Electrons revolve around the nucleus of every atom.

EVERYTHING MOVES RELATIVE TO SOMETHING.

CALORIES

• In our society we count calories. We measure the number of calories in a

candy bar. We have weight watchers which watches calorie intake.

• So what are calories??

• It turns out that a long time ago people thought heat was a fluid, made of
atoms, like air . They thought it had weight and mass and was a “Thing”.
They called this substance “caloric”

• But, it turns out that heat is NOT a thing, not made of atoms, not a substance
at all. But the name stuck…heat was caloric.

• So when we talk about calories we are talking about energy today and the
amount of energy we are taking in to our body. We must USE that energy we
have taken in OR our bodies will convert it to the storage form of energy…
FAT.
 • Fat is simply the body’s way of saying…don’t want to use that energy now?
OK. I will save it for you for later.

• Sooner or later that must be released into the universe…that energy must be
“burn ed” off by DOING WORK…that is by transferring the energy of your
body to the world around you.

• And that will heat up the universe and thus speed us toward “heat death” or
maximum entropy.

QUANTIFICATION

• Heat and temperature can be measured and quantified through a series of

equations.

• There are 3 thermometers, 3 temperature scales. We can convert from one

thermometer to another via these equations.

• F = (1.8 x C) + 32

• F - 32 / 1.8 = C

• K = C + 273

Quantifying heat as the temperature changes and the heat causes a phase change

• There are 3 common state of matter, solids liquids and gases.

• Whether the substance is in its solid, liquid or gaseous state depends on the
TEMPERATURE.

• Consider water. As ice the molecules are moving very slowly, they have little
energy and so electric attractive forces between molecules is strong enough
to hold the molecules in place…a solid. A solid has a definite shape, holds
that shape at that temperature and it has a definite measurable volume at a
a given temperature so that if we know the mass we may calculate the
density of the sample.

Phase change continued

• So what happens to a solid when the temperature goes up…that means heat
is going INTO the system. Energy is going into the system. The molecules
start to move faster and try to get farther apart. Those forces that held the
molecules in place as a solid aren’t quite strong enough to hold the atoms
and molecules in place and the molecules start to separates and the forces
are weaker, more like slinky springs holding the atoms together. So the
 molecules slide around each other…a liquid. The molecules “flow” past each
other.

Phase Change continued

• The liquid state has more energy than the solid state of a given substance.
Energy in the form of heat was added to the system. Now what happens
when even more energy is added?

• We know more energy is being added into the system because the
temperature is rising. Eventually the temperature will be high enough that
the forces that held the atoms and molecules together as a solid and even as
a liquid aren’t strong enough to hold the atoms and molecules together so
that they fly apart and go off independently, fly anywhere they like. That is a
gas (vapor).

So the equations are???

• Q=mcT

• Now what does that mean?

• Suppose we want to know HOW MUCH HEAT is needed to change the

temperature of a substance…this is the equation we use.

• Q= heat. The unit of heat will be either the SI unit of heat energy called
JOULES or it may be measured in Calories as well, the older unit of heat.

• M = Mass. The amount of heat needed to change the temperature of a

certain amount of a substance depends in part on HOW MUCH of the
substance you have. Obviously you must do much more work to change the
temperature of a ton of iron than it will take to change the temperature of 1
ounce of iron.

• “c”= is called the “specific heat” of a substance. It turns out that every
substance has a characteristic specific heat. We can identify an unknown
substance IF we know its specific heat. So when I wish to find out how much
heat is needed to change the temperature of a substance it helps to know the
mass and the identity of the substance.

• The third piece of info needed is the amount of temperature change.

• So it will take more energy, more work, more heat to change the temperature
by 50 degrees than to change the temperature by only 10 degrees.
• Q = mcT If I know the mass and the identity of the substance and the
amount by which we wish to change the temperature of a substance then we
can calculate the amount of work, energy, heat needed to make the change.

Heat can travel but Temperature does not

• Temperature can change as heat is added or removed. But temperature is a

man made scale.

• Heat is pure energy. It does work. It can cause masses to move.

• Heat can also be transferred. Recall that work is the transfer of energy. So
heat can transfer from one place to another.

• Heat can travel from one place to another by 3 ways.

• 1. Heat can travel by CONDUCTION. One object can cause cooler objects to
heat up. Heat ALWAYS and ONLY travels from HOT to COLD. So via
conduction, a hotter object can transfer the energy to a cooler object.

• It happens by contact. One object touches another and the energy of the
hotter causes the molecules of the cooler to begin to move faster, that is they
have more energy and thus the temperature goes up. Consider a metal
spoon in a pan of hot soup. The handle would eventually get hot even though
only the bowl of the spoon is in the soup so the atoms of hotter collide with
atoms of cooler and transfer their energy.

Conduction is the way heat travels through solids

Convection

• 2. The second way that Q travels from one place to another is via convection.
Heat travels through fluids this way

• Let us define a fluid…

• A fluid is anything that flows. Liquids flow. But so do gases…air masses flow
in currents, air flows.

• When liquids and gases are heated, gain more energy then they become less
dense. The molecules move faster and farther apart. Same mass in larger
volume. As a result of less density hot liquids and gases rise.

• Removing energy from liquids and gases cools substances. The atoms and
molecules have less energy, move slower, cannot escape gravity easily or for
as long and so they tend to fall together and sink.

• “Fall together” means the molecules and atoms get closer to one another.
That is the sample becomes more dense. The mass is the same but the
 volume is smaller. Because the molecules are more dense and because of
that it sinks. Colder gases or liquids sink.

• RadiationRadiation is the way heat can travel through a vacuum, through

empty space.

• Heat travels through nothing on something called an electromagnetic wave.

• This is how heat reaches us from the sun.

• We will study more about EMR as we study light later on down the line.

• Radiation, waves, shouldn’t be confused with harmful radiation, that is waves

of energy produced when the nucleus of an atom falls apart and radioactivity
is released.

• This is just heat moving through space in something called an

electromagnetic wave.

• Matter can react to EMR in two ways. The heat waves can be absorbed. The
energy is taken in , the molecules start to move faster and the temperature
goes up.

• OR….

• Matter can reflect the heat waves. That is the object does not absorb the
energy but simply allows it to bounce back like throwing a ball against a wall.

Phase Change Diagram

• The phase change diagram is just a visual way to describe and calculate all
the heat needed to change the temperature of a sample through the 3
phases of matter, solid to liquid to gas.

• You need two equations. Q=MCT as we have just discussed and H = m Hv.

• Or…

• H= m Hf.

• Heat = mass times the heat of vaporization and mass times the heat of
fusion.

• It turns out the Hv, and the Hf are both characteristic of a substance…we
could use to identify an unknown if we knew that value.
• Heat of vaporization, Hv, is the amount of heat needed to boil / condense 1
gram of your sample.

• Heat of fusion, Hf, is the amount of heat needed to freeze/melt 1 gram of

your sample.

Melt-Freeze
Boil-Condense

• It turns out that the temperature at which a solid melts to a liquid, whether
ice or iron,

• Is characteristic of the material. Aluminum melts at 660 C

• Tin melts at 232C

• Water(ice) at 0C

• Iron melts at 1535 C

• It turns out that the temperature at which water freezes to a solid is also 0C

• Molten iron will freeze at 1535 C

• Liquid Tin will freeze at 232 C

• Etc. etc. etc.

• What do you notice about the temp. at which a substance melts or freezes

• It is the same!

So let’s consider water…

• Water freezes to ice at 0 C. Ice melts to water at 0 C.

• So AT 0 C what do you have?

• Slush.

• Ice is melting and water is freezing and ice is melting and water is freezing
and on and on so long as the temperature remains AT 0 C.

The same thing is true at the other end

• The temperature at which a liquid turns into a vapor (gas) is characteristic of

the substance.

• A liquid boils at a certain temperature…water for example boils at 100 C.

• The temperature at which a vapor (gas) turns into a liquid…cools…is also
characteristic and say for example water, that temperature is also 100C.

• So AT that temperature, water would be boiling and gas would be condensing

back to a liquid.

And different substances boil and condense at their own characteristic

temperature we could look up in the HANDBOOK OFR PHYSICS AND
CHEMISTRY

We will…

• We will use worksheets etc to practice solving some heat and temperature
problems and conversions.

• We will put a phase change diagram on the board or overhead for you to
examine for concepts involved in tracing the heat transfer as something
hearts up or cools off through changes of state.

• Let’s solve a few now.

Some problems….

The specific heat of water is 4184 J/kg K - odd units - but good for this
problem.

• How many Joules of energy will be needed to raise the temp. of 50 grams of
water from 21 C to 37 C.

2. How much heat must be added to MELT 5 grams of ice at 0 C to liquid

water. Answer in calories. Then convert that to Joules. 1 cal is 4.184 J.