93

8 - Feminism, Globalisation, Internationalism:

The State of Play and the Direction of the Movement
(2005)


[Source: Waterman, Peter. 2005. Feminism, Globalisation, Internationalism: The State of Play
and the Direction of the Movement, www.choike.org/ documentos/feminism_ global.pdf]







Peggy Antrobus, The Global Womens Movement: Origins, Issues and Strategies. London:
Zed Books, 2004, 204 pp. Source: http://www.zedbooks.co.uk/book.asp?bookdetail=3553
94


Mrinalini Sinha, Donna Guy and Angela Woollacott (eds.), Feminisms and
Internationalism, Blackwell, Oxford and Malden (MA). 1999. 264 pp.

'Globalisation and Gender', Signs, Vol. 26, No. 4, Summer 2001. Special Issue.
Editors: Amrita Basu, Inderpal Grewal, Caren Kaplan, Liisa Malkki. Pp. 943-1314.

Peggy Antrobus, The Global Womens Movement: Origins, Issues and Strategies.
London: Zed Books, 2004, 204 pp.


Introduction

This is a review article discussing three works, presented in chronological order.
The review draws attention to a new focus in feminist writing on the international/global.
During much of the 1990s (and after?), most feminist writing on the international sphere
was about gender and international relations (Grant and Newland 1991, Sylvester
2002, Peterson 1992, Pettman 1996, Tickner 2005). Most of these were limited by the
felt need to critique the discipline of International Relations. The international womens
movement or feminist internationalism just about reached their concluding chapters or
paragraphs.

There were, of course, exceptions, as with Cynthia Enloes cross-disciplinary and
bottom-up look at international relations (Enloe 2002). Or compilations on sex workers
(such as Kempadoo and Doezema 1998), but here we are clearly debouching into
discourses of globalisation and globalised resistance. The shift of feminist interest from
international relations to globalisation does not, as we will see, necessarily mean an
equal shift from the critique of domination or dominant discourses into a focus on rights,
resistance, and redefinition (Kempadoo and Doezemas subtitle). But there is something
about globalisation discourse which either permits or provokes a focus on not only
resistance but counter-assertion (Miles 1996 may be another forerunner here).

This paper does not claim to comprehensive, or even representative, coverage of
what has been published during the last five years or so, since this is a rapidly
expanding field of feminist concern. The selection, moreover, is biased toward the
South and Development biases I hope to question. Along the way I make reference
to other work in the field. In the Conclusion I will draw attention to contributions still
awaiting political response or theoretical review.

1. Many Feminisms and one internationalism?

Let us start with the claim of the Sinha, Guy and Woollacott book, as printed on
the back cover, and illustrated by a photo of middle-class European and Asian women,
some in Asian costume, many wearing cloche hats, under palm trees, at some
conference in the late-1920s:

Feminisms and Internationalism addresses the theme of the history of internationalism in
feminist theory and praxis. It engages some of the following topics: the ways in which
internationalism' has been conceived historically within feminism and women's
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movements; the nature of and the historical shifts within imperial feminisms; changes in
the meaning of feminist internationalism both preceding and following the end of most
formal empires in the twentieth-century; the challenges to, and the reformulations of,
internationalism within feminism by women of colour and by women from colonised or
formerly colonised countries; the fragmentation of internationalism in response to a
growing emphasis on local over global context of struggle as well as on a variety of
different feminisms instead of a singular feminism; and the context for the re-emergence
of internationalism within feminisms and women's movements as a result of the new
modes of globalisation in the late twentieth-century.

This is an ambitious agenda. But so is the very title of the book, the first such of
which I am aware. We begin with quite extensive abstracts, revealing authors with roots
in Korea, Latin America, China, India, Iran and West Africa (?), as well as the more usual
North-American and West-European ones. In addition to the introduction and a set of
seven cases (the body of the book), we are offered a forum, followed by several review
essays. The authors of the seven articles are all new names to me - as are those of the
editors - which is again promising. The forum is led off by a veteran historian of Latin
American feminisms, Asuncin Lavrin. The respondents and reviewers include names
more familiar, at least to me, such as Leila Rupp, Mary J ohn, Francesca Miller, Spike
Peterson and Val Moghadam.

The editorial introduction provides further orientation to the collection. This is the
source of the blurb. I think, however, we immediately run into a problem here, because
the editors neither define nor discuss internationalism. As a matter of fact, they don't
define or discuss feminisms much either. But a useful contemporary understanding of
such can nowadays be assumed (and in any case is much discussed elsewhere in the
book). This is not the case for internationalism which, curiously for our fanatically
pluralist times, appears here in the singular.

The editors apparently looked for historical (or historians) contributions, and
seem to consider that such provide the necessary basis for further academic work on the
subject. Yet it seems to me that while we have an increasing body of historical work in
this field (see the books review articles and bibliography, as well as Waterman
1998/2001), what we lack is precisely theory. In the absence of a conceptualisation, a
model, or some organising hypothesis, we are likely to create something in which the
whole is less than the sum of the parts. The editors do argue for a certain orientation, but
this is a general and now commonplace one, seeking a mean between or beyond an
abstract universalism and a particularistic relativism. They also make much of
defamiliarising and decentering. But this implies that there exist theories, theorists,
schools, traditions or tendencies which require such. And, unfortunately, the one
classical liberal-feminist historical work worthy of this treatment (Bernard 1987) is
nowhere even referred to!

As a result of the above, the articles and reviews sections seem to be held
together more by reference to the international than to internationalism. There is,
therefore, in this collection much about feminism and (anti-)imperialism, or international
relations, and even development. The piece on Yemen makes no reference even to the
international and actually belongs to the abundant literature on feminism and
nationalism. And even if the collection is admirably sensitive to westocentrism it is not to
classocentrism. Although labour, socialism and international feminism are mentioned in
the introduction, they seem to be hidden from the following history. We are dealing here
96
almost exclusively with middle-class feminists and middle-class women (sometimes
aristocratic ones). I find this both detrimental to the project and somewhat puzzling.

My feeling is that the history of left and popular feminist internationalisms is likely
to provide more lessons for the future than that of the liberal and middle-class ones. The
latter are today abundant: the problem is precisely making them popular, radically-
democratic, egalitarian, and socially-transformatory (a nice way of redefining
socialism?). The only explanation I can come up with for this academic blindspot is the
international shift, in the 1980s-90s from a social-movement to a political-institutional
feminism, in which primary attention went to those who - in the past as in the present -
are most politically articulate and influential, who both read and write feminism. Or,
possibly, it was due to the domination of feminism in the 1990s (as much else in
academia) by discourse analysis, which focuses on meanings at the expense of doings.

This does not, of course, mean that the case studies are necessarily lacking in
either historical interest or contemporary political relevance.

Christine Ehrick's chapter on interwar (the European World Wars!) liberal
feminism in Uruguay has a fine feeling for North-South, South-South and Argentina-
Uruguay contradictions and dynamics, as well as for the class composition and
orientation of her particular movement. My feeling is that such national/regional conflicts
were inevitable in the period of national-industrial-imperial capitalism. Which does not -
as we will immediately see - mean they will disappear of their own accord during our
global-informational capitalist period.

Ping-Chun Hsiung and Yuk-Lin Renita Wong employ an understanding of
difference feminism (my phrase) to identify independent feminist/women's movement
voices in China, which are seeking their own understandings independent of both
Western feminism and the Chinese party/state. Each of these claims to speak for
Chinese women and they are (therefore?) in diametrical opposition to each other. There
is, however, a curiosity here since the authors associate their Western feminism, which
they specify quite distinctly, with the confrontational paradigm projected in the NGO
model (ix). In so far as the Western NGO model, both nationally and internationally, has
been increasingly criticised precisely for its excessive intimacy with the state/interstate
(Alvarez 1998), there seems to me a possibility that this NGO model and the Chinese
feminist strategy might meet - but at an increasingly problematic place for the
development of a global feminist movement!

Now: most of the earlier-mentioned shortcomings are more than compensated for
in the exchange between Asuncin Lavrin (on Latin America), Leila Rupp (the Centre),
Mary E. J ohn (India), Shahnaz Rouse (on Islam) and J ayne O. Ifekwunigwe (on
borderland feminisms). The 30 or so pages of discussion do not relate closely to the
contents of the book. What they do is to begin a cross-
national/regional/cultural/epistemological dialogue on women and internationalism that
has not previously existed.

Lavrin, who launches the discussion, notes the particularity of Latin American
(LA) feminism in successive periods, but she rather emphasises its specific contribution
to the international (beyond LA) than its participation in such. She also identifies a sharp
debate within LA, between what one might consider an indigenista feminist (one who
tends to fetishise the indigenous, as distinguished from those who otherwise express it)
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and those more open to the international. She also shows a welcome class sensitivity
where she states that:

It has been argued that theory is necessary to feminisms for opening
channels of understanding across national boundaries because theory
has the universal quality that makes feminism internationalYet, the
dilemma of how to make theories accessible to women without formal
education becomes more puzzling the more sophisticated the theories
becomePerhaps the most important task of international feminism is to
find that ample theoretical framework capable of embracing the largest
number of female experiences. (186)

This is, again, an important reflection on international feminism if not on feminist
internationalism. And although she echoes the common Northern feminist admiration for
the achievements of the LA and Caribbean feminist encuentros, she seems to have
missed the one in Chile, 1996, at which previously invisible or repressed tensions
exploded in not only a disruptive but also a destructive manner.

Leila Rupp has published a book on three or four major international 19th-20th
century organisations of what she herself calls elite, older, Christian women of
European origin (190). Although she might seem to be there reproducing the limitations
of the collection under consideration, her ideas on how to approach/understand feminist
internationalism are actually much broader. She argues for looking at this less in
ideological terms than in those of the senses and levels of collective self-identity: e.g.
organisational, movement and gender ones. In such terms, she suggests, what is
important about the conflict Lavrin mentions is less the ideological difference than the
fact that the parties involved are talking to each other about it. If her first remarks
suggest an interesting research methodology or project, the second might be taken as
suggesting the increasing centrality of communicational form to a contemporary
internationalism. Rupp concludes on the necessity for looking at feminisms and
internationalism (singular again!) from national, comparative and international locations.
Then, in a wisely iffy sentence, she argues optimistically for the promise of global
feminisms. If nationalism and internationalism do not have to act as polar opposites; if
we can conceptualise feminisms broadly enough to encompass a vast array of local
variations displaying multiple identities; if we work to dismantle the barriers to
participation in national and international women's movements; if we build on the basic
common denominators of women's relationship to production and reproduction, however
multifaceted in practice; then we can envisage truly global feminisms that can, in truth,
change the world (194).

Mary E. J ohn, from India begins by recognising South Asian feminist ignorance of
Latin America (an ignorance which, I can assure her, has in the past been blankly,
cheerfully or shamefacedly reciprocated). She therefore begins by informing Lavrin, or
Latin America - or in any case us - of the history of Indian feminisms. She continues with
a challenging reflection on the manner in which globalisation has undermined simple and
traditional meanings and oppositions between the local and the global, given the
extent to which globalisation, even in its early colonial manifestations, helped create the
contemporary local manifestations of Hinduism and caste. She then addresses the
problematic concepts of pluralism and diversity, emphasising (Thank Goddess!) what I
earlier suggested, that If feminism is not singular, neither is internationalism (199). She
continues with examples of existing or possible internationalisms rooted in the
98
subcontinent. And ends, again optimistically, on the possibility and necessity of more
egalitarian and dialogic Western collaborations, new perspectives on the South Asian
region and the Indian diaspora, and attempts to rethink South-South relations. (202)

Shahnaz Rouse's interrogation of religious difference from what one might call
the-point-of-view-of-internationalism has a particularly sharp cutting edge. She continues
the line traced by Leila Rupp, criticising the academic shift: 1) from a materialist to a
right of centre, culturalist, even a civilisational focus, b) to a kind of orientalism in
reverse, and c) an ontology of difference, and a new exclusiveness (206). This is
fighting talk, informed by a spirit of cosmopolitanism, egalitarianism and solidarity (i.e.
internationalism?). But if she may here be criticising her academic or ethnic sisters, she
cuts equally radically into a classist feminism. Echoing, again, earlier forum
contributions, she argues for a retreat (an advance surely?) from the politics of
difference, whether religious or secular, to a politics of experience:

What is called for is a return to the everyday as problematicThe
starting point here is not discourse but experience, fraught as that notion
may be, and implicated as it is, in representation itself (in the dual sense,
figurative and literal)Rather than posing cultural authenticity in reified,
de-historicised ways, we need to examine how capitalism creates
difference in seemingly totalising ways but which if examined more
closely reveal the close link between existing differences and power
relations: secular and religious discourses themselves being two of
these. (208)

Capitalism. Now that is a word, and world, which I would have thought relevant to
a discussion about the past, present and future of feminism and internationalism! I may
be revealing my own particular particularism if I admit that I have, here, no major
objection to it being referred to in the singular. I would only suggest two directions in
which capitalism (OK, and capitalisms) might be usefully specified if studies of women
and internationalism are to be advanced. The first, already implied, is in terms of
historical phases, particularly the threats, promises and seductions of its contemporary
globalised form. The second, hardly mentioned, never theorised and barely strategised
is that of money - simultaneously the most abstract and concrete manifestation of
capitalism. This is something which, apparently, the women internationalists - handing it
out or receiving it - still consider difficult to talk about, whether in mixed company or in
public. While their grandmothers, in the cloche hats, might have considered talking about
this simply bad taste, the granddaughters presumably see it as a discourse of vulgar
materialism. Introducing the everyday into the analysis, theorisation and strategising of
feminist internationalism may therefore be more difficult than our last author imagines. I
will return to this matter below.

2. Globalisation and gender
Weighing in at what feels like a healthy kilo, over 350 pages in length, containing
some 20 contributions, and co-edited by well-known specialists, this special issue of
Signs makes a substantial feminist contribution to a developing area of study and
struggle.
99
An Editorial sets out the intentions of Gender and Globalisation (henceforth
G&G). These are, in the first place, obviously, to fill a lacuna in critical theorising about
globalisation - its customary gender-blindness. Whilst feminist political economists and
others have recognised the significance of women's subordinate role in
internationalization/globalisation, the editors are concerned about the absence of
address to women's centrality within, agency in respect of, and social movements in
opposition to, globalisation. They are equally concerned that feminist theory should
surpass such simplistic binary oppositions (also feminist ones) as globalisation from
above/globalisation from below, global capitalism/local social movements, and northern-
imperial social movements/southern (anti-imperial?) ones:
The articles in this special issue complicate these approachesIn
particular, they address the ways in which political economy, social
movements, identity formation, and questions of agency are often
inextricable from each other. They discuss the participation of women
trying to better their conditions as crucial aspects of globalisation, thereby
contradicting the assumption that globalisation is a process imposed
solely from above by powerful states or multinational corporations. (944-
5).
The attempt to look at globalisation both as a gendered process and in a
dialectical manner is carried out through a set of articles, exchanges and book reviews.
We have a diverse series of contemporary studies, in which are considered the relation
of gender and sexuality to globalisation and nationalism, several of which reflect critically
on existing feminist and other globalisation theories. Another group of articles considers
the relationship between women's activism and globalisation, again criticising facile
assumptions concerning international solidarity. There follows a series of brief dialogues,
commentaries and roundtables on aspects of globalisation: these are as varied as: the
globalised prison industry, the international division of labour, the anti-globalisation
movement, international financial institutions, Chinese feminism, studies of the Middle
East, and women-and-globalisation studies more generally.
Whilst the collection contains a number of admirable pieces, I feel it lacks overall
impact. This may be because the Editorial actually goes further than what follows. We
are certainly presented with challenges to simplistic approaches, malestream or
feminist. And much is made of agency to the point of characterising certain collective
behaviour as agentive, an adjective - or is it an adverb? - that I won't mind never seeing
again. But the Editorial fails to prepare us for the extent to which the papers are
addressed to US academic feminist concerns and theory, which are, inevitably, a limited
part of, or angle on, our increasingly complex and globalised world disorder. Even when
we move from agency to movements, the latter turn out to be mostly Non-
Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and their international relations. I miss the Latin
American feminist demand to move de la protesta a la propuesta (from protest to
proposition). But, then, the vibrant international/ist movement and thought of and on
Latin American women and feminism is also absent (Alvarez 2000, Barrig 2001,
Mendoza 2001, Olea Maulen 1998, Sanchs 2001, Vargas 1999, 2001, 2003, as well
as Thayer below). My feeling is, then, that whilst we have a worthy supplement to other
feminist work on globalisation, we have here no noticeable advance.
100
I have other problems with the editing of the collection and writing style. I am not
accustomed to finding feminist writing lacking relevant focus or stylistic fireworks. But the
35 pages on the autobiography of a J amaican Creole woman entrepreneur and
adventurer with no anti-colonial, anti-racist, social reformist or feminist characteristics
seems entirely out of place in this collection, whatever it might tell us about the complex
interplay in the nineteenth century between gendered mobility, black diaspora identity,
colonial power, and transnational circularity (949). Elsewhere in the collection I felt
somewhat overwhelmed by a uniform US academic malestream style, in which the
personality and subject position of the author is buried under layers of formal stylistic
ritual. I do not know whether this is responsible for the considerable overlap or repetition
within and across contributions, but it has a dulling impact.
Having got this all off my chest, let me mention some pieces that impressed.
These include Suzanne Bergeron's useful overview of political-economic discourses on
globalisation; Carla Freeman's case study of Caribbean women who combine their day
jobs in the white-collar, but proletarianised and globalised data-entry industry, with
spare-time, globalised petty-trading, reveals the limits of any simple class analysis; two
pieces on transnational women's/feminist NGO networking, one on Russia, one on
South Africa, show how contradictory such relations can be; one of the dialogues,
on/against the World Trade Organisation brings us close to where - I hope - the new
wave of global feminist activity will be centred. I was, finally, fascinated by a study of the
Miss World contest in India, precisely because of its address to the novel, complex and
contradictory responses to such of women and social movements locally. I will return to
the last two items in more detail, starting with the Indian one.
Rupal Oza's 'Showcasing India: Gender, Geography, and Globalisation', is about
the protest surrounding the 1996 Miss World contest in Bangalore. There were here two
broad protest movements, a rightwing Hindu-based movement, Defending Indian Culture
From Westernization, and a leftwing socialist and/or feminist one Defending The Indian
Economy From Globalisation. Whilst there were distinct differences between the two
movements, there was a coincidence in 1) seeing representations of women's bodies as
endangering India's borders, 2) making the Indian nation and/or state the point of
positive identity, 3) failing to come to terms with women's own agency and sexuality, and
4) subordinating women and sexuality to the economy, the nation and the state. Oza
draws a conclusion of more general relevance:
The construction of resistance at any level that is predicated on
structures of oppression or suppression at other levels or is contained
through them is problematic from the start. Equally problematic are the
assumptions of political hierarchy whereby gender and sexual politics are
put on hold against the priority of local resistance to the overarching force
of globalisation. The underlying assumption here is that gender and
sexualityare not already constitutive of globalisation and of local
resistance. The political hierarchy in this context, then, is a ruse for
denying agency to gender and sexuality. These issues have been raised
in the context of the struggles for women's rights and the structural place
of the women's movement within nationalism. Therefore, conceptually
progressive politics, when framed in terms of local resistance to
globalisation yet dependent on adherence to hegemonic structural
101
positions within a 'new' patriarchy, is politically dangerous and
theoretically precarious. (1090)
Although Oza's case deals with a nationally-identified and bounded
women's/feminist protest against globalisation, it throws light on the anti-globalisation
movement worldwide. Here, too, we find leftwing movements that, because they see
globalisation in terms of 'the highest stage of imperialism', must pose against it
something like 'the highest stage of nationalism', i.e. a socialism both nation-state-based
and defined. In, however, posing the Nation against the Global, such movements not
only find themselves in uncomfortable proximity to a rightwing both hated and feared, but
are also disqualified for two essential contemporary tasks: 1) developing what has been
a traditional internationalism into a global solidarity movement and discourse (i.e. one
that, precisely, displaces the state-defined nation from the centre of politics); 2) re-
inventing the democratic nation-state in the light of the global and gender justice
movements. The international women's movements, and feminisms, proposing post-
national identities, can make a major contribution to these struggles. But do they do this,
in the case of the major international movement of our day, the 'global justice', 'anti-
corporate' or 'anti-capitalist' movement?
Kathleen Staudt, Shirin Rai and J ane Parpart's discussion suggests that women
have been marginal to this latest internationalism, and they seem to consider the anti-
globalisation movement responsible for this absence. I would consider it, rather, the
equal responsibility of the women's movements and the feminists (as with the late, light
presence of labour, and the virtual absence of African-Americans in Seattle)! It is true
that, whilst feisty women and prominent feminists have participated in, and are even
spokespeople for, the anti-globalisation movement, there has been restricted women's
movement presence or explicit feminist engagement here. I can only put this down to the
previous over-politicisation (state-centredness) of the women's movement, and to the
engagement of much of its leadership with inter/national (again: inter-state and state-
like) policy-making institutions, or their gender advisory committees. This proposition is
lent credibility by G&G and in two ways. The first is explicit, lying in the critiques of
international 'ngo-isation', the second is implicit, lying in the paucity of contributions on
actual women's/feminist movements confronting globalisation.
There is no shortage, in the real world, of such movements, nor, actually, of
feminist address to such. Two references make the point. The first is the book on
globalisation, democracy and women's movements by Catherine Eschle (2001). The
second is a paper by Millie Thayer (2001) on the relationship between popular women
activists at the global periphery and transnational feminism. Here a parenthesis may not
be out of place.
The Eschle book does not appear promising, given that its primary focus is on
democracy rather than movements and that its form is that of a critique of the literature
(already over-represented in the G&G collection). But she is concerned precisely with
the necessity and possibility of a feminist contribution to a reinvention of democracy in
the era of globalisation. And her understanding of feminism and democracy is one that is
dependent on social movements. So, after a long march through and beyond the
commonly state-centric theories of democracy, she addresses herself energetically to
'Reconstructing Global Feminism: Engendering Democracy' (Chapter 7). Here she
stresses the necessity for the women's movement to be anti-capitalist, as also to
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develop 'transversal' (horizontal, reciprocal) relations, and to democratise internally. I do
not intend to set up Eschle against G&G, in so far as she develops a note and
orientation already present within the collection. Moreover, there are limitations to both
her conceptualization and her evidence. 'Transversal' is an evocative but loose term. I
would have thought one could say more by developing the classical notion of
'international solidarity' (for my own attempt see Waterman 1998/2001: 235-8). There is
also a limitation in so far as her case studies are drawn from a secondary literature that
is often stronger in the mode of advocacy than of analysis. Although, finally, she is
concerned that the international women's movement be anti-capitalist, she hardly
exemplifies this. So it may be that my favourable comparison with G&G lies mostly in her
'movement-centredness'.
Millie Thayer's provocative title is 'Transnational Feminism: Reading J oan Scott
in the Brazilian Serto'. Her rich case study and theoretical argument runs as follows:
Fieldwork with a rural Brazilian women's movementfinds another face
of globalisation with more potentially positive effects. These activists
create meaning in a transnational web of political/cultural relations that
brings benefits as well as risks for their movement. Rural women engage
with a variety of differently located feminist actors in relations constituted
both by power and by solidarity. They defend their autonomy from the
impositions of international funders, negotiate over political resources
with urban Brazilian feminists, and appropriate and transform
transnational feminist discourses. In this process, the rural women draw
on resources of their own based on the very local-ness whose demise is
bemoaned by globalisation theorists.
Again, I do not wish to pose Thayer against G&G. Indeed, the intention of the
G&G Editorial seems to be rather well exemplified by her paper. Nor is Thayer without
her own shortcomings or lacunae. She surely misreads Manuel Castells' masterwork on
the information society, since he actually gives women's/feminist movements the space,
scope and transformatory significance he denies to workers' ones (Waterman 1999a)!
And whilst she suggests a virtuous spiral between, in this case, Northern and Southern
feminisms/women's movements, we are not shown how the Southern experience or
ideas feeds back to the Northern (or international) movement, rather than to her as a
Northern feminist academic. It is, again, the tone of the writer that is at issue here.
Gramsci would recognise the disposition of both writers towards the movement:
'scepticism of the intellect; optimism of the will'.
My final thought on G&G is that it cast its net too wide. The field - to move from
fishing to agriculture - has actually been better tilled than the Editorial suggests. See, for
example, Dickenson (1997), Harcourt (2001), Wichterlich (2000), and two review articles
(Eschle 1999 and Waterman 1999b). What is now needed may be more narrowly-
focused collections. And, of course, more women's movements making their customarily
pertinent, outrageous and utopian contributions to the major internationalist movement of
our day.
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3. A global womens movement: dawn or DAWN?

Let me start by saying that the Peggy Antrobus book is a brief and welcome
introduction to the global womens movement, that as such it fills a long-felt-want, and
that it is to be recommended to those new to, unfamiliar with, or who feel they should be
allied with, the womens movement. It would - it will - make an excellent text for those
doing womens studies, as to those doing social movement studies, whether globally or
more locally. Because of its direct treatment of the movement I am going to give it
extended attention.

Antrobus is a veteran of the movement, from the Anglophone West Indies, with
experience in government, academia, and womens NGOs. These activities have been
national, regional and in particular international/global. She has written a readable
account that manages to combine the Political, the Theoretical, the Professional and the
Personal, in a seductive narrative. She is up-front about who she is and where she
comes from, about where, when and how she became a feminist ( in 1979, at a feminist
workshop). She thus places herself on the same plane as her argument, making both
eminently open to both approval and criticism. I intend to confront these in the forceful
but constructive manner they invite and deserve. Her theoretical/conceptual propositions
are clear and a provocation to thought:

Is there a global womens movement? How can we understand such a
movement? How can it be defined, and what are its characteristics? My
conclusion is that there is a global womens movement. It is different from
other social movements and can be defined by diversity, its feminist
politics and perspectives, its global reach and its methods of organising.
(9).

This is all in Chapter 2. But such specifications continue throughout. The work
concentrates on the period covered by the major UN conferences concerning women,
starting with the Development Decade of the 1960s-70s (Chapter 3), The UN Decade for
Women, 1975-85 (Chapter 4), the global conferences of the 1990s, particularly the
World Conference on Women in 1995 (Chapter 6). However, Antrobus begins and ends
her book with referemces to the World Social Forums and Global J ustice Movement of
the 2000s (3-5, 175-6, and, implicitly, Chapter 10). Her UN-inspired chapters are
interspersed with one on the lost decade of the 1980s (Chapter 5), on movement
strategies (Chapter 7), on present and future challenges (Chapter 8) and leadership
(Chapter 9 but also Chapter 6). In the rest of this review I want to reflect on at least part
of what has been briefly mentioned above.

Reconceptualising the global womens and feminist movement

Womens movements, our author argues, are different from other movements,
but she nonetheless specifies their problems in a manner common to specialists on
social movements more generally:

The confusion and contradictionsreflect the complexity of a movement
that is caught in the tension between what is possible and what is
dreamed of, between short-term goals and long-term visions, between
expediency and risk-taking, pragmatism and surrender, between the
practical and the strategic. (11)
104

Whilst accepting the first of her binary oppositions/tensions as an inevitable part of the
international womens (or labour) movement, I would stress the second as the dynamic
and emancipatory tendency. This goes for all her binaries except that between
pragmatism and surrender, which does not seem to belong to the set.

Summarising, Antrobus considers the womens movement as political, as
recognising womens relationship to social conditions, as processal, as posed against
patriarchal privilege, as beginning where and when women recognise their separateness
and even their alienation, marginalisation, isolation or abandonment within wider
movements for social justice or transformation (14). Fair enough.

But possibly not far enough, since Nira Yuval-Davis (2004), for example,
powerfully questions the human-rights feminism that has largely conquered - and
encapsulated - the international movement over the past decade or so. And Ewa
Charkiewicz (2004a) has suggested that the corporations (often invisible within global
feminisms) and their bio-political impacts need to be the, or at least a, primary subject for
feminists. All this implies tensions within the global womens/feminist movement that are
rather more complex than our author allows for.

Antrobus also specifies certain characteristics that differentiate the womens
movement from others: the recognition of diversity, its feminist leadership (but which of
57 often-competing, sometimes-warring, feminisms?), its global reach. She distinguishes
between an international and a global movement, identifying a movement between the
one and the other during the period she covers. This is a useful distinction, since even
once-emancipatory internationalisms increasingly became internationalisms. But, for me,
a global movement means one that not merely surpasses national internationalisms but
which is holistic. And the creation of such a movement is, surely, something to be yet
constructed rather than simply asserted as existing (as if it were a simple reflex against
neo-liberal globalisation?).

So, the theoretical assertions of this book have to be seen as introductory and
partial. Necessary, perhaps, but in no way sufficient. And revealing of certain subject
positionings that the author may admit to rather than problematise.

Priorities: the South, the UN and the NGO(s)

Peggy Antrobus comes from the South, the UN and the NGO(s). These are all
obviously part of the movement but I see no good reason to privilege them to the extent
that the other parts (the North, the old East) become background, that other
spaces/places/levels (the street, the community, the workplace/union, the Web, the
culture) disappear, appear as secondary, and that the NGO appears to be the primary
form taken by the movement.

The South: I find in the index some 14 or so references to places in the South
and only 3-4 to those in the North (including the no-longer-actually-existing USSR). This
imbalance is not simply because of where the author comes from. It expresses a notion
that the global movement is led by the South. This is not an opinion that would
necessarily be shared by all her Southern sisters. Antrobus considers that the movement
has been transformed since the 1970s

105
largely through the influence of Third World feminists and women of
colour in North America(1).

If this is how she starts, then she ends with the challenges confronting

a global womens movement built through the leadership of Third World
women(185).

Perhaps a case could be made for such a vanguard role, but then only on the basis of
evidence and argument here absent. I would have thought it closer to both the reality
and the need to consider the North/South relationship a dialectical one, in which mutual
political influence and dialogue was the major force. This is to leave aside the matter of
whether, in talking of the dialectic within the movement, North and South should be
unproblematically accepted as primary categories.

The United Nations: Although the influence played by womens presence and
feminist analysis in relationship to the UN is certainly one determinant of the growth of
the womens movement, it is not the only one, or even - one hopes for the future - the
dominant one. In so far as it is or was such, then this is surely a highly problematic
influence that requires, well, problematising. Peggy Antrobus is not, of course, unaware,
of the danger represented by what I would call the inter-state sphere:

Of course there are risks. Many writers have referred to the
bureaucratisation of the movement. In a sense the movement itself
became a victim of its successful advocacy.[M]any activistshave
faced accusations of being co-opted, or having sold out on the
movement. (61-2)

Antrobus sees this, however, as a strategic problem (engaging with the state/ preserving
autonomy) rather than a theoretical one. In so far, however, as we understand an
increasingly corporatised and corporatist UN as bent on, well, incorporation, then we
need to recognise the profoundly contradictory role it plays with respect to any
emancipatory movement - of workers and indigenous peoples as well as women
(Charkiewicz 2004b). Drawing from Marxist theory on commoditisation and fetishisation,
the strategy issue can be expressed more pointedly:

Ultimately, these questions point to the problematic of organisation, of
building bridges, of establishing links, learning from mistakes, de-
fetishising our relations to the others, reaching out and being reached,
sharing resources and creating commons, reinventing local and trans-
local communities, articulating flows from movement to society [rather
than from the movement to inter/state instances. PW] and vice versa. (De
Angelis 2004:12)

Massimo De Angelis might here be expressing ideas learned, amongst others,
from feminist analysis. But there are feminists who can also learn from him about the
major problem confronting the movement.

The NGO(s): Antrobus recognises, again, the ambiguity of the non-governmental
organisation as form, and even the problem of NGO-isation (153-4). But this is again
presented as a strategy problem and is not theorised. Nor, for that matter, I think, even
106
really strategised. The strategy problem would be a matter of where, how and in what
way, the NGO form relates to the womens movement. In so far as the dominant 19
th

century form of mass mobilisation/control, the socialist/populist/nationalist political party,
is in a condition of disrepute and decline (hopefully terminal), the rise of the NGO
providing technical, intellectual and communicational expertise to and support for social
movements is to be welcomed. But, then, this would be not so much a non-
governmental organisation (dependent for its identity on that to which it is opposed) but
an anti-hegemonic instance attempting to surpass capital and state (patriarchy, racism,
war, etc), and providing support for, rather than the substitution of, recognisable social
movements. The concept of NGO-isation, or ongizacin, has been recognised in Latin
America as the major problem facing the womens movement in Latin America (Alvarez
2000). Once again the tension between management and emancipation rears its J anus
head.

Things do not get better. Peggy Antrobus is a long-standing member of DAWN
(Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era). This is one of a dozen, or a
hundred, of rather professional, socially-critical, international feminist NGOs-cum-think-
tanks. This particular NGO is honoured with some 21 references in her index, as against
27 for feminism in general! Moreover, there is no word of criticism for DAWN. Which
means that here we are into identificatory-celebratory discourse. This, as far as I am
concerned, suggests the imprisonment of DAWN within a practice common to the old
social movements (national, labour).

The global womens movement and the secret of fire

It is evident, from this, that feminism and the womens movement have, despite
significant breakthroughs, not necessarily discovered the Secret of Fire that releases the
new from the old. They may have contributed to such in dramatic and significant ways,
but they do not play globally the role of vanguard. And since such a role is anyway
increasingly regarded with an Argus eye within the new movements, this is not such a
bad thing either. Right now, and for the past five years or so, for example, the global
womens movement has needed to learn from a global justice movement that has
learned from it. Or from those parts of the movements, those theorists, who have done
so. Yet the global womens movement, and even some of the more sophisticated
feminists still have to move beyond the moment of excision from the old inter/national
left (Vargas 1992, citing Gramsci), to fully engaging with and co-creating the new global
social emancipation.

Although our author recognises, again, the way in which external funding can
blunt the political edge of the movement (155), this is hardly adequate to the case.
Foreign funding (from the books Rich, Guilty and Exhausted North to its Poor, Innocent
and Energetic South) is, at least in Latin America, the sine qua non of the movement. It
would be more helpful to recognise that we are talking of foreign-funded feminism and
then to confront the implications of this for the womens movement in not only the South
but globally (where it may be foreign in the sense of financiers and foundations with
quite other motives than emancipatory ones)!

Whilst the global womens movement is increasingly aware of neo-liberalism and
capitalist globalisation, it seems to believe that its collective subject, its theoretical
inspiration and its discourse frees itself from the political-economic determinants that
DAWN is quite ready to recognise as operating, well, globally. This and related de-
107
radicalising pressures have been recognised for one hundred years by socialist
specialists on the inter/national labour movement (Waterman and Timms 2004:182-5),
so why not by a feminist for the womens one? At the European Social Forum, London,
2004, libertarian critics of its top-down structure and commercialised processes issued
the slogan, Another World is For Sale!. A more forceful critique is therefore required
than this author gives us of managerialism and commodification within what is here
championed as an emancipatory movement. Reducing the womens movement to the
level of other social movements would also mean releasing potentials presently
imprisoned.

The masters tools and the deconstruction of the masters house

One last complaint, mentioned above, but which is much more widely spread
than in this book alone. This is the avoidance of the word capitalism even by feminists
who are or were once socialists. Capitalism does not even get an index reference in
Antrobus. Capitalists, mostly after all male, white and patriarchal, call it capitalism, and
are proud of it. So why cannot it not be so named by feminists, who could and surely
should condemn it? This cannot be solely because of their justified criticism of the
archaic political-economic determinism of patriarchal socialists. So it has to be due to
either a desire to be salonfhig (acceptable in the salons within which they have been
speaking, to the funders they are dependent upon), or a restriction of their utopia to a
kinder, gentler global capitalism, a global neo-Keynesian order for which no convincing
feminist case has been made. Fortunately, anti-capitalist feminist networks have
appeared in the new global agora, such as the Global Womens Strike highlighted by
Antrobus (193-2) and the rather more-significant World March of Women (see below and
http://www.marchemondiale.org/en/charter3.html).

On the other hand, there is a word well worth avoiding like the proverbial plague,
this being development. In so far as this actually means the development of capitalism
and/or the development of the nation-state it is a Northern, hegemonic and colonising
discourse. Its employment by such Southern activists/scholars as Peggy Antrobus (and
an endless series of womens NGOs) implies a significant limitation on attempts to
develop a meaningfully emancipatory global feminist discourse. It also reinforces a
division between the developed and developing worlds which a global feminist
discourse surely needs in the era of capitalist globalisation to surpass. As the Black
feminist activist and writer, Audre Lorde (1984), once said, The Masters Tools Will
Never Dismantle the Masters House.

New addresses, new agoras for the global womens movement

Antrobus makes generous reference to the World Social Forum and the global
justice and solidarity movement, to whose birth feminists have made a certain
contribution. But, once again, hers is not a critical treatment. By this I mean
critical/committed attention to the nature of the movement and the forum, and to the
presence of women and the role of feminists, within both (compare NextGENDERation
Network 2004). This might seem an excessive demand given the newness and the
novelty of both. DAWN, however, has not only been present within the WSF since at
least 2002 but is a member of its International Council, and its website provides access
to major feminist activities within the WSF in Mumbai, 2004
108
http://www.dawn.org.fj/global/worldsocialforum/ intfemdialogue.htm. Yet our author
mysteriously claims that

With their overwhelming crowds, simple slogans and easily understood
banners, these demonstrations and campaigns are not the spaces of
dialogue. Neither is the Forum the space for the negotiations that have to
take place with men, and some women, on issues of sexism with the
social movements. (176, as also 116-7)

Why, in the name of The Goddess, not?

The Fora seem to me the presently privileged space for such global dialogue.
And although the Feminist Dialogue at Mumbai may not have highlighted womens place
and a feminist understanding of the Forum and the new movement, there is no reason
why this should not be so raised by feminists at an event in which almost 50 percent of
the participants are women! Where else could the feminists and the womens movement
be where they will be surrounded by such a high percentage of young, ethnically-
pluralistic, democratically-inclined, activist and radical women? Negotiating across tables
or in corridors with male inter/state bureaucrats of a certain age? Finally, of course,
womens presence and feminist attitudes do not express themselves solely in verbal
dialogue but in cultural forms that the movement previously celebrated or invented. The
most memorable feminist presence at the WSFs is, therefore, probably that of the tiny
Articulacin Feminista Marcosur (see below), with its simple slogans and easily-
understood bannerstargeting fundamentalisms! But this book is itself a politics-fixated
one and gives little or no attention to either culture or to the cyberspatial communication
that is becoming both a condition for and an expression of global feminism (compare
another Zed Book Antrobus ignores, Harcourt 1999, particularly the contribution of
Agustn 1999).

Whilst Peggy Antrobus might prefer some other space (Yuval-Davis 2004 also,
but neither indicates which) for such dialogue, her position actually reveals the late, light
presence of the womens movement and feminists within the newest movement in
general and the Forum in particular. Prominent exceptions would be the World March of
Women http://www.marchemondiale.org/en/index.html and the Articulacin Feminista
Marcosur http://www.mujeresdelsur.org.uy/, neither of which is mentioned in Antrobus. It
would seem to me that the the past fixation of many feminists on Patriarchy, on the
Political, and on the UN, have blinded it toward Capitalism, Globalisation and, thus,
delayed their forceful address to what is less a New Social Movement (1960s-80s) than
a newer Global J ustice and Solidarity one (1994-?).

Evidence for this absence is provided by the regular encuentros of the Latin
American and Caribbean Feminists (also mysteriously ignored by Antrobus). As early as
1996 a discussion document dealing in part with globalisation and the global womens
movement was addressed to the Encuentro, in Cartagena, Chile (Vargas 1996). It led to
no recorded discussion, the event being dominated by a fundamentalist feminist attack
on the rest of the movement as patriarchal feminist (Waterman 1998/2001:Ch.6)! In
2002, the 9
th
Encuentro met in Costa Rica. It was addressed precisely to globalisation -
or at least to Resistencia activa frente a la globalizacin liberal. Despite this title and a
provocative if problematic discussion document (Facio 2003), the Encuentro hardly
addressed the matter. And it had nothing to say about a WSF that was due to take place
a couple of months later in the same continent! There is here clearly a danger of self-
109
referentiality, of a movemen in the direction of a self-isolating community. Here is
another case. I have suggested above that the World March of Women has been more
actively engaged (and visible) in the Forums than other feminist initiatives. Yet it has
been criticised by other feminists for attempting to hegemonise womens activities within
the European Social Forum, Paris, 2003 (NewGENDERation 2004:143). In mentioning
such cases I am clearly not proposing these as virtuous alternatives to those bodies
mentioned by Antrobus, nor even to her incrementalist orientation. The global womens
movement simply requires from its participants and its observers as much scepticism of
the intellect as optimism of the will (Gramsci again).

Literary lacunae

Whilst one cannot expect of such a short book a complete rundown of the
relevant literature, it might not be too much to ask that it show awareness of major books
or articles by compaeras who have dealt and are increasingly dealing with the
same subject. Here are some such (which may include material published after the
books deadline): Sonia Alvarez (2000), Alvarez, Faria and Nobre (2003), the classical
liberal feminist work in this area by J essie Bernard (1987), J ohanna Brenner (2003,
2004), Zillah Eisenstein (1998), Catherine Eschle (2001, 2003, and Eschle and
Stammers 2004), the Peggy Antrobus co-edited(!) special issue of Canadian Woman
Studies (2002), the Sinha, Guy and Woolacott collection (1999), Virginia Vargas (2001,
2003), Christa Wichterich (2000). For the flavour of just one of these, which does
consider both feminism and the global justice movement critically, consider this:

Conflicts and tensions around gender relations and feminist politics within the
GJ M offer hope as well as words of caution. Conflicts exist because women activists and
their organisations are serious players on the political stage, contesting male dominance
not as outsiders but from within the networks of the GJ M. Whether feminism will come to
inform the radical vision and the everyday politics of global justice activists depends on
how well the movements are able to sustain political coalitions that are participatory and
willing to engage in dialogue. Movements that make a space for the political and
strategic interventions of working class and popular feminist activists and their
organisations will constitute a powerful pole of attraction, an alternative for those [in both
movements? PW] who now believe they have no choice but to compromise with the
neoliberal order. (Brenner 2004:33)

I started by recommending this book and I still do. If the Zapatistas called for one
no and many yesses, this work contributes to both the no and the yesses. If the World
Social Forum says Another World is Possible!, then another such book on the same
subject is not only possible but necessary. There can, thanks to capitalist globalisation
and the growing movement against and beyond it, be little doubt that we will see many.

Conclusion

In the fear of having above expressed too much scepticism of the intellect, and of
making only gestures toward optimism of the will, I thought I had better make a final
check on the not-quite-ubiquitous web, seeking for feminist internationalism, global
feminism and related terms. Obviously such a search is most likely to identify work by
Anglo-Saxon academics, or others writing in English. And, indeed, this was the case.
Whilst all kinds of internationalist feminist activity might be building in the World Social
110
Forum process, I identified some significant contributions to a new understanding of
globalisation, feminism and internationalism from North America.

The first of these was a special issue, or section, of the US journal, Socialism
and Democracy, on Gender and Globalisation: Marxist-Feminist Perspectives,
http://www.sdonline.org/backissues.htm, guest-edited and introduced by Hester
Eisenstein (2004). Even where original, interesting and informative, however, the section
seems to have been motivated less by a concern to renew Marxist-Feminism in the light
of globalisation than to restate the former in the face of the latter. And even, at one point,
a concern to restate a socialist internationalism, in the face of a global solidarity
movement that relativises a state-defined-nationalism. Thus, an interesting contribution
by Tammy Findlay (2004) appears to argue that the Canadian-initiated and Canada-
based World March of Women (WMW) is a local and national movement that has some
kind of international expression or extension an argument unlikely to be welcome to
that increasingly global solidarity network itself. The problem of Finlay and of a whole
section of the Canadian left identified with progressive nationalism/internationalism, is
that it still seems to see the national and the global as separate places or levels, rather
than as an increasingly mutually-determining complex, requiring emancipatory strategies
that are simultaneously local, national, regional and global. Whilst the WMW quite
obviously has the national origins and base indicated above, I would challenge Findlay
to read this out of the Charter the latter launched late-2004. It is interesting to note,
finally, that the contribution with the most bite on gender, globalisation and the
international womens movement and the left - is the one which makes no reference to
Marxism or socialism (Barton 2004)!

The second item I identitifed appeared to my eyes (as a Liberation Marxist),
more promising, even if oriented toward womens studies rather than the womens
movement. This was a workshop, Towards a New Feminist Internationalism,
http://ws.web.arizona.edu/ conference/ workshops/1a_description.html, organised in
2002 by Miranda J oseph, Priti Ramamurthy and Alys Weinbaum.

Anyone interested in moving on from this review article could do worse than start
with these two documents. And if this seems an unconventional conclusion to this review
article, I would hope it will encourage readers to treat the piece as just one intervention
in a rapidly-developing processand dialogue?



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