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MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
UNIT I
1. What is meant by cell?
A cell is the basic living unit of the body. Each organs of our body is an
aggregate of many different cells held together by intercellular supporting
structures. Each type of cell is meant for performing one particular function. In all
cells, oxygen combines with carbohydrate, fat or protein to release the energy
required for cell function. Each cell consists of a centrally located nucleus (cell
core) surrounded by the cytoplasm (cell body). The nucleus is separated from the
cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane.
2. What is meant by Depolarization?
The process of changing from the resting state to action potential is called
depolarization.
3. What are resting and action potential?
Resting potential is defined as the electrical potential of an excitable cell
relative to its surroundings when not stimulated or involved in passage of an
impulse. It ranges from -60mVto -100mV
Action potential is defined as the change in electrical potential associated
with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a cell.

4. What is half cell potential?
Half cell potential is defined as the voltage developed at an electrode-
electrolyte interface. It is also called as electrode potential.

5. What is reference electrode?
It is impossible to measure the potential of a single interface boundary
because in the measuring process an additional interface is introduced.
Therefore it is necessary to specify one electrode or interface as the standard to
which other may be compared. This standard electrode is called as standard
electrode. The hydrogen electrode has been chosen as reference electrode and
its potential specified as zero.

6. What is the purpose of auxiliary amplifier in ECG unit?
An auxiliary amplifier is connected between the driven right leg lead and
ECG unit to reduce the common mode signals to minimum level. Thus the
CMRR of overall system is increased by the use of auxiliary amplifier.



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7. What is the function of chopper amplifier?
The chopper amplifier is used to convert the dc or low frequency signal into
a high frequency signal.

8. Mention the conditions to choose physiological signal amplifier
Design of physiological signal amplifier or biomedical pre amplifiers
satisfy the following conditions
i) The voltage gain of the amplifier >100dB so as to amplify the bio
signal properly to drive the recorder.
ii) It should have a low frequency response from dc to required
frequency.
iii) The gain and frequency response should be uniform throughout
the required BW.
iv) There is no drift.
v) The input impedance of the amplifier should be more than 100
mega ohms to avoid the leakage current.
vi) The output impedance should be very small.
vii) The CMRR should be more than 80dB to eliminate interference.

9. Give the EMG signal characteristic.


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10. What is evoked potential?
The external stimuli are detected by the sense organs which cause
changes in the electrical activity of the brain. Due to this, potential is developed
in the brain as the response to external stimuli like light, sound etc. It is called
as evoked potential

11. What is electromyography?
EMG- electromyography is the science of recording and interpreting the
electrical activity of muscles action potentials.

UNIT II
1.What is diffusion?
Diffusion measurements indicate the lung ability to exchange gas with the
circulatory system or the rate at which gas is exchanged with the blood stream.
Gas analysers are used in the diffusion measurements.

2. Define cardiac output. Give the reason for decrease of cardiac output.
Cardiac output is defined as the amount of blood delivered by the heart to
the aorta per minute .In case of adults during each beat, the amount of blood
pumped ranges from 70 to 100 ml. For normal adults the cardiac output is about
4- 6 liters / minute.
The reason for decrease of cardiac output may be due to low blood
pressure, reduced tissue oxygenation, poor renal function, shock and acidosis.

3. What is phonocardiography? Give its important application.
Phonocardiography is the graphic registration of sounds produced in the
heart and great vessels.
Sounds can be recorded which are below the hearing threshold or
inaudible owing to masking and fatigue effects on the ear from
preceding loud sounds.
Sounds can be accurately timed in relation to the cardiac cycle.
It is possible to study the intensity, pitch and duration of sounds
which have diagnostic significance.

4. What is electromagnetic blood flow meter & define the principle based
on it?
The electromagnetic flow meter is the most widely used device for
measuring the velocity of the bloodstream.
It is based on the principle of magnetic induction. A permanent magnet or
electromagnet positioned around the blood vessel generates a magnetic field
perpendicular to the direction of the flow. The voltage induced in the moving
blood column is measured with stationary electrodes located on the opposite
sides of the blood vessel and perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.
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5. State plethysmography.
Plethysmography is used to measure the volume changes in any part of
the body that results from pulsation of blood occurring with each heart beat.
These measurements are useful in the diagnosis of arterial obstructions and
pulse wave velocity measurements which may lead to determine the heart rate.

6. What is meant by total lung capacity?
Total lung capacity (TLC) is the amount of gas contained in the lungs at
the end of maximal inspiration. It is the sum of vital capacity and residual
volume.

7. What is vital capacity?
The vital capacity (VC) is the maximum volume of gas that can be
expelled from the lungs after a maximal inspiration.

8. What is meant by mean arterial pressure? How do you measure it?
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is a weighted average of systolic and
diastolic pressure.
A simple formula for calculating MAP is
MAP=1/3(systolic- diastolic) + diastolic
The Mean arterial blood pressure is determined by the osciilometric
method.

9. Define coincidence error in blood cell counters.
If cell pass through sensing zone one by one, the total number of detected
cells is counted. However, simultaneously occupancy of the sensing zone more
than one particle occurs. This phenomenon is called coincidence and resulting
counting error is known as coincidence error.

10. Name any four physical principles based on which blood flow meters
are constructed.
The blood flow meter is constructed based on the following
principles:
Electromagnetic induction.


hic principle
dilution principle.






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UNIT III
1. Define cardiac pacemaker.
By giving external electrical stimulation impulses to the heart muscle,
it is possible to regulate the heart rate. These impulses are given by an
electronic instrument called a cardiac pacemaker.
2. How the pacemaker is classified depending upon the modes of operation.
Based on the modes of operation of the pacemaker, they divided into
five types
1. Ventricular asynchronous pacemaker (fixed rate pacemaker)
2. Ventricular synchronous pacemaker (standby pacemaker)
3. Ventricular inhibited pacemaker (demand pacemaker)
4. Atrial synchronous pacemaker
5. Atrial sequential Ventricular inhibited pacemaker
3. What is a "demand pacemaker and when is it used?
The R wave inhibited pacemaker allows the heart to pace at its normal
rhythm when it is able to. However if the R wave is missing for preset period of
the time, the pacer will supply a stimulus. Therefore if the heart rate falls below a
predetermined minimum, the pacemaker will turn on and provide a stimulus to the
heart. For this reason it is called demand pacemaker.
There is a piezoelectric sensor shielded inside the pacemaker. When the
sensor is slightly stressed or bent by patients body activity, the pacemaker can
automatically increase or decrease its rate.
4. What is meant by defibrillator & what are the types based on that?
During fibrillation, the heart muscle fibers are continuously stimulated by
adjacent cells so that there is no synchronised succession of events that follow
the heart action. Ventricular fibrillation can be converted to a more efficient
rhythm by applying a high voltage shock to the heart. This sudden surge of
voltage across the heart causes all muscle fibers to contract simultaneously.
Possibly the fibers may then respond to normal physiological pacemaker pulse.
The instrument for administering the electric shock is called defibrillator.
Based on electrode placement, they are classified as
1. Internal defibrillator
2. External defibrillator
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Depending on the nature of the voltage applied, the defibrillators can be
divided into
1. A.C defibrillator
2. D.C defibrillator
3. Synchronised D.C defibrillator
4. Square pulse defibrillator
5. Double Square pulse defibrillator
6. Biphasic D.C defibrillator
5. Give the difference between external and internal defibrillator.

S.No Internal defibrillator External defibrillator
1

2



3


4

5

6
It is used when the chest is
opened
Spoon shaped electrode
with insulated handle is
used.
Shock voltage is in the
range from 50V to 1000V
Contact impedance about
50 ohm
The current passing through
the heart is 1 to 20 A
The duration of shock is 2.5
to 5 ms or less.
It is used on the chest.

Paddle shaped electrode is used.

The required voltages are in the
range from 1000V to 6000V.
Contact impedance on the chest is
about 100 ohm
The current passing through the
chest is 10 to 60 A
The duration of shock is about 1 to
5 ms.


6. What is the necessity of D.C. defibrillator?
A D.C. defibrillator can arrest the ventricular fibrillation. Here the
ventricular fibrillation is terminated by passing a high energy shock through
discharging capacitor to the exposed heart. The D.C. defibrillator would not
produce undesirable side effects and at the same time, it produces normal heart
beat effectively.

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7. Define Biotelemetry.
Bio telemetry is the electrical technique for conveying biological
information from a living organism and its environment to a location where this
information can be observed or recorded. Today bio telemetry is extended for
monitoring patients in a hospital from a remote location.
8. Briefly mention the different elements involved in the biotelemetry.
The essential blocks of a bio telemetry system is shown in fig.



The transducer converts biological variable into electrical signal. The
signal conditioner amplifies and modifies this signal for effective transmission.
The transmission links connects the signal input blocks to the readout device by
wire or wireless mean.
9. What is meant by single channel telemetry system?
Only one bio electric variable or physiological variable is modulated and
broadcasts over a limited range to a remotely located receiver at a time. The
receiver detects the radio signal and recovers the signal. For transmitting these
signals only one channel is used, therefore which is called single telemetry
system.
10. What is telestimulator?
Telestimulation systems are described for chronic indirect muscle stimulation in caged
rabbits and mice. Both system use a 5 MHz carrier frequency transmission and consist of a
transmitter and a receiver.


UNIT IV

1. Define ionizing radiation.
The rays coming out from X- rays or radioactive materials has the
characteristics of ionizing the gases through which it travels. This is known as
ionizing radiation.
2. What are the components of diagnostic x-ray machine?
The basic components of diagnostic x-ray machine are
Power supply arrangements
Biological
Signal
Transducer
Conditioner Transmission
Link
Read out
Device
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X ray tube
Aluminium filters
Collimator
Bucky diaphragm
Lead shield

3. How X-rays are produced?
X rays are produced by bremsstrahlung radiation. When the fast moving
electron enters into the orbit of the anode material atom, its velocity is
continuously decreased due to scattering by the orbiting electrons. Thus the loss
of energy of that incident electron appears in the form of continuous X-rays or
white X-rays.
4. Define radiation therapy.
Certain diseases and tumors can be treated by ionizing effect of x-rays.
The use of radiation for the treatment of disease is called as radiation therapy. In
dermatology soft x-rays are used for the treatment of skin diseases. Hard x-rays
are used in the treatment of deep seated tumors.
5. Name any two equipments used in radiation therapy.
Equipments used in radiation therapy are
i. Cobalt 60 machine
ii. Medical linear accelerator machine
6. What is meant by half-life in radioisotopes?
The half life or half period of a radioactive isotope is the time required for
half of the initial stock of atoms to decay. Thus, after one half periods has
elapsed, the total activity of any single radioactive isotope will have fallen to
half of its initial value.
The half life or half period of a radioactive isotope is given by
T
1/2
=0.693/
7. What is an ionization chamber?
When an atom is ionized, it forms an ion pair. If the electrons are
attracted towards appositively charged electrode and the positive ions to a
negatively charged electrode, a current would flow in an external circuit. The
magnitude of the current would be proportional to the amount of radioactivity
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present between the electrodes. This principle used in ionization chamber. The
ionization chamber is one of the methods to detect and measure the radiation.

8. What is a spark chamber?
A spark chamber is a particle detector, a device used in particle
physics for detecting electrically charged particles. Spark chambers consist of a
stack of metal plates placed in a sealed box filled with a gas such
as helium, neon or a mixture of the two. When a charged particle from a cosmic
ray travels through the box, it ionises the gas between the plates. Ordinarily this
ionisation would remain invisible. However, if a high enough voltage can be
applied between each adjacent pair of plates before that ionisation disappears,
then sparks can be made to form along the trajectory taken by the ray, and the
cosmic ray in effect becomes visible as a line of sparks.
9. Name any four radioisotopes used for medical purposes.
Radio isotopes used for diagnostic purpose are
i. Iodine - 123 : Used for diagnosis of thyroid function
ii. Bismuth - 213 : Used for targeted alpha therapy especially cancers
iii. Cobalt : Used for external beam radio therapy
iv. Copper - 64 : Used for genetic disease

10. Define MRI.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear magnetic resonance
imaging (NMRI), or magnetic resonance tomography (MRT) is a medical
imaging technique used in radiology to investigate the anatomy and physiology
of the body in both health and disease. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields
and radiowaves to form images of the body. The technique is widely used in
hospitals for medical diagnosis, staging of disease and for follow-up without
exposure to ionizing radiation.
UNIT V


1. Explain the term diathermy and what its types are.
The term diathermy means through heating or producing deep heating
directly in the tissues of the body.
They can be divided into four types
1. Surgical diathermy
2. Short wave diathermy
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3. Microwave diathermy
4. Ultrasonic diathermy

2. Define fulguration.
By passing sparks from a needle or ball electrode of small diameter to the
tissue, the developed heat dries out the superficial tissue without affecting deep
seated tissues. This is called fulguration in which the electrode is held near the
tissue without touching it and due to the passage of the electric arc, the
destruction of superficial tissue takes place. Thus it is related to the localised
surface level destruction of the tissues.
3. Define coagulation.
When the electrode is kept near the skin, high frequency current is sent
through the tissue in the form of bursts and heating it locally so that it
coagulates from inside.
4. Define Blending.
When the electrode is kept above the skin, the separated tissue or nerves
can be welded or combined together by an electric arc. This is called blending.
5. List out the properties of LASER
Laser has certain unique properties, namely,
1. high monochromaticity
2. Coherence
3. directionality
6. What is Ground fault interrupter?
A Ground fault interrupter (GFI) protects against shock that occurs if the
person touches the hot lead with one hand and ground with the other. The GFI
opens the power lead if the hot lead current differs by more than approximately
2mA from the neutral lead current for the duration of longer than 0.2 second.
7. What is Isolation Transformer?
The isolation transformer provides a second means of protecting against
an H lead to G lead macroshock. It also prevents sparks when the H lead
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touches ground, a particularly important protection is an explosive or flammable
environment, such as anesthetics or excessive oxygen present.

8. What is Line isolation monitor?
A line isolation monitor (LIM) puts relatively high impedance from either
secondary lead through an ammeter to ground of the isolation transformer. If
there is a conductive path through the equipment, the meter in the LIM will read
a current. The meter read what current would flow through a short circuit fault
from secondary to ground.
9. Define Grounding
The term grounding means a low impedance metallic connection to a
properly designed ground grid, located in the earth.
10. Mention the Important aspects of hospital architecture
The hospitals should be designed with complete safety aspects.
1. The electrical wiring should be made with three wire system. There
should be proper protection against high voltage macroshocks by
installing GFI and alarm circuits in room of the hospitals.
2. A separate 12 gauge wire should be used for ground.
3. The radiation sources should be well separated from the patient room.
4. Periodic checking of the equipment and its calibration is always
necessary.
11. Define an electric shock hazard.
The hazards due to electric shock are associated with equipment other
than that used in hospitals.
12. Name two different ways in which electricity can harm the body.






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