1

CHAPTER1
THECONTOURSANDCHALLENGESOFERESEARCH

NicholasW.Jankowski

VirtualKnowledgeStudiofortheHumanitiesandSocialSciences
Cruquiusweg31
1019ATAmsterdam
TheNetherlands
Tel:+31208500270
Fax:+31208500271
nickjan@xs4all.nl

December2008

Wordcount:12,409

Toappearin
Jankowski,N.W.(Ed.)(forthcoming,2009).EResearch:TransformationsinScholarly
Practice.NewYork:Routledge.

Unpublishedmanuscript:
Pleasedonotciteordistributethistextwithoutpermissionfromtheauthor
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INTRODUCTION

Everysooftenmajorshiftsemergeinthewaysocietyisimagined.Historicalperiodshaveacquiredlabels,albeit
debatedanddisputed,thatreflectsuchshifts:Reformation,Enlightenment,IndustrialRevolution,InformationAge.
Thescholarlyenterprisehasbeenintegraltotheformulationoftheseshiftsandthatenterpriseitselfhasbeenthe
subjectoftransformation.Introductionoftheexperimentalmethodisassociatedwithsuchashift,asis
evolutionarytheory;theswitchfromNewtonianphysicstogeneralacceptanceofEinsteinstheoryofrelativityalso
reflectssuchtransformation.Duringthepastfewyears,discussionsinpolicyandacademiccirclessuggestyet
anothermoveisunderway,someclaimrevolutionaryinscope,impactingthefullbreadthofthescholarly
enterprise.Thislatestshiftisattributedtothewidespreadavailabilityandincorporationofhighspeedcomputers
andelectronicnetworks,particularlytheInternet,intotheresearchenterprise,makingverylargevolumesofdata
availablethatprovideopportunityforaddressingnewquestionsinnewways.Reflectiononthistransformationof
scholarship,particularlywithinthesocialsciencesandhumanities,istheconcernofthisbook.
Thesignalssuggestingsuchtransformationaremany:blueribboncommitteeshavebeenmandatedto
explorechangesandtorecommendpolicyinitiatives;nationalofficeshavebeenestablishedtofundresearchand
development;reports,proceedings,papers,andjournalarticlesareappearing,aswellasahandfulofedited
volumessuchasthisone.Thesesignalsspanthespectrumofscholarlydisciplinesandareevidentaroundthe
globe:inNorthAmerica,Europe,AsiaandAustralasia.Thesignalsare,understandably,strongerforsome
disciplinesandcountriesthanforothers.Still,theoverallstrengthoftheindicatorsissubstantialandreinforces
needforaconsideredexaminationofthetransformation.
Thisintroductorychaptersketchesthedevelopmentofthistransformationandbeginswithexamination
ofcompetingtermscurrentlyinvoguethataremeanttodescribethechange.Theissuesandchallengesassociated
withthesetransformationsconstitutethesubstanceofthecontributionstothisbookbutoneissue,scholarly
communication,isofoverridingimportanceandissketchedinthischapter.Next,theorganizationalstructureof
thebookiselaboratedwithshortintroductionstothechaptersineachsectionofthebook.Finally,afewremarks
onfurtherresearchdirectionsaremadeinaconcludingnote.

CONCEPTUALIZINGSCHOLARLYTRANSFORMATION

Asmallcoterieoftermsreflectscurrentchangesintheconductofscienceand,moregenerally,ofscholarship.The
mostprevalentoftheseare:escience,cyberinfrastructure,anderesearch.Thesetermshavehistorical
antecedentsandcompetitorsforprominence.Beginningwiththepast,onealternativeconceptualizationisBig
SciencewhichinitiallydescribedweaponsrelatedresearchduringWorldWarII,particularlytheManhattan
Projectmandatedtoconstructanatomicbomb.BigSciencecontinuedthroughtheColdWarandreflected
governmentsponsoredresearchgenerallyorientedtowardsweaponsdevelopmentandnationalsecurity.
1

Subsequently,nonmilitaryprojects,suchasthoseassociatedwithhighenergyphysicslaboratorieslikeCERNin
GenevaandinitiativestounravelDNAliketheHumanGenomeProject,tookonthecharacteristicsofBigScience.
Alloftheseprojectsrequireaneedforlargescaleinstrumentation,budgetsrunninginthebillions,andpersonnel
numberinginthethousands.Insomecases,aswithexperimentsinvolvingparticleacceleratorslikethoseatCERN,
distantcollaborationamongscientistsiscommonplace,oftencrossingnationalborders.Thetransformationof
scienceasreflectedinthesefeatureswasidentifiedrelativelyearlybyAlvinWeinberg(1961)inaSciencearticle
eulogizingthepassingofsmallscale,soloscholarship.
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Amorerecentconceptualizationiscyberscience,elaboratedbyMichaelNentwich(2003)whoprovidesa
comprehensiveoverviewofthetransformationsofscienceandscholarship,reflectedinthesubtitleofthevolume:

1
IllustrativeofBigScienceinstitutionsistheLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratorythatwasestablishedattheheightofthe
ColdWarforweaponsresearchandrunbytheUniversityofCaliforniafortheU.S.government.Thisfacilityhassincebeen
reorganizedasanationalsecuritylaboratoryresponsibleforensuringthatthenationsnuclearweaponsremainsafe,secure,
andreliable...(LLNL,2008).

2
AnalternativeconceptualizationofBigScience,formulatedlaterbydeSollaPrice(1993),placesemphasisonthematurityof
thescientificfieldratherthanonthelargenessofitsinstrumentation,budgetandwealthofdata;seeBorgman(2007:28).

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ResearchintheAgeoftheInternet.Nentwichsdefinitionofcyberscienceisbroad:...allscholarlyandscientific
researchactivitiesinthevirtualspacegeneratedbythenetworkedcomputersandbyadvancedinformationand
communicationtechnologiesingeneral(Nentwich,2003:22).Tracingthegenealogyoftheterm,Nentwich(2003:
22,note41)suggeststhatitoriginatedinanarticlebyPaulWouters(1996)andsubsequentlysurfacedinvarious
papersandconferencepanels.
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Useofthetermhassincebeenmainlylimitedtopublicationsandprojects
emergingfromNentwichsinstitutionalhome,theAustrianInstituteofTechnologyAssessment.Inaddition,it
appearsinthetitleofarecentstudybyChristineHine(2008),SystematicsasCyberscience.Otherwise,theterm
seemstohavefadedintodisuse.Ofmoredurability,however,hasbeenthefundamentalfeaturepresentinboth
Nentwichsstudy,asinWoutersinitialformulation:anallencompassingapproachthatacknowledgesthe
importanceofcomputersandelectronicnetworks,butthatisgroundedinabroadvisionofthescholarly
enterprise.Theinclusionofscholarlycommunicationandpublishingwithinthatapproachresonateswiththe
formulationofanotherconceptualization,eresearch,whichisoutlinedshortly.
ThetermescienceisbasicallyaEuropeanversionoftheAmericantermcyberinfrastructure.Rootedin
Britishinitiatives,JohnTaylor,thenDirectorGeneraloftheOfficeofScienceandTechnologyintheU.K.,iscredited
forcoiningitatthelaunchofamajorfundinginitiativein1999.Thefocusofesciencethen,asnow,wasonthe
naturalandbiologicalsciencesandwasdesignedtofacilitatetheprocessingofverylargevolumesofdatawiththe
aidofgridcomputernetworks.Euphoricstatementsabouttransformationofthescientificenterprisemarkedthe
launchandsubsequentpromotionofescience.
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Shortlythereafter,in2001,theNationaleScienceCentre(NeSC)
wasestablished,whichhassincebecomethemaingovernmentalbodyforcoordinatingandallocatingfundingfor
escienceprojectsintheU.K.OneofthepagesontheNeSCWebsitesketchestheanticipatedtrajectoryof
science:
Inthefuture,eSciencewillrefertothelargescalesciencethatwillincreasinglybecarriedoutthrough
distributedglobalcollaborationsenabledbytheInternet.Typically,afeatureofsuchcollaborativescientific
enterprisesisthattheywillrequireaccesstoverylargedatacollections,verylargescalecomputing
resourcesandhighperformancevisualizationbacktotheindividualuserscientists.(NeSC,n.d.)
Inthisdescription,aselsewhere,escienceiscloselyassociatedwithgridcomputernetworkarchitecturethat
enablestheglobalcollaborationconsideredbasictoescience.
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Thesefeaturesareexpected,inturn,tospurn
developmentofnew,specializedInternetbasedtoolsforconductingresearch.
OneofthespinoffsoftheesciencedevelopmentintheU.K.involvedinitiationofagovernment
sponsoredofficetostimulateandcoordinateescienceinthesocialsciences(Jankowski&Caldas,2004).Calledthe
NationalCentreforeSocialScience(NCeSS)andlaunchedinDecember2004,itinvolvesadecentralizedstructure
ofnodesengaginguniversitiesacrosstheU.K.Mostoftheprojectsemphasizeincorporationofgridcomputer
architectureintotheinfrastructureofsocialscience.AnexceptiontothisaccentuationistheOxfordUniversity
nodeoftheNCeSS,whichtakesasocialshapingapproach(OeSSProject,n.d.).Althoughanexception,thisnodeis
embeddedintheComputingLaboratoryofOxfordUniversityand,inthatrespect,reflectstheoriginalcore
concernswithescienceoncomputationandcomputernetworks.
Anotherconceptualization,cyberinfrastructureisprimarilyrootedininitiativesbasedintheUnitedStates
andwasinitiallypromotedinacommissionreportfundedbytheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)in2003,
subsequentlyknownastheAtkinsReport(2003):RevolutionizingScienceandEngineeringThrough
Cyberinfrastructure.Thistitlereflectsthepromotionalandvisionarylanguagepresentthroughoutthedocument:
Anewagehasdawned,(p.31),Thetimeisripe,(p.12),aonceinagenerationopportunitytoleadthe

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ChristineHine(2008:2527)accentuatestheprescientnatureofWouterscontribution,reproducinginentiretythecallfor
papershepreparedfora1996conferencesessionoftheEuropeanAssociationforStudiesofScienceandTechnology.Themost
strikingfeatureofthiscallisthewiderangeoftopics,23intotal,suggestedassuitablecontributionsfortheproposedsession
oncyberscience.

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SomeoftheseearlyvisionarystatementsremainavailableontheWebsiteoftheBritishNationaleScienceCentre(NeSC),
includingTaylorsclaimthat"eSciencewillchangethedynamicofthewayscienceisundertaken"(quotedatNeSC,n.d.).

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Atechnicallyorientedliteratureongridcomputerarchitectureisavailable,butthebasicdescriptionofthisgridrelatesthe
developmenttoothersystemsofservices,liketheelectricalgridthatprovideselectricitytohomesandindustries.Foster(2003)
andBuyyaandVenugopal(2005)provideaccessibleintroductionsfornonspecialists.

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revolution(p.32).Basically,thetermcyberinfrastructurereferstoaninfrastructureofdistributedcomputer,
information,andcommunicationtechnologies.Thedevelopmentisseenasparalleltotheinfrastructuresalready
integraltomodernsocieties:roadsandrailwaysfortransportation;water,gas,andpowernetworksforbasic
servicesandresources.
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InthewordsoftheAtkinsReport,Ifinfrastructureisrequiredforanindustrialeconomy,
thencyberinfrastructureisrequiredforaknowledgeeconomy(Atkins,2003:5).
Notunsurprisingly,thefirstwavesofcyberinfrastructureinitiativesweresituatedinthenaturaland
biologicalscienceswherelargevolumesofdataareinvolvedinresearchendeavorsrequiringhighspeedcomputer
processing:particlephysics,astronomy,meteorology,andDNAresearch.Theseinitiativestypicallyinvolve
collaborationwithstaffatsupercomputingresearchcenters.
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ChristineBorgman,(2007:23),amongothers,argues
thattherehasalwaysbeenspacewithininitialconceptualizationsofcyberinfrastructurefortheentirebreadthof
scholarlyendeavor.AndinakeynoteNCeSSconferencepresentation,NoshirContractor(2007)suggeststhatthe
componentsofcyberinfrastructurecanbeseenasspanningthegambitofuniversityservices:fromhigh
performancecomputing,libraries,referralservices,throughtraining,outreachandmentoringservices.Littleisleft
outinthecoldfromsuchformulationsofcyberinfrastructure,buttheymisconstruewhereemphasishasbeen
historicallyandiscurrently:inthefieldsofscienceandengineeringthatareengagedinprocessinglargevolumes
ofdatawiththeaidofgridcomputernetworksandrelatedsoftware.
TheAtkinsReport,itshouldbestressed,isnotsomuchascientificpublication,butamanifestoand,as
such,islessconcernedwithconventionalscholarlyconcernssuchasqualification,criticismandevidence.The
reportcanbeeasilydismissedforlackingsuchfeatures,butHine(2003:2)remindsusthatsuchperfunctory
discardingofvisionarystatementsmissesopportunityforapotentiallyvaluablescholarlyenquiryintohowthese
statementsaretranslatedintoinitiativesand,possibly,howsomechangesinthescientificenterprisemaybe
impactedbytheideasandfundingrelatedtosuchvisions.Althoughperhapsprematuretoassessthedefinitive
contributionoftheAtkinsReport,itisfairtonotethattheconcernsexpressedinthedocumenthavefound
considerableinstitutionalanddisciplinaryresonance.TheNSFhasestablishedanOfficeofCyberinfrastructure,
suggestingaseriousformofinstitutionalization.Variousdisciplineshaveestablishedtheirowncommittees
producingreportsandinitiativestoinvestigatewaystoconsciouslytakeadvantageofboththefeaturesandthe
fundingbeingmadeavailableforcyberinfrastructureinitiatives.
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Theseinitiativeshavenotremainedrestrictedtothenaturalandbiologicalsciences.TheAmericanCouncil
ofLearnedSocieties(ACLS,2006),forexample,issuedareportoncyberinfrastructuresforthehumanitiesand
socialsciences.Othereffortstointegratethesocialsciencesarereflectedintheintroductionofsocialnetwork
analysisasatoolwithwhichtostudysciencecommunities(SNAC,2005)andinmanyoftheinitiativesintroducing
Internetresearchanddigitalstudiesintouniversitycurriculaandresearchprograms(see,e.g.,Nissenbaum&
Price,2004).
Elsewhere,adifferentapproachhasbeentakenwherethetermeresearchisseenasmorereflectiveof
theworkofbothsocialscientistsandscholarsinthehumanities,aterminologicaldevelopmentalsoobservedby

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Thismetaphorbeliesthecomplexityofthenotioninfrastructure,whichiscriticallyaddressedintheworkshopreport
UnderstandingInfrastructure:Dynamics,Tensions,andDesign(Edwards,Jackson,Bowker,&Knobel,2007).Oneoftheideas
Edwardsandhiscolleaguescriticizeisthatinfrastructuresomehowreflectsaplanned,orderlyandmechanicalact(Edwards
etal.,2007:i).
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ArelativelyrecentformulationofcyberinfrastructurefromtheUniversityofIndianasuggestsessentiallythesameingredients:
Cyberinfrastructureconsistsofcomputingsystems,datastoragesystems,advancedinstrumentsanddatarepositories,
visualizationenvironments,andpeople,alllinkedtogetherbysoftwareandhighperformancenetworkstoimproveresearch
productivityandenablebreakthroughsnototherwisepossible(IndianaUniversity,2007).
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OneoftheseinitiativesisCTWatch,CyberinfrastructureTechnologyWatch,whichstrivestoengagethescienceand
engineeringresearchcommunityinthenews,ideas,andinformationsurroundingtheemergenceofcyberinfrastructureasthe
essentialfoundationforadvancedscientificinquiry(CTWatchQuarterly,2005).AnotherinitiativeisCIOutreach,Empowering
PeopletouseCyberinstrastructureResources,andisconcernedwithsolicitingandsupportingtheeducation,training,and
outreachneedsofthescientificresearchprojectswithinthecyberinfrastructurecommunity,targetingunderrepresented
groupssuchaswomen,minoritiesandthedisabled;seehttp://www.cioutreach.org/index.php.

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Borgman(2007:20).ThecontributionbyAnneBeaulieuandPaulWoutersinthisvolumesketchesthisapproach,
asdevelopedintheNetherlands,formallyinitiatedinOctober2006andcalledtheVirtualKnowledgeStudiofor
theHumanitiesandSocialSciences(VKS).Itcan,infact,beseenassuccessortoWoutersearliernotion
cyberscience,andasonemoreamenabletotheconceptualizationofscholarshipinthesocialsciencesand
humanities.Moreover,thetermeresearchacknowledgesformsofscholarshipthatdonotprimarilyemphasize
useofhighspeedcomputersforprocessinglargedatasets,butthatplaceweightonincorporationofawide
varietyofnewmediaandelectronicnetworksintheresearchprocess;seeChapter3.
Terminologyinaterrainasdynamicasthisoneisdifficulttopindownwithprecision.Undoubtedly,much
moreenergywillbeexpendedinthecomingyearsonrefiningtheideasunderlyingthevariousconceptualizations.
Forthepurposesofthisvolume,however,abroadpluralisticapproachismoresuitablethanonenarrowly
formulated.Suchanapproachisbetterabletoaccommodatethediversityofdisciplinesandapproachesunder
consideration,particularlygiveninterestinaperspectiveinclusionaryofboththesocialsciencesandhumanities.
ThefollowinglistcanbeconstruedastheseedsforaWeb2.0cloudoferesearchfeatures,andconcurrently
reflectstheconcernsaddressedbythecontributorstothisvolume.Takenasawhole,thesefeaturessuggestthat
eresearchisaformofscholarshipconductedinanetworkenvironmentutilizingInternetbasedtoolsand
involvingcollaborationamongscholarsseparatedbydistance,oftenonaglobalscale.Althoughtheweightand
priorityofthesefeaturesvariesbycontextanddiscipline,theyneverthelesssuggestareaswherescholarshipis
undergoingtransition:
Increasingcomputerizationoftheresearchprocess,ofteninvolvinghighspeed,largecapacitymachines
configuresinanetworkedenvironment;
Relianceonnetworkbasedvirtualorganizationalstructuresforconductingresearchincreasingly
involvingdistantcollaborationamongresearchers,ofteninternationalinscope;
DevelopmentofInternetbasedtoolsfacilitatingmanyphasesoftheresearchprocessincluding
communication,researchmanagement,datacollectionandanalysis,andpublication;
Experimentationwithnewformsofdatavisualization,suchassocialnetworkandhyperlinkanalysis,and
multimediaanddynamicrepresentations;
Publication,distributionandpreservationofscholarshipviatheInternet,utilizingtraditionalandformal
avenues(e.g.,publishinghouses,digitallibraries)aswellasthoselessformalandlessinstitutionalized
(e.g.,socialnetworkingsites,personalwebsites).

[InsertFigure1.1abouthere]

Figure1.1illustratestheinterrelatednessofthesefeaturesoferesearch,situatedwithinthreeclustersof
activitiesassociatedwithmanyformsofscholarship.
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Thecontextoftheseclustersisthenetworkedenvironment
mentionedabove,typicallytheInternet,andmayinvolvehighspeedcomputerslinkedtogetherviagrid
construction.Inthefigurethisenvironmentissuggestedbytheunconnecteddashedlinesatthetopandbottom.
Thebrokenfeaturesofthelinessuggesttheporousnatureofthenetwork:noteveryoneandeverythingis
connectedtoandoperatingwithinanetworkedenvironmentallofthetime;researchactivitiesoccurbothwithin
andoutsidethisenvironment.Thenetworkinfrastructureisveryoften(asinemploymentofemail)takenfor
granted;inothercases,aswhengridcomputerarchitectureisused,involvementofspecialists(e.g.,computer
scientists)mayberequired;seeChapter16foranillustrationofsuchcrossdisciplinaryengagement.
TheclustersituatedintheupperleftofFigure1.1,ResearchOrganization,consistsofthevariousdivisions
andtasksassociatedwithmanaginganacademicresearchproject,ofteninvolvingaprincipleinvestigator,senior

9
DanielAtkins,formerdirectoroftheNSFOfficeofCyberinfrastructure,hasconstructedalargenumberoffiguresillustrating
thefeaturesofcyberinfrastructure,sometimesinrelationtotheothertermsnotedinthischapterescience,eresearch,e
infrastructure,cyberscience;see,e.g.,http://www.nsf.gov/od/oci/TeraGrid606.pdf.Seldom,however,isindicationprovidedin
thesefiguresoftherespectivecontexts,histories,components,andrelationsamongtheterms.Theserelationswerealsoleft
largelyunaddressedinarecentpresentationbyAtkinsduringthe2008OxfordeResearchConference
(http://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/microsites/eresearch08/index.cfm),suggestingthatadditionalcomparativeanalysisisstillawaiting
attention.

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academicparticipants,postdocsandPh.D.candidates,administrativeandtechnicalstaff.Inaneresearch
environmentavirtualorganizationisestablishedtocoordinatethetasksassociatedwiththesedivisions,
employingavarietyofcommunicativetoolsthatsupplementfacetofaceexchangeforconductingbusiness:email,
instantmessaging,videoconferencing,wikis.Perhapsthekeycomponentofsuchavirtualorganizationis
collaborationatadistanceamongprojectparticipants.Severalcontributionstothisbookexaminecollaboration,
notablyChapters7and8.SomeoftheactivitiesoftheResearchOrganizationmayrelatetoexternallyoriented
concernssuchasaccountabilityexercisesrequiredbyafundingbodyorforethicalissuesasformulatedbyan
InstitutionalReviewBoard.Ethicalconcernsinaneresearchenvironment,however,aredifferentfromthosemore
conventionalstudiesandrequireparticularattention(see,e.g.,Ess&AoIREthicsWorkingGroup,2002;Jankowski
&VanSelm,2007).
Theclusterlocatedinthelowersectionofthefigure,ResearchProcess,reflectsthetasksmostoften
associatedwiththeresearchact:problemformulationwithacontextoftheoreticalrelevancy;constructionofa
researchdesignwithattentiontodatacollectionandanalysis;anddatapreservation.Intheeresearch
environmentInternetbasedtoolsareutilizedfor:instrumentdesignanddeployment(e.g.,Websurveytools,Web
siteannotationtools);dataanalysis,qualitativeandquantitative;anddatapreservation,oftentermedarchiving,
usuallyinaformsuitableforlongtermretentionandaccessbyotherresearchers.SeeespeciallyChapters9and
10ondatavisualizationandChapters11,12and13onarchivinganddatareuse.
ThethirdandfinalclusterofresearchactivitiesinthefigureistermedScholarlyCommunicationandhas
similaritieswiththeactivitiesoftenassociatedwithsciencecommunication(seee.g.,Garvey,Lin,Nelson,&
Tomita,1972).Likeconstructionsofsciencecommunication,scholarlycommunicationinaneresearch
environmentinvolvestwooverlappingformsofcommunication,bothdirectedatpartiesexternaltotheresearch
project:informalandformal.Informalscholarlycommunicationisreflectedinblogpostings,contributionsto
discussionlistsmaintainedbyindividuals,institutions,disciplines,andscholarlyassociations;andspecializedwikis.
Formalscholarlycommunication,oftenconsideredsynonymouswithacademicpublishing,mayinvolve
preparationanddistributionofconferencepapers,institutionalworkingpapers,journalarticles,chaptersinedited
booksandsingleauthoredmonographs.Alloftheseformsofexternal,formalscholarlypublicationcantranspirein
anetworkedenvironmentthroughthepostingofmanuscriptsonpersonalWebhomepages,toplacementonpre
printandpostprintarticlerepositories,throughpublicationofmanuscriptsinonlinejournalsandonthesitesof
Webbasedbookpublishers.Theseformsofscholarlypublishingareillustratedinmoredetailinthenextsection;
seealsoChapters14and15fordiscussionofaccessandintellectualproperty.
Atthebottomofthefigureareindicationsoftheeresearchtoolsrelatedtoeachoftheactivityclusters.
Thisindicationoftoolsisincomplete,asareotherfeaturesofthefigure.Forexample,thefiguresuggestsa
relationalformbetweenthethreeclustersofresearchactivitiesbythetwodirectionalarrows.Theexactnatureof
thatrelationatwhatpointsintimewithwhatintensityandregardingwhichspecificfacetsoftheclustersisnot
specified.Importantassuchconcernsare,theygobeyondthegeneralpurposeofthisfigurewithinthecontextof
thisanthology,whichistosuggestaplaceforthetopicsaddressedinthebookchapters.Inaddition,thefigureis
meanttosuggestaframeworkforthepreviouslyspecifiedcharacteristicsoferesearch:computerization,
networkedenvironment,virtualorganization,collaboration,tools,visualization,andissuesrelatedtopublication.
ThislastcharacteristicispartoftheclusterScholarlyCommunication.Althoughattendedtointhebook,
particularlyinChapter14,theclustermeritsfurtherelaboration,whichisprovidedinthefollowingsection.

SCHOLARLYCOMMUNICATION

Athreadrunningthrougheresearchanyformofresearch,forthatmatteriscommunication.Thisthreadhas
cometobetermedthecommunicationturninsomecircles(Leydesdorff,2002).
10
Thecentralityof
communicationisperhapssoselfevidentthatitistakenforgranted,consideredanunconsciousandnaturalgiven.
Scholarlycommunication,asubunitofthiscommunicationturn,isverybroadandcanbedelineateddifferently.
11

10
Thisturnleansonthepreviouslysuggestedturntolinguisticsinphilosophy(Rorty,1967/1992).Themetaphorhasalso
beenusedtosuggestaculturalturndescribingtheemergenceofculturalstudiesandaqualitativeturnreflectingincreased
interestininterpretativeresearch(Jensen,1991).

11
Theamountofresearchconductedonscholarlycommunicationisdaunting.Oneofthemostcompletebibliographiesofthis
work(Bailey,2002)containssome230pagesandthousandsofentries.
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MicrosoftExternalResearch(2008),forexample,suggeststheScholarlyCommunicationLifeCycleconsistingof
fourcyclicphasesofknowledgeproduction:datacollectionandanalysis;authoring;publicationanddistribution;
andarchivingandpreservation.Insomeoftheseareas,likeauthoring,muchdevelopmenthasalreadytakenplace
andtheresultingtoolsarewellintegratedintoscholarlywork:wordprocessingsoftware,sometimesina
networkedenvironment(e.g.,GoogleDocs)andreferencingandannotationtools(e.g.,EndNote,Citeulike,and
Zotero).Inthischapter,however,scholarlycommunicationisviewedasthepresentationofresearchfindingstoan
audienceexternaltotheresearchproject,homedepartmentorinstitutionoftheresearcher,forthepurposeof
sharingandcontributingtoknowledge.Asnotedintheprevioussection,suchcommunicationmaybeinformalor
formalincharacter.Traditionally,emphasisrestedwith,andimportancewasattributedto,formalcommunication
asreflectedinjournalandbookpublications.Suchtraditionisstillprominentacrossthesocialsciencesand
humanities,butchangesareappearingwiththeemergenceoferesearch.
Changethereis,butdeterminationofintensity,duration,andextensivenessaredifficulttasks,andthese
aspectsarenottheobjectivesofthismodestintroduction.Instead,thepurposeistopresentarangeof
illustrationsrelatedtoongoingconcernsinscholarlycommunication.Usingthepreviouslysuggesteddivision,the
illustrationsareframedaccordingtoinformalandformaltypesofscholarlycommunication,adivisionadoptedin
otherstudies,particularlyinthefieldofsciencecommunication(e.g.,Garveyetal.,1972;Hurd,2000).

Informalscholarlycommunication
Dependingontheacademicenvironmentinquestion,useofinformalWebbasedcommunicationseemstobe
exploding:wikis;Websitesforsharingphotos,videosandslides;blogs;socialnetworksites;Webmeetingtools
andplatformsallowingvariantsofinstantmessaging.Precursorsofcontemporarysocialmediaareemaillists,
newsgroupsandelectronicbulletinboardsystemsthatbecameprominentinthe1980s.Theseearlysystemshave
sincebeenrefinedandnowitiscommonplaceformanyscholarstosubscribe,andoccasionallycontribute,toa
rangeofdiscussionandmailinglistsfocusingonspecificdisciplinesandthemes.Blogsarealsoregularly
maintainedbyscholarsinparticularfields;researchcentersandlessformallyorganizedresearchgroupsoften
maintaingroupblogsdesignedtoperformasimilarfunction:provisionofavirtualoutletforsharinginformation
andreflectionsontopicsofinterest.
12
Wikishavebecomestandardvenuesforprojectsandresearchgroups.Some
socialnetworkingsiteslikeFacebookoffergrouppagesandorganizationssuchastheAssociationofInternet
Researchersmaintainaspaceonthissite;otherslikeLinkedInaredesignedtocultivateprofessionalnetworks,and
SlideShareisillustrativeofavenuewherePowerpointpresentations,optionallyincludinganaudiooverlay,canbe
storedandshared;YouTubeistherepositoryforsomeacademicswishingtosharevideosoftheirown
presentations,occasionallyachievingthousandsofviewings.
13
Perhapsthepinnacleofsuchinformalscholarly
communicationvenuesistherapidgrowthofresearchandeducationalinstitutionswithapresenceinSecondLife,
placessupportinginstructionandresearchprojects(e.g.,Shepherd,2007).
14

Althoughthereisclearlymuchdevelopmentintheareaofinformalscholarlycommunication,littleis
knownbeyondanecdotalinformation;quitebasically,itisnotknownwhichscholarsinwhichdisciplinesusewhich
socialmediaforwhatpurposes,withwhatassessment.Withoutsuchinformation,theremaybeatendencyto
extrapolatefromunrepresentativepersonalknowledgeandassumemoreinterestandusethanareactually
present.

12
ForanillustrationofaninstitutionalblogseetheonemaintainedattheOxfordInternetInstitutesite:
http://people.oii.ox.ac.uk/.Inasimilarfashion,theAssociationofLiteraryScholarsandCriticssponsorsagroupblogcalledThe
Valve:http://www.thevalve.org/go.
13
Someinstitutions,suchastheBerkmanCenterforInternet&Society(http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/interactive),havetheir
ownYouTubechannelsatwhichpresentationshostedbytheinstitutionsarearchived.Individualscholarssimilarlymakeuseof
YouTubetodocumentpresentations;see,e.g.,thepresentationbyMichaelWesch,UniversityofKansas,attheLibraryof
Congress,23June2008,AnanthropologicalintroductiontoYouTube:http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=TPAO
lZ4_hU&feature=related.

14
ThenumberofuniversitylevelinstitutionsthathavetakenupshopinSecondLifeisnotknownpreciselyandisdifficultto
determine;seehttp://secondliferesearch.blogspot.com/2007/07/currentlistofuniversitiesinsecond.html.Areportreleased
inMay2008suggeststhreequartersofallU.K.institutionsforhighereducationarerepresentedSecondLife(Kirriemuir,2008).
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Oneofthefewstudiesdesignedtosystematicallyexploreinformalscholarlycommunicationis,atthe
timeofthiswriting,ongoing,withaninterimreportreleasedinAugust2008.Thisreportsuggestsmuchless
interestanduseofsocialmediaforscholarshipthanimpliedbythelargenumberofmediainitiativesnotedabove
(Harley,EarlNovell,Acord,Lawrence,&King,2008).Thestudyisbasedonexploratoryinterviewswithfacultyat
differentstagesofcareerdevelopment,mainlylocatedattheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeleyanddistributed
acrosssevendisciplines:archaeology,astrophysics,biology,economics,history,music,andpoliticalscience.
Perhapstheoverallandverytentativeobservationbytheauthorsofthisreportisareservedanddiscipline
differentiatedview:thegeneralenthusiasmfornewmediashouldnotbeconflatedwiththehardrealityoftenure
andpromotionrequirementsinhighlycompetitiveprofessionalenvironmentsHarleyetal.,2008:1).
Althoughunderstandablycautiousindrawingconclusionsatsuchanearlystageintheproject,Harleyand
colleagues(2008:6)stresstheimportanceofdisciplinarycultureandtradition,andthatthesefactorsmay
overridetheperceivedopportunitiesaffordedbynewtechnologies,includingthosefallingintotheWeb2.0
category.Infact,innovativescholarshipmaynotnecessarilyrelatetotheuseofcuttingedgetechnologies:More
thanafewscholarshavesuggestedthattechnologyusedindiscriminatelyandforitsownsakecanlimitthescope
ofquestionsaskedandthereforeleadtodetrimentaleffectsonthequalityofscholarship(Harleyetal.,2008:6).
Someofthedisciplinarydifferencesnotedinthereportsuggestthatastrophysicists,politicalscientists,and
economistsaremorepredisposedtosharingscholarshipthroughpreprintrepositoriesandpersonalWebsites
thanarescholarsinbiology,historyandarchaeology.Nevertheless,thereisuniversalenthusiasticembrace
(Harleyetal.,2008:12)ofInternetbasedscholarlymaterialssuchaselectronicjournals,ebooks,datasets,and
governmentalarchives.
Onefactorthatmayinfluencefutureuseofsocialmediaininformalscholarlycommunicationnot
specificallyaddressedinthisreportistheincreasingutilizationofthesemediaintheuniversityclassroom.Web
sites,wikis,andblogsarebecomingprominent,andinitiativesarebeingundertakentoincorporatestudent
familiarityandacceptanceofsocialnetworksitesinclassroomactivities(see,e.g.,Salaway&Caruso,2008).
15

Considerableandsubstantivechange,inotherwords,maybeforthcominginthearenaofinformalscholarly
communicationastheeducationsettingadoptssocialmedia(Maron&Smith,2008).
16

Formalscholarlycommunication
Formalscholarlycommunication,sometimestermedtraditionalacademicpublishing,isundergoingintensedebate
amongthecoregroupsinvolvedauthors,editors,publishers,librariansandmuchofthisdebaterelatestothe
convergenceoffourfactors:
Escalatingcostsofperiodicals,particularlyinthefieldsofscience,technologyandmedicine;
Decreasinguniversityresourcesforlibraryacquisitionsandforpublicationofscholarlymonographsby
universitypresses;
Mountingrevoltbycoalitionsofresearchlibrarians,journaleditors,boardmembers,andauthors
againstthepricingpracticesofcommercialpublishers;
Expandingopportunitiesforpublishingthroughdigitalization,especiallythroughtoolsforauthoring,
processing,anddistributingscholarshipviatheInternet.
Thefusionofthesefactorshasresultedinanexplosionofinitiativesonalmostallfrontsofformalscholarly
communication.Theamountandrateofchangeisgreatandongoing,makingreflectiondifficultandprediction
impossible.Thissectionprovides,then,ameresnapshotofinnovationsforjournalandbookpublishing.
Regardingthefirstthreepoints,variousobservershavechartedtheescalatingcostsofperiodicals.
Townsend(2003)calculatesthatscience,technologyandmedicine(STM)journalsincreasedby600%intheperiod

15
ArecentthreadontheAoIRdiscussionlist(November2008)consideredwaystouseWikipediaforclassroomassignments.
Bloggingasapedagogicaltoolhasbeendiscussedextensively(e.g.,
http://www.det.wa.edu.au/education/cmis/eval/curriculum/ict/weblogs/).Platformsforeducationaluseofblogswere
experimentedwithasearlyas2003(http://incsub.org/2005/edublogsarego);twoyearslaterEdublogs(http://edublogs.org/)
wasestablishedandin2008thisplatformhostednearly250,000educationallyorientedblogs.

16
OneexampleofsuchadoptionistheplacebeinggiventoYouTubeintheclassroom;seetheGeorgeLucasEducational
FoundationgroupblogEdutopicforaseriesofpostings:http://www.edutopia.org/search/node/youtube.Seealsoinitiativesby
MichaelWeschinusingYouTubeandothernewmediainculturalanthropologycoursesatKansasStateUniversity:
http://www.ksu.edu/sasw/anthro/wesch.htm.
eResearchvolume Chapter1:Jankowski
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19822002.Simultaneously,fundsforacquisitionbyresearchlibrariesdecreasedalongwiththenumberof
subscriptions.
17
Buckholtz(2001)compilesstoriesofacademicsthathavetakenapublicstandagainstthe
escalatingpricesofjournalsthatessentiallyconfineaccesstothosescholarsaffiliatedwithwellendowedresearch
institutions;theseacademicshaverefusedtowrite,editorotherwiseservesuchtitles.
18
Insomecaseslikean
Elseviertitleoncomputerprogramming,entireeditorialboardshaveresignedinprotesttorisingcosts.Inthis
case,someoftheeditorsestablishedanewtitlewithOxfordUniversityPress,reducingthesubscriptionprice
substantially.
19

Regardingthefourthpoint,digitalization,sincetheearlydaysofelectronicpublishinginthelate1980s
therehasbeenagenerallyoptimisticproclamationastohowthepublishingindustrywouldbeaffected.John
Thompson(2005)devotesaseriesofchaptersinhisdefinitiveworkBooksintheDigitalAgetocriticallyexamining
thisdigitalrevolution.Manyexperimentshavebeeninitiatedacrossthepasttwodecadeswithformsof
electronicpublishing,anumberofwhicharedetailedbyThompson.Here,onlyasmallselectionofrecentreports
andinnovationsarenoted.
Tobegin,thepotentialofthisdigitalrevolutionisdescribedintheIthakaReportUniversityPublishingin
aDigitalAge,usinganupbeatstylestrikinglysimilartothatusedtodescribeescienceandcyberinfrastructure:
Webelievethenextstagewillbeinthecreationofnewformatsmadepossiblebydigitaltechnologies,
ultimatelyallowingscholarstoworkindeeplyintegratedelectronicresearchandpublishingenvironments
thatwillenablerealtimedissemination,collaboration,dynamicallyupdatedcontent,andusageofnew
media.(Brown,Griffiths,&Rascoff,2007:4)
Infairnesstotheauthors,theremainderofthereportdescribestheconsiderablechallengesfacinguniversity
publishinghouseswithinsuchanenvironment,particularlytheneedtoaddressthecentralmandateofthese
housescontributingtothepublicavailabilityofscholarshipinafinanciallyconstrainedsetting.
Oneofthedevelopmentsrelatedtodigitalizationisthemultitudeofinitiativestocreatedigitalizedcopies
oftheholdingsofnationalandresearchlibrariesworldwide.Mostmajornationallibrarieshavesuchprojectsor
havejoinedallianceswiththirdparties,notablyGoogle.TheGoogleinitiative,initiallyproposedin2006,hasbeen
bothroundlylaudedandequallycriticized.Thepraisebasicallyrelatestomakingknowledgeaccessiblebeyondthe
holdingsofindividuallibraries;inthewordsofonereflectioncomposedimmediatelyafterlegalagreementwas
reachedon28October2008,thisagreementislikelytochangeforeverthewaythatwefindandbrowsefor
books,particularlyoutofprintbooks(VonLohmann,2008).Thereservationsrelatetoprotectionofintellectual
property,commercialinterests,andbiastowardsscholarshippublishedinEnglishfromAmericaninstitutions.
20

17
PresentationofsuchfiguresisfrequentlyfoundontheWebsitesofassociationsoflibrariesandlibrarians;seethe
StanfordUniversitylibrarysiteonscholarlycommunicationforarecentoverview,includingagraphillustratingrising
costsacrosstime:http://wwwsul.stanford.edu/scholarly_com/.Alargenumberofuniversitiesmaintainsectionsoftheir
websitesdescribingtheseandotheraspectsofscholarlycommunication(e.g.,copyright,repositories,policiesfrom
fundingbodiesregardingaccesstopublications).AboutadozensuchsitesarelistedattheUCBerkeleyLibrarysite:
.berkeley.edu/scholarlycommunication/beyond_berkeley.html http://www.lib .

18
Suchtalesaremultiplyingacrossdisciplines,albeitmostnotablyinthenaturalsciences.SeeBirman(2000)foran
accountofsimilarconcerninmathematics.Foranexampleoutsidethesciences,seedanahboydblogentry(6February
oycottoflockeddownacademicjournalsrelatedtocommunicationandInternetstudies:
t
2008)announcingapersonalb
h tp://www.zephoria.org/thoughts/archives/2008/02/06/openaccess_is_t.html.

19
Somecommercialpublishershavereacteddefensivelytothesedevelopments,notablyElsevier(2004).Thompson
(2005:100101)suggeststhatElsevierspricingofperiodicalsisinlinewithindustrywideincreases.Othercommercial
ublishershavesoughtalliancewithinitiativesfavorabletoopenaccess,likeHighWirePress;see
/highwire.stanford.edu/
p
http:/ .

20
JeanNelJeanneney(2007),presidentoftheBibliothquenationaledeFrance,haspennedperhapsthemostcompelling
foreigndissentingopiniontothealliancewithGooglebyresearchlibraries,entitledGoogleandthemythofuniversal
knowledge.AnumberofresearchlibrariesintheUnitedStatesinitiatedacollectivelawsuitagainstGooglein2005,whichwas
resolvedinOctober2008andinvolvesamongotherthings,paymentof45millionU.S.dollarstocopyrightholdersof
documentsscannedandditigalized.Overall,initialreactionswereverypositiveaboutthissettlement;onecontributortothe
eResearchvolume Chapter1:Jankowski
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Digitalizationofbooksisnotonlyanactivityinvolvinglibrariesandtheircollections,butalsopublishers
andtheirinterestinsecuringasustainablemarketforacademicorientedpublications.Thescholarlymonograph
hasbeenanendangeredspeciesintheworldofpublishingfordecadesanduniversitypresseshavetriedalarge
varietyofrescueoperations,noneparticularlysuccessful(see,e.g.,Thompson,2005;Townsend,2007).Someof
themorerecentrescueeffortsincludeofferingforfreedigitalversionsofmonographs,gamblingthatsuchgive
awaysmaystimulatepurchaseoftheprintedversionbylibraries.
21
Commercialpublishershaveexperimentedina
morelimitedmannerwiththissamestrategy,ashavegovernmentbodies(e.g.,TheNationalAcademiesPress,
http://www.nap.edu/).

Journals
Althoughmuchintheworldofjournalpublishinghaschangedsince1665whenHenryOldenburglaunched
PhilosophicalTransactions,thefirstscholarlyperiodical,thefourfunctionsofjournalshaveremainedcentral:
registration,dissemination,peerreview,andarchivalrecord(Armbruster,1989).Whathaschanged,sometimes
radically,ishowjournalpublishingattendstothesefunctions,particularlysincedigitalizationandtheInternet.To
begin,scholarlyjournalshavebeenproliferatingatanastoundingrate.Suchmultiplicationoftitleshasbeenthe
orderofthedayforseveraldecades,coupledtoaprofitablecommercialstrategy(Townsend,2003).Digitalization
andtheInternethaveacceleratedthisalreadyestablishedtrend.Othercontributionstochangeregardingthe
functionsarelessvisible,butequallysignificant,suchassoftwareinstallationautomatingbackofficeprocedures
forprocessingmanuscripts,contributingtomoreefficientprocessing.Onlinemanuscriptmanagementhasbecome
standardpracticeamongmosttitles.Twootherdevelopments,stillongoingandhighlyrelevanttoeresearch,are
peerreviewprocedures,andonlineaccesstoandrepositoriesforarticles.

Peerreview
Formalscholarlycommunication,atthemostfundamentalandgenerallevel,isaboutcontributingnewknowledge
andsubjectingcontributionstopeerreviewandpublicdebate.Variousmechanismshavebeenestablishedto
assessthequalityofcontributions,ofwhichpeerreviewisthemostprevalent.Peerreviewtakesmanyforms,
fromthekindofcollegialreactionsprovidedduringadepartmentalstaffmeetingaboutadraftmanuscriptto
formalizeddoubleblindreviewingproceduresofsubmissionstopublishersandfundingagencies.
Withregardtoacademicjournals,peerreviewinvolvesagreementbyauthorstoallowtheirworktobe
assessedbyotherscholarspriortopublication.Whentheprocedureworkswell,extendedsubstantivecommentis
receivedfromtwoormoreanonymousexperts.Thesereviewsareconsideredbyajournaleditorwhocomestoa
decisionregardingpublication,sometimesafterseveralroundsofreviewandmanuscriptrevision.Althoughthis
processhasbeenmademoreefficientandrapidsincewidespreaduseofemailandsoftwareforjournal
management,thereviewprocesscanstilltakeseveralmonthstocomplete,whichisoneoftheenduringcriticism
authorshaveofpeerreview.
22

Othercriticismsofpeerreviewhavebeenvoiced(e.g.,Godlee&Jefferson,1999)andpoignantly
summarized:
Itisunreliable,unfairandfailstovalidateorauthenticate;itisunstandardizedandopentobias;blinded
peerreviewinvitesmalice,eitherfromadhominemattacksontheauthororbyfacilitatingplagiarism;it
stiflesinnovation;itlendsspuriousauthoritytoreviewers;reviewersknowledgeableenoughtoreviewa

BalkinizationblogtermeditawinwinwinwinsituationforGoogle,copyholders,librariesandthepublic(Netanel,2008). For
anoverview,commissionedbytheAssociationofResearchLibrariesandtheAmericanLibraryAssociation,seeBand(2008).

21
In2007theUniversityofMichiganPressestablisheddigitalculturebooksasanexperimentalpublishingstrategyandhas
madetitlesavailableinbothforfreeelectronicandconventionalforsaleprintversions(see,e.g.,Turow&Tsui,2008).MIT
PressalsoofferssometitlesfreeonitsWebsite(e.g.,Willinski,2005)aspartofitsOpenAccessprogram.Thisprogramwas
precededbythefirstinitiativeofthissortwhen,in1994,MITPressdecidedtoreleaseCityofBitsinthisdualfashionatsome
measureoffinancialsuccess,accordingtoThompson(2005:330331).
22
Althoughsuchcriticismisunderstandable,journaleditorsareexperiencingincreasingdifficultyinsecuringqualityreviewsof
submissions,requiringissuanceofmultiplerequestsforassessmentsandresultingindelayedreportstoauthors.Thisisoneof
themanyissuesaddressedbyarangeofjournaleditorsatapublishingworkshopheldatthe2008annualconferenceofthe
Association of Internet Researchers (IR 9.0, Copenhagen, 15-18 Oct., http://conferences.aoir.org/).
eResearchvolume Chapter1:Jankowski
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studyareoftencompetitors,andthereforehaveaconflictofinterest;anditcausesunnecessarydelaysin
publication.(Huston,2001)
Despitesuchcritique,peerreviewofjournalarticlesisalmostuniversallyacceptedasthenecessaryprocedurefor
scholarlyworktobeadmittedtotheformalrecordofscientificallybasedknowledge.Doubleblindpeerreviewis
considered,infact,thegoldstandardforqualityjournalpublishingacrossthespectrumofscholarship.Inan
internationalstudyofpeerreview,commissionedbythePublishingResearchConsortium(Ware&Monkman,
2008),academicsstronglysupporttheprinciplesofpeerreview.Basedonresponsesfrom3101journalauthors,
reviewers,andeditors,thestudyreflectstheopinionsofscholarsinthesciences,humanities,andsocialsciences.
23

Experimentsaboundtoimproveoreventodispensewithconventionaldoubleblindpeerreview.Afew
exceptionallyinnovativetitles,liketheBritishMedicalJournal(BMJ),havealonghistorywithopenaccessand
openpeerreviewprocedures.
24
Onerecentexperiment,resultinginadifferentassessmentofopenpeerreview,
wasconductedbyNaturein2006.Theeditorswereinterestedwhetheravenueforopen,signedcommentmight
contributetomanuscriptimprovement;readerswerepolledandthereseemedtobemuchinterestinthisformof
review.Duringthefourmonthperiodofthetrial,authorsofsubmissions,nearly1400,wereaskedwhetherthey
wishedtohavetheirworkplacedontheserverestablishedfortheexperiment;asmallfraction(5%,71papers)
agreedtotakepart.Ofthesepapersabouthalfreceivedcomments;themajorityweretechnicalinnature.The
largestnumberofcommentsreceivedbyanyonepaperwasten.Bytheendofthetrialperiod,onlyasmall
numberofauthorshaddecidedtotakepartandanevensmallergrouphadreceivedcommentsofasubstantive
nature.Intheserespectsthedegreeofparticipationresemblesthatofdiscussionlists:ahandfulofparticipants
withinapopulationofthousands(Schneider,1997;Hagemann,2002).Incontrast,assuggestedbytheBMJ
experience,othertitlesinvolvingotherscholarsoperatinginotherdisciplinaryculturesmaycometodifferent
assessmentsofopenpeerreview.
Someopportunitiesforonlinecommentaryfallshortoftheintentionsofjournalarticlepeerreview,but
neverthelessmeritmentionherebecausetheycontributetocollectivedebateofmanuscripts,albeitlessformal.
ScientificAmerican,forexample,placedaninitialversionofanarticleindevelopmentonitsWebsiteandinvited
commentaryfromreaders(Waldrop,2008).Duringthecourseoffiveweeks,some130commentswereposted,a
largenumberofwhichwereextendedandsubstantive.TheinitiativeMediaCommonsdoesessentiallythesame,
usingsoftwarethatpermitsparagraphbyparagraphcommentary.
25

Onlineaccess&repositories
Anotherprominentareaofchangeinjournalpublishingistherelativelyrapiddevelopmentand
embracementofanonlineenvironmentbyscholarsandpublishers.Mostmajorjournalpublishersnowoffer

23
Althoughthissurveyisperhapsthebestthereisregardingassessmentofpeerreviewbyscholars,thefindingsarebasedon
areturnrateoflessthan7.7%ofthemorethan40,000personsapproached.Itwouldbeprudenttonotethatspecific
disciplinaryfindingsareonlyindicationsratherthanstatisticallyrepresentativereflections.Still,whenaggregated,the
respondentsoverwhelmingfeelpeerreviewisnecessary(93%),improvespublishedpapers(90%),providesasystemofcontrol
(83%),anddoubleblindreviewispreferred(56%)asthemosteffectiveassessmentprocedure(Ware,2008:4).

24
OnOctober28,2008,BMJbecameanofficialopenaccessjournal,afteradecadelongperiodwithopenaccesstoresearch
articlesandashortlivedreversaltorestrictedaccess;fordetailsseeOpenAccessNews:
http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/2008/10/bmjconvertstogratisoa.html.

25
TheeditorsofMediaCommonsdescribethisinitiative,launchedin2007,asanallelectronicscholarlypublishingnetwork
ratherthanasaconventionaljournalthat"willnotsimplyshiftthelocusofpublishingfromprinttoscreen,butwillactually
transformwhatitmeansto'publish,'allowingtheauthor,thepublisher,andthereaderalltomaketheprocessofsuch
discoursejustasvisibleasitsproduct."

Seefurther:http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/.Variousblogpostsby
KathleenFitzpatrick,instrumentalinlaunchingthisinitiative,dealwiththebasicprinciplesinvolved;seeespeciallyOnthe
FutureofAcademicPublishing,PeerReviewandTenureRequirements,6January2006:
http://www.thevalve.org/go/valve/article/on_the_future_of_academic_publishing_peer_review_and_tenure_requirements_or
.

eResearchvolume Chapter1:Jankowski
12

institutionalsubscribersavarietyofpackagesthatmayincludeasetoftitlesmadeavailableinprintandalso
accessiblefromaWebsitemaintainedbythepublisher.OtherWebbasedinitiativesinthisareaaretakenby
scholarlyassociationsandspecialinterestgroups.Theseinitiatives,however,arelittlemorethanmirrorimagesof
printjournals;veryfewtitlesareexploringmultimediapublishingformatswithinclusionofdynamicvisualizations
andaccesstodatasets.
26

Themostsignificantissuerelatedtoonlinejournalpublishingisthekindanddegreeofopenaccess
providedtojournaltitlesandarticles.Commercialpublishershavebeenreticenttotakealeadinthisarea;asa
consequence,theprimaryinitiativeshavebeendevelopedbyscholarlyassociations,sometimesincollaboration
withuniversities.ThePublicLibraryofScience(PLoS)journalsaretheprototypeofthiskindofpublishing.At
presenttherearesevenPLoSjournalsinthebiology,medicine,andgenetics(seehttp://www.plos.org/).Oneof
thereservationsvoicedregardingsomeopenaccessjournalsisthatafeeischargedforpublication.ThePLoS
journals,forexample,requestsuchafee,althoughpaymentisnotrequired.Afewcommercialpublishershave
adaptedtheauthorfeemodelandofferfreeandimmediateaccesstoanauthorsarticleprovidingtheauthorpays
forsuch.Someauthorspublishingundertheauspicesoffundedprojectscanarrangeforpayment,butmanyother
scholarsdonothavesuchfinancialfreedom.In2008theUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,followinginitiativesat
otherinstitutions,announcedtheBerkeleyResearchImpactInitiative(BRII)thatisdesignedtohelpsupportopen
accesstoscholarshipbyestablishingafundtoassistscholarsinpayinganynecessaryfees(BRII,2008).
Perhapsthegreatestincentiveencouragingaccesstoscholarshiphasoccurredoutsidethedomainof
publishing:fundingagencies,universitiesandassociationsofscholarshavecontributedtodevelopmentofdigital
repositoriesforscholarship.Scholarlyassociationsfrequentlymaintainrepositoriesofpapersacceptedfor
presentationatconferences,butsubmissionofmaterialisoftenvoluntaryandauthorsaresometimesconcerned
thatavailability,eveninthosecaseswheretheserepositoriesarerestrictedtomembersoftheassociations,may
beconstruedasaformofpublicationandprohibitsubsequentsubmissiontoacademicjournals.Someofthe
naturalscienceshaveestablishedrepositoriesforpapers,includingtextsnotyetacceptedforjournalpublication.
Thepioneeringinitiativeofthiskind,arXive,waslaunchedadecadeagoandhasarchivedmorethanahalfmillion
documentsinthefieldsofphysics,computerscience,quantitativebiology,andstatistics;seehttp://arxiv.org/.
Dependingontheprocedures,preprintrepositoriesmayresemblevariantsofselfpublishingwithnoexternal
qualitycontrol,butforsomedisciplinesimmediatepublicreleaseofanideaismoreimportantthanthepatience
requiredforpeerreviewcertification.
Somefundingagencies,suchastheNationalInstituteofHealth(NIH)intheUnitedStates,requirethat
publications,andinsomecasesdata,bedepositedinpublicallyavailablerepositories.Universitiesarealso
establishinginstitutionallybasedrepositoriesofpaperspublishedoracceptedforpublication;participationis
sometimesmandatory,particularlywheninstitutionsareconcernedaboutresearchassessmentexercisesasin
someEuropeancountries(Borgman,2007:195).Thenumberofrepositoriesacrossdisciplines,countries,and
institutionsismultiplyingrapidly;theDirectoryofOpenAccessRepositories,OpenDOAR,notesmorethan1200at
thetimeofthiswriting;seehttp://www.opendoar.org/.

ORGANIZATIONOFBOOK

Aspreviouslymentioned,thechaptersinthisvolumeprovideapanoramicportrayalofissuesrelatedtoe
research.Althoughseveralorganizationalstructuresforthecollectioncouldbesuitablyemployed,preferenceis
givenheretosevenclustersofconcernsreflectedinFigure1.1:conceptualizationoferesearch,policy
developments,collaborationamongresearchers,visualizationoffindings,datapreservationandreuse,accessand
intellectualproperty,andcasestudiesofprojectsillustratingfeaturesoferesearch.Manyofthechaptersaddress
severaloftheseconcernsandalmostallareconcernedwithconceptualizingeresearch,butthereisaccentuation
asreflectedinthesecategories.Thefinalcategory,casestudies,istheexceptionandherepresentationsaremade
offulleresearchprojects.

Conceptualization

26
Incontrast,Vectors,JournalofCultureandTechnologyinaDynamicVernacular,placesemphasisonpublicationof
multimediacontributions;theInternationalJournalofCommunication(IJOC)notessuchpublishingpossibilitiesinitsmission
statement.Vectorsisdesignoriented,IJOCreflectsarelativelyconventionalapproachtoscholarship.See
http://www.vectorsjournal.org/;http://ijoc.org/.
eResearchvolume Chapter1:Jankowski
13

Twochaptersconcentrateonissuesdirectlyrelatedtotheconceptualizationoferesearch.InChapter2,Ralph
SchroederandJenniferFryconstructamapofsocialscienceapproachesanderesearch.Thismapprovidesan
overviewofdifferentdisciplinesinvolvedinescienceresearch,specificallythosedisciplinescloselyaffiliatedwith
escience.Theauthorsdiscusstherelationsidentifiedandillustratethemthroughattentiontoarangeofprojects
intheU.K.Theoverviewsuggeststheconsiderablediversityindisciplinaryapproachestoeresearch,andthis
insightcanbevaluableinunderstandingitscoconstructedcharacter,involvingboththetechnologiesandthe
specifictransformationsofthesebyscholarsinadiversityofdisciplines.OneoftheconcludingconcernsSchroeder
andFryraiseisthedegreetowhicheresearchwillcontributetoalongertermunderstandingwithinthesociology
ofscience.
InChapter3,AnneBeaulieuandPaulWoutersapproachtheconceptualizationoferesearchfroma
perspectiveemphasizingintervention,andtheytakeastheirstartingpointtheVirtualKnowledgeStudioforthe
HumanitiesandSocialSciences(VKS)intheNetherlands.Theauthorsdiscussthetensionsinvolvedincombining
reflexiveanalysiswiththepracticaldesignofscholarlypractices.ThesedualobjectivesentailthattheVKSisbotha
researchprogramandaninfrastructuralfacilityforscholars,acombinationthatcanbeproblematic:designand
analysisaredifferenttypesofscientificandscholarlywork,withdifferenttemporalhorizonsanddifferent
coalitionsofinterests.HowthisdualityplaysoutandhowtheInternetcanbeusedasanarenaforresearchisthe
challengeaddressed.

Development
Thenextsection,development,consistsofthreechapters,eachaddressingaspectsofpolicyandits
implementationasrelatedtotheemergenceofescienceanderesearchindifferentgeographicregions.Chapter
4,preparedbyPeterHalfpenny,RobProcter,YuweiLinandAlexVoss,focusesondevelopmentsintheU.K.related
towhathascometobeknownasesocialscience.Theauthorsreflectonthedevelopmentoftheresearch
programoftheNationalCentreforeSocialScience(NCeSS)anddelineateitsachievementsandthechallenges
faced.Attentionfocusesonengagementandinteractionwithusers,facilitatingcommunicationbetweensocial
scientistsandcomputerscientists,outreachtowardsthewidersocialscienceresearchcommunity,and
collaborationwiththeesciencecommunityataninternationallevel.Toprovideanaccountofthecurrentstateof
esocialscienceintheU.K.,awiderangeofsourcesisreviewed,tracingtheoriginanddevelopmentoftheCentre.
Intheprocess,theauthorsmaptheBritishesocialsciencecommunity,identifyingitsstakeholders,thestateof
thearttechnologies,howthesetechnologiesaredeployed,andthestrategiesemergingthatfacilitateuptake.
Chapter5focusesoneresearchasareflectionofthescholarlycommunityinthehumanitiesinAustralia.
Thechapterauthors,PaulGenoni,HelenMerrick,andMicheleWillson,describeeresearchpracticesinthe
humanities,basedonasurveyexploringhowscholarsusetheInternetforteachingandresearchpurposes.Of
particularinterestaretheinformal,behindthescenes,communicativeandcollaborativepracticesthatinstigate,
manage,andproduceeresearchoutcomes.Theauthorsexaminecommunicationprocessesfacilitatedby
computermediatedcommunication,drawinguponspecificcasestudiesofnewandexistingeresearchgroupsand
distributedcollaborativeprojects.Oneoftheirconclusionsnotestheimportanceofinstitutional,socialand
economicfactorsintheadoptionanduseoferesearchtechnologies.
Chapter6,preparedbyCarolSoonandHanWooPark,explorestheemergenceofesocialsciencepolicy
inSouthKoreaandSingapore.ThischaptercontributestoreaddressingaWesternbiasbyfocusingprimarilyon
issuesrelatedtoscholarlypracticeineresearchwithinthecontextoftwoAsiancountries.Thehighlevelof
InternetandbroadbandpenetrationinSingaporeisaresultofthatgovernmentsinitiativestocreateane
inclusivesocietywithinthenationstate.InthecaseofSouthKorea,thecountryiscurrentlyanimportantnodein
advancedresearchnetworks.OneofthechallengestoesciencedevelopmentintheseAsiancountriesistheneed
forachangeamongsocialscientistsandhumanitiesscholarsregardingthevalueoferesearch.Anincreasein
educationandtrainingprogramsmay,accordingtotheauthors,positivelycontributetofurtherdevelopment.

Collaboration
Thethirdsectionisconcernedwithcollaborationamongresearchers,oftenatadistance,andincludestwo
chapters.Chapter7,preparedbyPetraSonderegger,addressestheplanningandmanagementofglobally
distributedresearchteams.Itisuncleartowhatextentthediscoveryandinterpretationofnewresearchproblems
necessitatethecopresenceofresearchers.And,asprojectsbecomemorecomplexandaredistributedover
greaterdistances,inpersonmeetingsareoftennotfeasibleorpractical.Whilenewcommunicationtechnologies
eResearchvolume Chapter1:Jankowski
14

allowmorefrequentcommunicationsbetweendistantcollaborators,theyalsoreducetherichnessofthat
communication;facialexpressions,bodylanguage,andtoneofvoicemaybelost.However,successful
collaborationreliestoalargeextentonintenseinteractiontocreateasharedlanguage,acommonunderstanding
ofproblems,andthetrustrequiredformembersofagrouptosuggestoriginalanduntriedsolutions.Sonderegger,
drawingonanethnographicstudyconductedinBangalore,India,exploreshowcorporationsandresearchersdeal
withthechallengeofcollaboratingacrossgeographicdistanceandorganizationalboundariesusingtechnology
mediatedcommunication.
InChapter8,EricMeyerdiscussesissuesthatarisewhensmallscientificprojectsbecomepartoflarger
scientificcollaborations,seenfromasocialinformaticsperspective.Datafromtwodistinctareasofscholarshipare
presented:astudyofhumpbackwhaleresearchinvolvingfederatingdatarelatedtothepopulationand
movementsofthesemammalsinthePacificOceanandastudyofcollaborationamongscholarsinthefieldof
psychiatricgeneticscontributingtoalarge,shareddatarepository.Whilethesetwocasesrepresentverydifferent
scientificdomains,theyshareanumberofcharacteristicsincludingdecentralizeddecisionmaking,limiteddata
managementexpertise,andlongtermcollectionsofdataallofwhichhavecontributedtodifficultiesinmoving
intoanescienceenvironment.OneoftheissuesMeyerraisesisthetensionbetweenflexibilityandinnovationin
scientificpractice,counterbalancedbyneedforcompatibledatastandardsinlargescaledatainfrastructures.

Visualization
Chapter9,authoredbyMikeThelwall,drawsuponexperiencesinthefieldofWebometricstodescribethe
problemsandtechniquesinvolvedwhencollectingandvisualizingdataabouttheInternet.Socialscienceresearch,
drawinguponrawdatafromsearchengines,isintheunprecedentedpositionofbeinggrantedfreeaccesstoa
hugeheterogeneouscorpusofinformation,butrequiringtechnicalcomputingknowledgetounderstandthedata
andextractitefficiently.Thelwallprovidesexamplesofvisualizationsusedinavarietyofdisciplinesinthesocial
sciencesandhumanities,andexaminessomeofthesoftwareavailableforpreparationofsuchillustrations.Three
detailedcasesofvisualizationsarepresented:thevisualizationofWikipediaedits,chartedintheHistoryFlow
projectofIBM;adynamicdisplayofgroupinteractionsthatispartoftheresearchprojectEvolino;andatreemap
ofUsenetpostingsgeneratedwithintheMicrosoftNetscanproject.Thelwallconcludeswithsuggestionsfor
furtherexploration,thefirstofwhichinvolvesdocumentationoftheemergenceofvisualizationsacrossdisciplines
andacrosstime.
Chapter10,byHowardWelser,ThomasLento,MarcSmith,EricGleave,andItiaHimelboim,presents
initiativestoenhancedatavisualizationdevelopedatMicrosoftResearch.Researchersandtechnologists
increasinglyapplyinformationvisualizationtechniquestothedatageneratedbysocialmediaontheInternetinan
efforttogaininsightsthatmayhavebeenfarmoredifficulttograspwithqualitativemethodsalone.Inrecent
work,theauthorshaveexploredforrepresentationsofdatastructures,suchashierarchiesandnetwork
structures.Theauthorspresentexamplesofvisualizationsthathighlighttherangeofbehaviourperformedin
computationalsocialmedia.TheyillustrateworkaroundUsenet,oneoftheoldestinstitutionsandinfrastructures
ofsocialinteractionontheinternet,anddescribethescales,structuresandmapscreatedandcontainingelements
fromthesespaces,someofwhichmayberelevanttomorerecentdevelopmentswithsocialmedia.

Datapreservation&reuse
Chapter11,preparedbyStevenSchneider,KirstenFoot,andPaulWouters,isconcernedwithoneoftheenigmas
oferesearch:preservingWebsitesinamannerallowingscientificstudy.AstheWebhasbecomeanobjectof
research,Webarchivinghasemergedasaformofinquiryenablingdevelopmentalandretrospectiveanalysesof
manykindsofonlinephenomena.Webarchivinghasbecomeacomponentoferesearchpracticedbyscholars
concernedwithphenomenamediatedviadigital,networkedtechnologies.Theauthorsanalyzecurrentand
potentialusesofWebarchivingandthechallengesthisimposesonresearchpractice.Theanalysesfacilitatedby
Webarchivingutilizebothquantitativeandqualitativemethodsemployedonalargescale,overtime,andby
distributedresearchteams.Thechapterconcludesbyidentifyingthechallengessocialresearchersencounterin
archivingWebbasedmaterial.
Chapter12,byAnnZimmerman,NathanBos,JudyOlson,andGaryOlson,providesapanoramaofthe
problemsencounteredinsharingdata.Theneedtosharedataandtoexchangeknowledgeaboutdataisaprimary
driverbehindmanyvisionsofescience.Yet,effortstosharedatafaceconsiderablesocial,organizational,legal,
scientific,andtechnicalchallenges.Thischapterreportsfindingsfromananalysisofthedatasharingapproaches
eResearchvolume Chapter1:Jankowski
15

usedbylargecollaborationsinseveralscientificdisciplines.Thefindingsarebasedonafiveyearstudyof
distributedcollaborationsacrossmanydomains.Theresultssuggestthatdifferenttypesofdatasharingsolutions
placedifferentdemandsonthosewhoproducedata,andonthosewhoareresponsibleforcollecting,managing
andmakingdataavailableforusebyothers.
InChapter13SamuelleCarlsonandBenAndersonpresentfourcasestudies:SkyProject,SurveyProject,
CurationProject,andAnthroProject.Theseprojectsprovidetheempiricalbasisthroughwhichtheauthorsconsider
theextentdatacanbeextractedfromitsoriginalcontextandmadeavailableforotherresearchersoperatingin
othercontexts.Considerabledifferencewasfoundregardingdatasharingamongthesefourprojects,generally
followingthedisciplinarylinesoftheprojects:theastronomersassociatedwithSkyProject,forexample,differed
radicallyfromtheanthropologistsofAnthroProjectregardingthesuitabilityofprovidingaccesstodatabeyondthe
originalteamofresearchersandregardingthepossibilityofpreservingthedataoutsidetheinitialresearch
context.Thesefourcasestudiescontributetoanongoingdiscussionofthepotentialbenefitsanddrawbacksof
embeddinge(social)scienceineverydaypracticeandtheincentivesrequiredtodoso.Theysuggestthatthe
futureofesocialsciencedependsheavilyontheexistingpracticesofdisciplinesandonwhetherdataareborn
digital.

Access&intellectualproperty
RobertLucasandJohnWillinsky,theauthorsofChapter14,considertheideaofopenaccessasrelatedtoe
research.Theypresentanethicalandepistemologicalargumentforopenaccesstoscholarlypublicationsand
reviewrecentdevelopmentsinaccesstodataandpublishedwork.Theyproposethat,inadditiontostrengthening
scholarlypractice,openaccessenablesscientificfindingstobetterinformpublicdebateandpromotetheidealof
freeinquiryinthebroaderculture.Thefieldofmedicineispresentedasanexampleofhowgreaterpublicaccess
toresearchhascontributedtothedemocraticqualityofpeople'slives,anditissuggestedthatthissocietalbenefit
canbeextendedacrossthespectrumofscholarship.
Chapter15,byDanBurk,isconcernedwithintellectualpropertyinthearenaofescience.Intellectual
propertyregimesaregenerallyproblematicinthepracticeofscience:scientificresearchtypicallyassumes
practicesofopennessthatmaybehamperedorobstructedbyintellectualpropertyrights.Muchattentionhas
beenpaidtodocumentingandanalyzingtheimpactofpatentsonresearchinthebiomedicalarea,andthehistory
ofrecentmajorscientificinitiatives,suchastheHumanGenomeProject,havebeenpunctuatedbyclashesover
theproprietyandprovisionofpatentrightsintheaccumulateddata.Thesedevelopmentsareexaminedinthis
chapterandarerelatedtoinnovativeproposalssuchastheopensourcecopyleftmodel.Thismodelmaybea
valuablemechanismforpreservingsimilarvaluesinescience.Burkarguesforawarenessnotonlyofthetechnical
structure,butalsoofthesocialandcommunicativestructuresofescienceinordertoadaptlicensingsolutionsto
scholarlypractice.

Casestudies
Thefinalsectionofthebookpresentstwocasestudiesthatincludeabroadrangeofthefeaturesoferesearch,
whichcouldnoteasilybeincludedinoneoftheearliersections.Chapter16,preparedbyBridgetteWesselsand
MaxCraglia,discussesacoconstructionprojectinvolvingsocialscientistsandcomputerscientists.Participantsin
theprojectexploretheopportunitiesofferedbygridcomputerarchitectureinaddressingtherelationshipbetween
socioeconomiccharacteristics,neighborhoods,andcrimearelationshipattheforefrontofcriminologyfor
decades.Theauthorsconsiderthesignificanceofchangeinrelationtothecharacteristicsofthesocialsciencesand
thewaysscholarsmaywishtoshapethepracticeofesocialscience.
Chapter17,byCliffordTatumandMicheleLaFrance,exploresthecollaborativeprocessesusedinthe
developmentofWikipediacontent.ThroughexaminingtheconstructionofWikipediaarticlesviathelensof
establishedknowledgeconstructs,theauthorsaimtogaininsightintopracticesofcollaborativeescience.
Specifically,TatumandLaFranceexaminetheconsensusmodelofknowledgeproductionandconflictresolutionof
Wikipediaarticles.UsingatheoreticalframeworkdevelopedbyLatourandWoolgar(1979),threecomponents
emergeasvaluableintheanalysisofthearticles:construction,agonisticfield,andreification.Thesecomponents
areelaboratedandtheauthorsspeculateontransformationsofscholarlycommunicationillustratedbyWikipedia
andotherformsofWebbasedsocialmedia.

CONCLUDINGNOTE
eResearchvolume Chapter1:Jankowski
16

Endingwherethischapterbegan,thereseemstobemuchchangeafootacrossthesocialsciencesandhumanities,
buthowmuch,whereexactly,andhowlastingthesechangesmaybeareunknowns.Thecontributionstothis
booksetouttoclarifymuchofthisuncertaintyinthedisciplinesandtopicsaddressed.Theauthorsalsobeginto
identifyareasforfurtherempiricalwork,designedtounderstandthetransformationsrelatedtoeresearch
seeminglyunderway.Thisisnottheplacetorepeatthesuggestionsforfurtherinvestigationtheauthorsprovide,
butitisopportunitytomentionafewoverarchingissues.
First,twokindsofchroniclingseemtoberequiredtounderstandpossibletransformationsinscholarship.
Inthefirstplace,thekindofindepthqualitativestudyChristineHine(2008)providesforasinglediscipline,the
divisionofbiologycalledsystematics,isneededformanyotherdisciplines.Theinsightfulrichnessprovidedbysuch
ethnographiesishardtosurpassandherworkfollowsinatraditionemphasizingthiskindofinvestigation(e.g.,
Latour&Woolgar,1979).Atthesametimeandinalmostthesamebreadth,broadsurveysarerequiredthat
monitoradoption,adaption,andassessmentofspecificcomponentsoferesearch.Theempiricalworkofthe
groupattheU.C.BerkeleyCenterforStudiesinHigherEducation(Harleyetal.,2008)isillustrativeofsuchcross
disciplinary,focusedinvestigation.Ofcourse,suchsurveysshouldbeextendedbeyondeliteuniversitiesinthe
UnitedStates,andincluderesearchinstitutionssituatedinothergeographicregions.
Second,muchinsightistobegainedfromexploringthenonadoptersandlaggardsanobservation
frequentlymadeabouttheintroductionofnewmediamoregenerally(e.g.,Wyatt,2008:9).Understandingwhy
membersofsomedisciplinesrejectdistantcollaboration,datasharing,andcurrentlyfashionableWeb2.0tools
mayhelprealizethelimitationsoftherevolutioninsciencefrequentlyprophesized.
Third,andlast,itisimportanttoemphasizethecontextualizationofchangereflectedinscholarlycultures,
disciplines,andassociationsassituatedinbroadersocial,economic,andpoliticalfactorsatworkincraftingthe
courseofscienceand,moregenerally,ofscholarship.Ofcourse,globalizationisaprominentfactorin
developments,butsoarelessinternationalvisionsofnationstatesandtheirgovernmentaladministrationswith
agendasdesignedtoachievethecompetitiveandeconomicbenefitsattributedtoescience,cyberinfrastructure,
anderesearch.
ChristineBorgman(2007:xix)concludestheprefacetoScholarshipintheDigitalAgewithanenticing
invitation:Lettheconversationbegin.Sheandothershave,indeed,contributedmuchtothatconversation.The
chaptersinthisbookmaybeconsideredadditionstosuchdiscourse,butalsotoagrowingarrayofstudies
spanningthesocialsciencesandhumanitiesregardingtheemergenceoferesearchandtheongoing
transformationsofscholarlypractice.RephrasingBorgman,lettheexplorationcontinue.

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eResearchvolume Chapter1:Jankowski
Figure1.1:eResearchasInterrelatedClustersofScholarlyTasks

Networkedenvironment
(Incorporatingcomputers,oftenhighspeedandsituatedingridarchitecture)

ResearchOrganization
Management
Collaboration
Monitoring&assessment

Externalaccountability,ethical
considerations

ScholarlyCommunication
Informalcommunication
Formalcommunication,
publication
o Conferencesubmissions
o Workingpapers
o Journalarticles
o monographs

ResearchProcess
Problemformulation
Researchdesign
Datacollection&analysis,
visualization
Datapreservation

Illustrationsoferesearchtools
ResearchOrganization:email,instantmessaging,videoconferencing;
ResearchProcess:surveyinstrumentdesign;Webbaseddatacollection,processing&analysis;visual
presentation,dynamicpresentations;Webarchiving;servicesforoutsourcingdatacollection,analysis&archiving;
ScholarlyCommunication:authoring&referencing;blogconstruction,monitoring&posting;wikiconstruction