Distributed Generation - Control and Protection

DI STRI BUTED
DI STRI BUTED
GENERATI ON
GENERATI ON
CONTROL
CONTROL
AND PROTECTI ON
AND PROTECTI ON
Arindam Ghosh
Arindam Ghosh
Professor in Power Engineering
Professor in Power Engineering
School of Engineering Systems
School of Engineering Systems
Queensland University of Technology
Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane,
Brisbane,
Qld
Qld
, Australia
, Australia
Prof. Arindam Ghosh Prof. Arindam Ghosh 2 2
Greenhouse Gas Reduction
Greenhouse Gas Reduction
Climate Change is driving major changes in the energy industry. Climate Change is driving major changes in the energy industry.
The Australian Government has set an immediate target of 20% The Australian Government has set an immediate target of 20%
greenhouse gas reduction by 2020. greenhouse gas reduction by 2020.
The long The long- -term target being 60% reduction by 2050. term target being 60% reduction by 2050.
The number of electric vehicles will increase in the future, cau The number of electric vehicles will increase in the future, causing a sing a
major shift in peak electricity demand patterns. major shift in peak electricity demand patterns.
This will also have the effect of shifting some of the vehicular This will also have the effect of shifting some of the vehicular
carbon emission reduction target to electricity generation. carbon emission reduction target to electricity generation.
Thus the actual greenhouse reduction target for electricity Thus the actual greenhouse reduction target for electricity
generation is expected to be greater than 60%. generation is expected to be greater than 60%.
Major changes in the generation mix and in the transmission and Major changes in the generation mix and in the transmission and
distribution infrastructure are required to address these operat distribution infrastructure are required to address these operational ional
challenges. challenges.
There will also be a major shift in the patterns of electricity There will also be a major shift in the patterns of electricity
consumption. consumption.
Transmission Changes
Transmission Changes

Many of sources of renewable energy are intermittent in
Many of sources of renewable energy are intermittent in
nature.
nature.

Therefore their integration into transmission networks
Therefore their integration into transmission networks
needs large
needs large
-
-
scale deployment of phasor measurement
scale deployment of phasor measurement
units (
units (
PMUs
PMUs
).
).

These can provide network measurements from widely
These can provide network measurements from widely
dispersed locations, which are synchronized through a
dispersed locations, which are synchronized through a
global positioning system (GPS).
global positioning system (GPS).

This enables relative changes in the voltage and current
This enables relative changes in the voltage and current
phase angles to be computed across the network.
phase angles to be computed across the network.

Robust nonlinear wide area measurement and control
Robust nonlinear wide area measurement and control
(WAMC) strategies have to be developed to maintain the
(WAMC) strategies have to be developed to maintain the
overall system stability (both voltage and angle).
overall system stability (both voltage and angle).
Transmission Changes (Contd.)
Transmission Changes (Contd.)

Dynamic power flow control strategies will be needed to
Dynamic power flow control strategies will be needed to
deliver the energy generated in remote areas to high
deliver the energy generated in remote areas to high
-
-
consumption areas, generally in urban locations.
consumption areas, generally in urban locations.

The intermittent nature of the renewable sources makes
The intermittent nature of the renewable sources makes
it difficult to accurately predict where the power
it difficult to accurately predict where the power
generation will be a maximum at any given time.
generation will be a maximum at any given time.

Power electronic
Power electronic
-
-
based Flexible AC Transmission System
based Flexible AC Transmission System
(FACTS) controllers need to be employed to route the
(FACTS) controllers need to be employed to route the
power from any available sources to high demand areas,
power from any available sources to high demand areas,
or to storage resources.
or to storage resources.

This raises key research questions as to the optimal
This raises key research questions as to the optimal
placement and sizing of FACTS and integration with wide
placement and sizing of FACTS and integration with wide
area control design.
area control design.
Markets and Policies
Markets and Policies

Good sites for wind, solar thermal and geothermal power
Good sites for wind, solar thermal and geothermal power
generation may be located in areas distant from, or with
generation may be located in areas distant from, or with
limited connectivity to, existing transmission lines.
limited connectivity to, existing transmission lines.

Current transmission investment is largely decided on a
Current transmission investment is largely decided on a
project by project basis.
project by project basis.

Nation building is a very important concept, which needs
Nation building is a very important concept, which needs
to be presented in a market context.
to be presented in a market context.

In Australia, the major wind power centers are in South
In Australia, the major wind power centers are in South
Australia and Tasmania.
Australia and Tasmania.

The geothermal and solar
The geothermal and solar
-
-
thermal potential is high in
thermal potential is high in
Central Australian deserts.
Central Australian deserts.

To transfer power from these sites to major load centers
To transfer power from these sites to major load centers
of Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane needs major
of Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane needs major
transmission infrastructure justifications.
transmission infrastructure justifications.
Markets and Policies (Contd.)
Markets and Policies (Contd.)

Again, to maximize the utilization of the available source
Again, to maximize the utilization of the available source
and transmission capacities, it is desirable to buffer the
and transmission capacities, it is desirable to buffer the
lines from sudden changes in loading.
lines from sudden changes in loading.

Therefore the timing of ancillary services, storage and
Therefore the timing of ancillary services, storage and
demand management should be correlated to available
demand management should be correlated to available
renewable generation resources.
renewable generation resources.

Scheduling based on forecasts is critical for the future
Scheduling based on forecasts is critical for the future
grid.
grid.

Scheduling and power flow controls should operate in
Scheduling and power flow controls should operate in
cohesion.
cohesion.

Demand side management will be a critical part of
Demand side management will be a critical part of
meeting the renewable scheduling constraints.
meeting the renewable scheduling constraints.
Distribution Changes
Distribution Changes

The current IEEE recommended industry practice
The current IEEE recommended industry practice
(P1547) is to isolate all distributed generators (
(P1547) is to isolate all distributed generators (
DGs
DGs
)
)
from the grid in the event of a fault in the grid.
from the grid in the event of a fault in the grid.

This approach is adequate when the total capacity of the
This approach is adequate when the total capacity of the
DGs
DGs
is not significant and they can be removed without
is not significant and they can be removed without
major impact on the system.
major impact on the system.

However it is expected that the penetration level of grid
However it is expected that the penetration level of grid
-
-
connected
connected
DGs
DGs
will increase substantially over the next
will increase substantially over the next
few decades.
few decades.

In addition, the number of Plug
In addition, the number of Plug
-
-
in Hybrid Electric
in Hybrid Electric
Vehicles (
Vehicles (
PHEVs
PHEVs
) will increase in the near future.
) will increase in the near future.

Also
Also
microgrids
microgrids
will become popular in rural communities
will become popular in rural communities
and commercial buildings.
and commercial buildings.
Distribution Changes (Contd.)

Existing distribution systems have a simple power flow
Existing distribution systems have a simple power flow
radially
radially
outwards from power stations.
outwards from power stations.

These will have to be modified.
These will have to be modified.

The future distribution systems will have to be re
The future distribution systems will have to be re
-
-
designed to accommodate the non
designed to accommodate the non
-
-
radial nature of
radial nature of
power flows in a more complex distributed generation
power flows in a more complex distributed generation
environment.
environment.

The non
The non
-
-
radial nature will make the existing overcurrent
radial nature will make the existing overcurrent
protection system unviable since the elements of the
protection system unviable since the elements of the
system cannot be coordinated.
system cannot be coordinated.

It is desirable that the DG protection systems should
It is desirable that the DG protection systems should
work in conjunction with the protection of networks,
work in conjunction with the protection of networks,
implying a paradigm shift in protection principles.
implying a paradigm shift in protection principles.

The installation of a large number of single
The installation of a large number of single
-
-
phase
phase
DGs
DGs
with different ratings will
with different ratings will
have severe impacts on power quality (PQ) due to the have severe impacts on power quality (PQ) due to the
introduction of voltage imbalance and harmonics. introduction of voltage imbalance and harmonics.
require new solutions for control synchronization since all the require new solutions for control synchronization since all the
distributed resources must work together distributed resources must work together
require enhanced strategies for automation of distribution in require enhanced strategies for automation of distribution in
terms of demand management terms of demand management
require strategies for complex self reorganizing networks require strategies for complex self reorganizing networks
require reactive power control strategies to provide acceptable require reactive power control strategies to provide acceptable
voltage levels throughout the network. voltage levels throughout the network.
Sources of Renewable Energy
Sources of Renewable Energy

Wind turbines and wind farms
Wind turbines and wind farms

Solar photovoltaic (PV) cells
Solar photovoltaic (PV) cells

Solar
Solar
-
-
thermal energy
thermal energy

Fuel Cells
Fuel Cells

Geothermal
Geothermal

Wave and tidal energy
Wave and tidal energy

Biomass
Biomass

Micro or mini hydro
Micro or mini hydro
Wind Power
Wind Power

A wind turbine consists of
A wind turbine consists of
two or three propeller
two or three propeller
-
-
like
like
blades.
blades.

The rotor is attached to
The rotor is attached to
the top of a tall tower.
the top of a tall tower.

As the wind blows it spins
As the wind blows it spins
the rotor.
the rotor.

As the rotor spins, it
As the rotor spins, it
produces energy.
produces energy.

Wind farms are places
Wind farms are places
where many wind
where many wind
turbines are clustered
turbines are clustered
together.
together.
Types of Wind Generators
Types of Wind Generators
Type A: Conventional
Type A: Conventional
Induction Generator
Induction Generator
Type B: Wound Rotor
Type B: Wound Rotor
Induction Generator
Induction Generator
with Variable Rotor
with Variable Rotor
Resistance
Resistance
Types of Wind Generators (Contd.)
Types of Wind Generators (Contd.)
Type C: Doubly Fed
Type C: Doubly Fed
Induction Generator
Induction Generator
(DFIG)
(DFIG)
Type D: Full Converter
Type D: Full Converter
Interfaced
Interfaced
Wind Power Potential
Wind Power Potential
A recent study finds that wind power could provide for the entir A recent study finds that wind power could provide for the entire e
world world s current and future energy needs. s current and future energy needs.
The researchers first sectioned the globe into areas of The researchers first sectioned the globe into areas of
approximately 3,300 square kilometers and surveyed local wind approximately 3,300 square kilometers and surveyed local wind
speeds every six hours. speeds every six hours.
They imagined 2.5 megawatt turbines crisscrossing the terrestria They imagined 2.5 megawatt turbines crisscrossing the terrestrial l
globe, excluding globe, excluding areas classified as forested, areas occupied by areas classified as forested, areas occupied by
permanent snow or ice, areas covered by water, and areas permanent snow or ice, areas covered by water, and areas
identified as either developed or urban. identified as either developed or urban.
They also included the possibility of 3.6 megawatt offshore wind They also included the possibility of 3.6 megawatt offshore wind
turbines, but restricted them to 50 nautical miles off the coast turbines, but restricted them to 50 nautical miles off the coast and and
to oceans depths less than 200 meters. to oceans depths less than 200 meters.
Using this criteria the researchers found that wind energy could Using this criteria the researchers found that wind energy could not not
only supply all of the world only supply all of the world s energy requirements, but it could s energy requirements, but it could
provide over forty times the world provide over forty times the world s current electrical consumption s current electrical consumption
and over five times the global use of total energy needs. and over five times the global use of total energy needs.
PV
PV

Solar PVs are arrays of
Solar PVs are arrays of
cells containing a material
cells containing a material
that converts solar
that converts solar
radiation into direct
radiation into direct
current electricity.
current electricity.

Materials presently used
Materials presently used
for PVs include
for PVs include
amorphous silicon,
amorphous silicon,
polycrystalline silicon,
polycrystalline silicon,
microcrystalline silicon,
microcrystalline silicon,
cadmium telluride, and
cadmium telluride, and
copper indium
copper indium
selenide/sulfide.
selenide/sulfide.
PV (Contd.)
PV (Contd.)

Photovoltaic production has been doubling every 2
Photovoltaic production has been doubling every 2
years, increasing by an average of 48 percent each year
years, increasing by an average of 48 percent each year
since 2002.
since 2002.

This makes it the world
This makes it the world
s fastest
s fastest
-
-
growing energy
growing energy
technology.
technology.

At the end of 2008, the cumulative global PV
At the end of 2008, the cumulative global PV
installations reached 15,200 megawatts.
installations reached 15,200 megawatts.

Roughly 90% of this generating capacity consists of grid
Roughly 90% of this generating capacity consists of grid
-
-
connected electrical systems.
connected electrical systems.

Solar PV power stations today have capacities ranging
Solar PV power stations today have capacities ranging
from 10
from 10
-
-
60 MW although proposed solar PV power
60 MW although proposed solar PV power
stations will have a capacity of 150 MW or more.
stations will have a capacity of 150 MW or more.
Solar
Solar
-
-
Thermal
Thermal

A Spanish company has
A Spanish company has
started producing
started producing
household electricity from
household electricity from
the world
the world
s first solar
s first solar
thermal plant named PS
thermal plant named PS
-
-
10 near Seville.
10 near Seville.

Giant mirrors are placed
Giant mirrors are placed
on the ground that tracks
on the ground that tracks
the sun all day long and
the sun all day long and
reflects its light on a
reflects its light on a
white tower.
white tower.
Solar
Solar
-
-
Thermal (Contd.)
Thermal (Contd.)

PS
PS
-
-
10 is in operation since March 2006 and
10 is in operation since March 2006 and
generates 11 MW of power.
generates 11 MW of power.

Another 300 additional reflectors are being
Another 300 additional reflectors are being
installed that will increase the output of the
installed that will increase the output of the
plant to a massive 300 Megawatts by 2013.
plant to a massive 300 Megawatts by 2013.

It is speculated that the massive heat build up
It is speculated that the massive heat build up
could easily melt all the metal in the tower if
could easily melt all the metal in the tower if
water that is being circulated is made to stop.
water that is being circulated is made to stop.

This water is converted to steam and is then
This water is converted to steam and is then
used to power the turbines located at the base
used to power the turbines located at the base
of the tower.
of the tower.
Other Forms of Generation
Other Forms of Generation
Geothermal
Geothermal
Hydro
Hydro
Fuel Cell
Fuel Cell
Microturbine
Microturbine
Tidal
Tidal
Accelerating
Accelerating
Torque
Torque

Electric power is generated by converting mechanical
Electric power is generated by converting mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
energy into electrical energy.

The rotor mass, which contains turbine and generator
The rotor mass, which contains turbine and generator
units, stores kinetic energy due to its rotation.
units, stores kinetic energy due to its rotation.

This stored kinetic energy accounts for sudden increase
This stored kinetic energy accounts for sudden increase
in the load.
in the load.

Let us denote the mechanical torque input by
Let us denote the mechanical torque input by
T
T
m m
and the
and the
output electrical torque by
output electrical torque by
T
T
e e
.
.

Neglecting the rotational losses, a generator unit is said
Neglecting the rotational losses, a generator unit is said
to be operating in the steady state at a constant speed
to be operating in the steady state at a constant speed
when the difference between these two elements of
when the difference between these two elements of
torque is zero.
torque is zero.

This means the accelerating torque,
This means the accelerating torque,
T
T
a a
= T
= T
m m
T
T
e e
= 0
= 0
Rotor Acceleration/Deceleration
Rotor Acceleration/Deceleration

When the electric power demand increases suddenly,
When the electric power demand increases suddenly,
the electric torque increases.
the electric torque increases.

However, without any feedback mechanism to alter the
However, without any feedback mechanism to alter the
mechanical torque,
mechanical torque,
T
T
m m
remains constant.
remains constant.

Therefore the accelerating torque becomes negative
Therefore the accelerating torque becomes negative
causing a deceleration of the rotor mass.
causing a deceleration of the rotor mass.

As the rotor decelerates, kinetic energy is released to
As the rotor decelerates, kinetic energy is released to
supply the increase in the load.
supply the increase in the load.

The system frequency, which is proportional to the rotor
The system frequency, which is proportional to the rotor
speed, also decreases.
speed, also decreases.

We can thus infer that any deviation in the frequency for
We can thus infer that any deviation in the frequency for
its nominal value is indicative of the imbalance between
its nominal value is indicative of the imbalance between
T
T
m m
and
and
T
T
e e
.
.
Power
Power
-
-
Frequency Relation
Frequency Relation

From this figure, we can write
From this figure, we can write
m
ref m
P
f
R f
R
P P
= = where
1
Power
Power
-
-
Frequency Relation
Frequency Relation
(Contd.)
(Contd.)

Suppose an interconnected power system contains
Suppose an interconnected power system contains
N
N
turbine
turbine
-
-
generator units.
generator units.

The steady
The steady
-
-
state power
state power
-
-
frequency relation is the
frequency relation is the
summation of each of these units as
summation of each of these units as
f
R R R
P P P P P
N
ref mN m m m

+ + + = + + + =
1 1 1
2 1
2 1

Since all the generators are supposed to work in
Since all the generators are supposed to work in
synchronism, the change is frequency of each of the
synchronism, the change is frequency of each of the
units is the same and is denoted by
units is the same and is denoted by
f
f
.
.
Power
Power
-
-
Frequency Relation
Frequency Relation
(Contd.)
(Contd.)

Then the frequency response characteristics is
Then the frequency response characteristics is

We have discussed what is called the frequency droop.
We have discussed what is called the frequency droop.
N
R R R
1 1 1
2 1
+ + + =

The total power
The total power
-
-
frequency relation is then
frequency relation is then
f P P
ref m
=
Frequency Droop
Frequency Droop

Then real power
Then real power
-
-
frequency and reactive power
frequency and reactive power
-
-
voltage
voltage
magnitude relations are

m
m
and
and
n
n
are the droop coefficients
are the droop coefficients

rated rated
is the synchronous frequency
is the synchronous frequency

V
V
is the magnitude of the converter output voltage at a
is the magnitude of the converter output voltage at a
frequency of
frequency of

P and Q respectively denote the active and reactive
P and Q respectively denote the active and reactive
power supplied by the converter.
power supplied by the converter.
( )
( )
rated rated
rated rated
Q Q n V V
P P m
=
=
Angle Droop
Angle Droop

Assume that all the
Assume that all the
DGs
DGs
are voltage source converter
are voltage source converter
(VSC) interfaced.
(VSC) interfaced.

The angle of the output voltage can be changed
The angle of the output voltage can be changed
instantaneously along with its magnitude.
instantaneously along with its magnitude.

Therefore, the angle can be used in the droop equation
Therefore, the angle can be used in the droop equation
instead of frequency.
instead of frequency.

Then real power
Then real power
-
-
angle and reactive power
angle and reactive power
-
-
voltage
voltage
( )
( )
rated rated
rated rated
Q Q n V V
P P m
=
=
2
2
-
-
DG System
DG System

Let us define
Let us define
X X
1 1
= = L L
1 1
/( /(V V
1 1
V V) )
X X
2 2
= = L L
2 2
/ ( / (V V
2 2
V V) )
X X
L L2 2
= = L L
Line Line2 2
/( /(V V
2 2
V V) )
X X
L L1 1
= = L L
Line Line1 1
/( /(V V
1 1
V V) )
Interpretation of Angle Droop
Interpretation of Angle Droop

The offset in the angle droop is taken such that when
The offset in the angle droop is taken such that when
DG output power is zero, the DG source angle is zero.
DG output power is zero, the DG source angle is zero.

Therefore, the rated droop angles are taken as
Therefore, the rated droop angles are taken as

1 1rated rated
= = m m
1 1
P P
1 1rated rated

2 2rated rated
= = m m
2 2
P P
2 2rated rated
. .

We then have
We then have
1 1 1
2 2 2
2
1
m X X
m X X
P
P
L
L
+ +
+ +
=
Interpretation (Contd.)

It is to be noted that the value of
It is to be noted that the value of
X
X
1 1
and
and
X
X
2 2
are very
are very
small compared to the value of
small compared to the value of
m
m
1 1
and
and
m
m
2 2

For example,
For example,
m
m
1 1
is 10 times
is 10 times
X
X
1 1
when
when
X
X
1 1
= 0.02595
= 0.02595
rad
rad
/MW
/MW

Moreover when the distribution lines are mainly resistive
Moreover when the distribution lines are mainly resistive
with low line inductance and the DG output inductance is
with low line inductance and the DG output inductance is
much larger.
much larger.

Therefore
Therefore
2 2 2 1 1 1
and
L L
X X m X X m >> >> >> >>

Let us choose the droop coefficients as inversely
Let us choose the droop coefficients as inversely
proportional to the rating of each DG.
proportional to the rating of each DG.

Then
Then
rated
rated
P
P
m
m
P
P
2
1
1
2
2
1
=

Power sharing can be improved further by taking the
Power sharing can be improved further by taking the
output inductances inversely proportional to the DG
output inductances inversely proportional to the DG
rating.
rating.
An Example
An Example

Let us consider the simple 2
Let us consider the simple 2
-
-
DG system.
DG system.

The output impedances of the two sources are chosen in
The output impedances of the two sources are chosen in
a ratio of 1:1.33.
a ratio of 1:1.33.

The rated output powers are also chosen in the reverse
The rated output powers are also chosen in the reverse
ratio of 1.33:1.
ratio of 1.33:1.

No reactive power droop has been used.
No reactive power droop has been used.

The voltage magnitudes are held constant.
The voltage magnitudes are held constant.

Both frequency and angle droop controller gains are
Both frequency and angle droop controller gains are
chosen at 50% of their respective marginal stability
chosen at 50% of their respective marginal stability
points.
points.

The
The
VSCs
VSCs
and
and
DGs
DGs
ratings for both cases are assumed to
ratings for both cases are assumed to
be identical.
be identical.
Example (Contd.)
Example (Contd.)

The load is assumed to be resistive.
The load is assumed to be resistive.

The changes in the customer load are represented as a
The changes in the customer load are represented as a
random walk process.
random walk process.

The load conductance is chosen as the integral of a
The load conductance is chosen as the integral of a
Gaussian white noise source with zero mean and
Gaussian white noise source with zero mean and
standard deviation of 0.01 Mho.
standard deviation of 0.01 Mho.

The output inductances of the two converters are 25
The output inductances of the two converters are 25
mH
mH
and 18.8
and 18.8
mH
mH
.
.

The impedance of line 1 is 0.25 +
The impedance of line 1 is 0.25 +
j
j
1.6 while impedance
1.6 while impedance
of line 2 is 0.1 +
of line 2 is 0.1 +
j
j
0.95.
0.95.
Example (Contd.)
Example (Contd.)
Frequency Droop Frequency Droop
Standard deviation = 0.153 Standard deviation = 0.153 rad/s rad/s
Angle Droop Angle Droop
Standard deviation = 0.0011 Standard deviation = 0.0011 rad/s rad/s
Example (Contd.)
Example (Contd.)
Impact of High Droop Gains
Impact of High Droop Gains
Sample System
Sample System

The sample system has
The sample system has
9 9- -buses buses
4 4- -DGs DGs
5 5- -loads loads
All the All the DGs DGs are VSC interfaced are VSC interfaced
Eigenvalue Clusters
Eigenvalue Clusters
Supplementary Droop Controller
Supplementary Droop Controller
Eigenvalues with Supplementary
Eigenvalues with Supplementary
Controller
Controller
Operation with and without
Operation with and without
Supplementary Controller
Supplementary Controller
Controlled Bidirectional Power Flow
Controlled Bidirectional Power Flow
Power Quality Improvement
Power Quality Improvement
Power Sharing in High R/X Lines
Power Sharing in High R/X Lines

Conventional is the droop
Conventional is the droop
control mentioned before
control mentioned before

Controller
Controller
-
-
1 is a droop
1 is a droop
control derived by
control derived by
decoupling real and
decoupling real and
reactive power.
reactive power.

Controller
Controller
-
-
2 uses a slow
2 uses a slow
update rate web
update rate web
-
-
based
based
communication.
communication.

High bandwidth
High bandwidth
communication shows the
communication shows the
least error.
least error.
Percentage Error in Power Sharing
18.24
9.98
3.54
0.5
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1
%

e
r
r
o
r
Conventional
Controller-1
Controller-2
Full_comm
Distribution System Protection
Distribution System Protection

Most of the existing distribution systems are radial due
Most of the existing distribution systems are radial due
to the simplicity.
to the simplicity.

These are equipped with low cost of overcurrent
These are equipped with low cost of overcurrent
protection.
protection.

Once a DG is connected within the main utility system,
Once a DG is connected within the main utility system,
this pure radial nature no longer exists.
this pure radial nature no longer exists.

The existing protection devices may not respond in the
The existing protection devices may not respond in the
same fashion as they are expected.
same fashion as they are expected.

This change in response may be due to the change
This change in response may be due to the change
in parameters, such as source impedance in parameters, such as source impedance
short circuit capacity level short circuit capacity level
fault currents levels at different locations. fault currents levels at different locations.
Protection Issues
Protection Issues

Some of the major protection issues when
Some of the major protection issues when
DGs
DGs
get connected to a system are:
get connected to a system are:

Islanding and resynchronization
Islanding and resynchronization

Grounding and Inter
Grounding and Inter
-
-
tie transformer
tie transformer
connection
connection

Coordination between protective devices
Coordination between protective devices

Protection with current
Protection with current
-
-
limited converters
limited converters
Utility Grid and Microgrid
Utility Grid and Microgrid
Islanding
Islanding
Islanding occurs when the main supply is disconnected and at lea Islanding occurs when the main supply is disconnected and at least st
one DG in the disconnected system remains operational. one DG in the disconnected system remains operational.
If DG is allowed to remain on, customer benefits in terms of If DG is allowed to remain on, customer benefits in terms of
reduced outages obtained. reduced outages obtained.
However islanding may increase the risk for personnel and However islanding may increase the risk for personnel and
equipment. equipment.
It can also cause reduction in performance standards for voltage It can also cause reduction in performance standards for voltage
and frequency. and frequency.
Thus power quality in the island cannot be guaranteed, as well a Thus power quality in the island cannot be guaranteed, as well as, s,
the non the non- -curtailment of loads. curtailment of loads.
Moreover, coordination between islanded DG and utility system ca Moreover, coordination between islanded DG and utility system can n
cause equipment damage due to phase mismatch if automatic cause equipment damage due to phase mismatch if automatic
recloser recloser try to connect the islanded section with the main. try to connect the islanded section with the main.
Islanding Example
Islanding Example
Islanding (Contd.)
Islanding (Contd.)
At the moment of islanding, the generation and load capacity may At the moment of islanding, the generation and load capacity may
not be matched. not be matched.
With synchronous generators, if loads are larger than the With synchronous generators, if loads are larger than the
generation, the generators will slow down and under frequency generation, the generators will slow down and under frequency
tripping may occur. tripping may occur.
Load shedding scheme is required. Load shedding scheme is required.
If loads are less than the generation, generators would experien If loads are less than the generation, generators would experience ce
over frequency tripping. over frequency tripping.
Fast governor control will be required to balance the power. Fast governor control will be required to balance the power.
In a total VSC based system, a total system collapse will occur In a total VSC based system, a total system collapse will occur
within milliseconds if the loads are more than generation. within milliseconds if the loads are more than generation.
Therefore, there is a need to identify the islanding condition a Therefore, there is a need to identify the islanding condition as s
preventive measures have to be taken at the point of islanding. preventive measures have to be taken at the point of islanding.
Islanding Protection
Islanding Protection
An islanding protection relay should detect the islanding condit An islanding protection relay should detect the islanding condition, typically ion, typically
within 200 to 400 ms and should trip all generators. within 200 to 400 ms and should trip all generators.
On the other hand, it should not trip for the small frequency va On the other hand, it should not trip for the small frequency variations in riations in
the system. the system.
Islanding detection schemes use voltage, frequency, active power Islanding detection schemes use voltage, frequency, active power and and
reactive power. reactive power.
ROCOF relay needs very sensitive settings for the fast islanding ROCOF relay needs very sensitive settings for the fast islanding detection detection
under the small imbalances of active power. under the small imbalances of active power.
But it may cause the anti islanding relay to trip for small freq But it may cause the anti islanding relay to trip for small frequency uency
variations. variations.
Usually frequency tripping requirements (i.e. under and over fre Usually frequency tripping requirements (i.e. under and over frequency quency
tripping) of a relay and islanding detection relay settings shou tripping) of a relay and islanding detection relay settings should be ld be
analyzed analyzed separately. separately.
Thus two relays are required Thus two relays are required one for under/over frequency protection of one for under/over frequency protection of
the generator and another for the islanding detection. the generator and another for the islanding detection.
Earthing
Earthing

According to neutral connection, an earthing system is
According to neutral connection, an earthing system is
categorized as TT, IT and TN.
categorized as TT, IT and TN.

In a TT system, both the protective earth connection of
In a TT system, both the protective earth connection of
consumer load and source are connected to ground.
consumer load and source are connected to ground.

In IT connection, the source has no connection to earth,
In IT connection, the source has no connection to earth,
but the protective earth connection of consumer is
but the protective earth connection of consumer is
grounded.
grounded.

In TN connection, the protective earth connection of the
In TN connection, the protective earth connection of the
consumer is connected via to the ground through the
consumer is connected via to the ground through the
same source earth.
same source earth.

Preferred microgrid earthing is TT.
Preferred microgrid earthing is TT.

Micro
Micro
-
-
grid grounding system should match transformer
grid grounding system should match transformer
connection.
connection.
Transformer Connection
Transformer Connection
Delta
Delta
-
-
Wye (Grounded)
Wye (Grounded)

Delta in utility side.
Delta in utility side.

Wye side is resistance grounded to reduce the fault
Wye side is resistance grounded to reduce the fault
current during a ground fault.
current during a ground fault.

For a ground fault at the microgrid, no ground current
For a ground fault at the microgrid, no ground current
flows from the utility side.
flows from the utility side.

Conversely for a ground fault in the utility, no ground
Conversely for a ground fault in the utility, no ground
current flows from the micro
current flows from the micro
-
-
grid.
grid.

For a utility fault, the microgrid back feeds fault current
For a utility fault, the microgrid back feeds fault current
and creates an energized ungrounded system.
and creates an energized ungrounded system.

This may cause safety problems and over voltages.
This may cause safety problems and over voltages.

In this event, the protection system should detect the
In this event, the protection system should detect the
loss of voltage and disconnect the microgrid itself.
loss of voltage and disconnect the microgrid itself.
Wye (Grounded)
Wye (Grounded)
-
-
Delta
Delta

Delta in microgrid side.
Delta in microgrid side.

No ground is available for grounding the
No ground is available for grounding the
microgrid generators.
microgrid generators.

An additional grounding transformer is required
An additional grounding transformer is required
to provide a common ground.
to provide a common ground.

Advantages
Advantages

No ground current flows from the utility for the fault
No ground current flows from the utility for the fault
at the microgrid.
at the microgrid.

There is no over voltage for the ground fault at the
There is no over voltage for the ground fault at the
utility.
utility.
Wye (Grounded)
Wye (Grounded)
-
-
Wye (Grounded)
Wye (Grounded)

This will provide a path for the ground fault current flow
This will provide a path for the ground fault current flow
which is undesirable.
which is undesirable.

For example, a ground fault at the microgrid may cause
For example, a ground fault at the microgrid may cause
the relays at the utility to respond due to the high fault
the relays at the utility to respond due to the high fault
current from the utility to microgrid.
current from the utility to microgrid.

No over voltage is expected for utility side faults.
No over voltage is expected for utility side faults.

The earthing issues have to be addressed in conjunction
The earthing issues have to be addressed in conjunction
with transformer connection.
with transformer connection.

Thus it is necessary to define an earthing system
Thus it is necessary to define an earthing system
according to the transformer connection for dealing with
according to the transformer connection for dealing with
both the interconnected and islanding mode of the
both the interconnected and islanding mode of the
microgrid.
microgrid.

Fault current seen by fuse will
Fault current seen by fuse will
increase after the DG
increase after the DG
connection.
connection.

Probability of losing coordination
Probability of losing coordination
between
between
recloser
recloser
and fuse is
and fuse is
high.
high.
Recloser fuse coordination graph
Protection Coordination
Protection Coordination
Overcurrent
Overcurrent
Relay Coordination
Relay Coordination

Relays coordinated through
Relays coordinated through
CTS and TDS.
CTS and TDS.

Discrimination time used
Discrimination time used
between relays.
between relays.

Discrimination between the
Discrimination between the
relays will be lost with
relays will be lost with
DGs
DGs
.
.

After DG is connected,
After DG is connected,
R3 and R4 sense more current for faults beyond BUS

R3 and R4 sense more current for faults beyond BUS
-
-
4
4
R2 sense negative current for faults between BUS

R2 sense negative current for faults between BUS
-
-
1
1
and Bus
and Bus
-
-
2
2
Coordination no longer exists

Coordination no longer exists
Relay Coordination
Relay Coordination
A New Relay Characteristics
A New Relay Characteristics
=
t
m
r
Y
Y
abs Y
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Distance (km)
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d

a
d
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e
Variation of normalised admittance Variation of normalised admittance
1
=
p
r
Y
A
t
t tripping time
Y
r
normalised admittance
A, p constants
( ) ( )
t m
t
m
r
Y abs Y abs
Y
Y
abs Y > >
> ; 1 ; 1
For relay tripping

For relay tripping
measured admittance > total admittance
measured admittance > total admittance
Relay reach setting can be implemented by choosing a suitable

Relay reach setting can be implemented by choosing a suitable
value for
value for
Y
Y
t t
New Tripping Characteristics
New Tripping Characteristics
Relay Reach Setting
Relay Reach Setting

Relay reach setting is essential for primary and backup
Relay reach setting is essential for primary and backup
protections.
protections.

For a particular relay, different values for
For a particular relay, different values for
Y
Y
t t
can be
can be
assigned to generate a number of required zones of
assigned to generate a number of required zones of
protection as in a distance relay.
protection as in a distance relay.

However, since this relay has an inverse time
However, since this relay has an inverse time
characteristic, it is not required to keep a safety margin
characteristic, it is not required to keep a safety margin
in Zone
in Zone
-
-
1 to compensate errors.
1 to compensate errors.

This is an advantage over conventional distance relays.
This is an advantage over conventional distance relays.

Furthermore, any upstream relay always provides the
Furthermore, any upstream relay always provides the
back up protection for the immediate downstream relay.
back up protection for the immediate downstream relay.
Zone Assignment
Zone Assignment

The relays R
The relays R
1 1
and R
and R
2 2
are
are
located at BUS
located at BUS
-
-
1 and
1 and
BUS
BUS
-
-
2 respectively.
2 respectively.

Relay tripping time is
Relay tripping time is
shown for the faults
shown for the faults
along the feeder.
along the feeder.

For a fault at point A,
For a fault at point A,
even if the relay R
even if the relay R
2 2
fails
fails
to operate, R
to operate, R
1 1
will provide
will provide
a backup in Zone
a backup in Zone
-
-
2.
2.
New Relay Grading
New Relay Grading
In case of OC relays, the
In case of OC relays, the
relay near to the source
relay near to the source
takes longer time to
takes longer time to
operate due to the relay
operate due to the relay
coordination setting
coordination setting
(TDS).
(TDS).
Reverse Reach
Reverse Reach

Since the absolute value is used in the normalizing
Since the absolute value is used in the normalizing
process, the relay can isolate the faults occurring at
process, the relay can isolate the faults occurring at
either side of the relay in a radial feeder.
either side of the relay in a radial feeder.

If the distribution network consists of these relays
If the distribution network consists of these relays
located at equal distances, the same forward and
located at equal distances, the same forward and
reverse reach can be used to isolate forward and reverse
reverse reach can be used to isolate forward and reverse
faults.
faults.

However for the relay to operate for reverse faults, there
However for the relay to operate for reverse faults, there
must be an
must be an
infeed
infeed
from a DG that is located downstream
from a DG that is located downstream
from the relay.
from the relay.

When the relays are not placed equidistant from one
When the relays are not placed equidistant from one
another, the reach setting should be different for
another, the reach setting should be different for
forward and reverse faults.
forward and reverse faults.
Relay Algorithm
Relay Algorithm
Some Results
Some Results

The
The
DGs
DGs
operate in constant current limiting mode.
operate in constant current limiting mode.

The maximum output current is twice the rated current.
The maximum output current is twice the rated current.

The relay response is observed with these relay settings
The relay response is observed with these relay settings
by generating single
by generating single
-
-
line
line
-
-
to
to
-
-
ground (SLG) faults at
ground (SLG) faults at
exactly the mid point between two buses.
exactly the mid point between two buses.
Relay tripping time with fault resistance of 0.01 Relay tripping time with fault resistance of 0.01
(seconds) (seconds)
Fault Location Fault Location
R R
1 1
R R
2 2
R R
3 3
R R
4 4
Bus Bus- -1 & Bus 1 & Bus- -2 2 0.076 0.076 0.223 0.223 1.123 1.123 N.O. N.O.
Bus Bus- -2 & Bus 2 & Bus- -3 3 0.226 0.226 0.101 0.101 0.133 0.133 1.424 1.424
Bus Bus- -3 & Bus 3 & Bus- -4 4 0.862 0.862 0.227 0.227 0.101 0.101 0.170 0.170
Bus Bus- -3 & Bus 3 & Bus- -4 4 1.515 1.515 0.892 0.892 0.227 0.227 0.102 0.102
0.623 0.623 0.942 0.942 1.278 1.278 1.673 1.673 Bus Bus- -3 & Bus 3 & Bus- -4 4
1.717 1.717 0.283 0.283 1.190 1.190 1.516 1.516 Bus Bus- -3 & Bus 3 & Bus- -4 4
N.O. N.O. 1.400 1.400 0.283 0.283 1.499 1.499 Bus Bus- -2 & Bus 2 & Bus- -3 3
N.O. N.O. 1.461 1.461 1.078 1.078 0.262 0.262 Bus Bus- -1 & Bus 1 & Bus- -2 2
R R
4 4
R R
3 3
R R
2 2
R R
1 1
Relay tripping time with fault resistance of 5 Relay tripping time with fault resistance of 5
(seconds) (seconds)
Fault Location Fault Location
N.O. = No Operation
RELAY TRIPPING TIME
Discussions
Discussions

Shaded portion of each table indicates the relay tripping
Shaded portion of each table indicates the relay tripping
time for reverse faults.
time for reverse faults.

The relays operate for high fault resistance faults as
The relays operate for high fault resistance faults as
well.
well.

But the operating time is considerably high.
But the operating time is considerably high.

The operating time can be changed by changing the
The operating time can be changed by changing the
estimated value of the fault resistance in the normalized
estimated value of the fault resistance in the normalized
admittance calculation.
admittance calculation.

The results for a fault between buses 2 and 3 are
The results for a fault between buses 2 and 3 are
shown in the next slide.
shown in the next slide.

The time of R
The time of R
1 1
and R
and R
4 4
has been obtained assuming that
has been obtained assuming that
R
R
2 2
and R
and R
3 3
have failed to response for the fault
have failed to response for the fault
Tripping Time
Tripping Time

R
R
4 4
response time is
response time is
comparably high due to
comparably high due to
the
the
infeed
infeed
effect of
effect of
DGs
DGs
.
.

Relay R
Relay R
4 4
only measures
only measures
the current of one DG
the current of one DG
when 3
when 3
DGs
DGs
are feeding
are feeding
the fault from the
the fault from the
downstream side.
downstream side.

Therefore measured
Therefore measured
admittance calculated by
admittance calculated by
R
R
4 4
is not accurate and it
is not accurate and it
causes a higher tripping
causes a higher tripping
time.
time.
Transient Faults
Transient Faults
For isolating transient, the inverse time admittance relay For isolating transient, the inverse time admittance relay
characteristic must operate in conjunction with converter contro characteristic must operate in conjunction with converter control. l.
A fold A fold- -back current control may be desirable for arcing faults. back current control may be desirable for arcing faults.
Furthermore, reclosing possibilities are to be considered to inc Furthermore, reclosing possibilities are to be considered to increase rease
the reliability further. the reliability further.
A converter control strategy has been proposed that is capable o A converter control strategy has been proposed that is capable of f
maintaining a DG connected to the network after a fault and does maintaining a DG connected to the network after a fault and does
not require its immediate disconnection. not require its immediate disconnection.
Moreover, the fault ride through capability of a converter can b Moreover, the fault ride through capability of a converter can be e
increased indirectly due to the fold back current limit. increased indirectly due to the fold back current limit.
Furthermore, the arc will self Furthermore, the arc will self- -extinguish and the system will self extinguish and the system will self- -
restore if the restore if the DGs DGs are employed with fold are employed with fold- -back controller. back controller.
Fold
Fold
-
-
Back Control
Back Control
Voltage Control Voltage Control Current Control Current Control

Distributed Generation - Control and Protection

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DI STRI BUTED

R3 and R4 sense more current for faults beyond BUS

R2 sense negative current for faults between BUS

Coordination no longer exists

For relay tripping

Relay reach setting can be implemented by choosing a suitable

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