EE2207 Lab Manual

P.S.R.
Engineering College, Sivakasi (EE37-Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab)

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P.S.R ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SIVAKASI 626 140
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
EE 37 ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LABORATORY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
FIRST CYCLE
S. No.

EXPERIMENT NAME Page No.
1.
Characteristics of PN Junction Diode 9
2.
Characteristics of Zener Diode 15
3.
Characteristics of CE Configuration 19
4.
Characteristics of CB Configuration 25
5.
Characteristics of Field Effect Transistor 31
6.
Characteristics of Uni Junction Transistor 35

SECOND CYCLE
7.
Characteristics of Silicon Controlled 39
Rectifier (SCR)
8.
UJT relaxation oscillator 45
9.
Characteristics Photo diode 51
10.
Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers 55
11.
Common Emitter amplifier 61
12.
RC phase shift oscillator 67

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P.S.R.Engineering College, Sivakasi (EE37-Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab)
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Resistor values - the resistor colour code
Resistance is measured in ohms. The symbol for ohm is an
omega . 1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in
k and M .
1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 .
Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands.
Each colour represents a number as shown in the table.
.

Most resistors have 4 bands:
The first band gives the first digit.
The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision)
of the resistor
This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands. So its value is
270000 = 270 k . On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is
written 270K.
Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)
The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these
small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means
0.1 and silver which means 0.01. The first and second bands represent the
digits as normal.
For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7
blue, green, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56
Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)
The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code.
Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For
example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within 10% of
390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390). A
special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%.
The Resistor
Colour Code
Colour Number
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
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STUDY OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
The cathode ray oscilloscope is a type of most versatile electronic
measuring test equipment available. It provides a visual
presentation of any waveform applied to the input terminal. That
means it allows signal voltages to be viewed, as a two-dimensional
graph in the given span of time.
The Y- axis of the graph represents voltage and X- axis represents
time.
We can measure following parameters (quantities) using the CRO:
1. DC or AC voltage (peak voltage, frequency, pulse width,
2. Time (t=1/f),
3. Phase relationship (phase difference),
4. Waveform calculation (Rise time, fall time, on time, off-time
Distortion, delay time, etc.,)
We can also measure non-electrical physical quantities like pressure,
strain, temperature, acceleration, etc., by converting into electrical
quantities using a transducer.

Major blocks:
1. Cathode ray tube (CRT)
2. Vertical amplifier
3. Horizontal amplifier
4. Sweep generator
5. Trigger circuit
6. Associated power supply..
1. The cathode ray tube is the heart of the CRO providing visual
display of an input signal waveform. The CRT is enclosed in an
evacuated glass envelope to permit the electron beam to traverse in
the tube easily. The main functional units of CRO are Electron gun
assembly Deflection plate unit & Screen.
2. Vertical Amplifier amplifies the signal at its input prior to the
signal being applied to the vertical deflection plates. It is the main
factor in determining the bandwidth and sensitivity of an
oscilloscope. Vertical sensitivity is a measure of how much the
electron beam will be deflected for a specified input signal. On the
front panel of the oscilloscope, one can see a knob attached to a
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rotary switch labeled volts/division. The rotary switch is electrically
connected to the input attenuation network. The setting of the
rotary switch indicates what amplitude signal is required to deflect
the beam vertically by one division.

3. Horizontal amplifier amplifies the signal at its input prior to the
signal being applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Under
normal mode of operation, the horizontal amplifier will amplify the
sweep generator input. When the CRO is being used in the X-Y mode,
the horizontal amplifier will amplify the signal applied to the
horizontal input terminal. Although the vertical amplifier mush be
able to faithfully reproduce low-amplitude and high frequency
signal with fast rise-time, the horizontal amplifier is only required
to provide a faithful reproduction of the sweep signal which has a
relatively high amplitude and slow rise time.
4. Sweep generator and Trigger circuit (These two units) form the
Signal Synchronization unit of the CRO. Sweep Generator develops a
voltage at the horizontal deflection plate that increase linearly
with time.
5. Associated Power Supply: The input signal may come from an
external source when the trigger selector switch is set to EXT or from
low amplitude AC voltage at line frequency. When set for INT
(internal triggering), the trigger circuit receives its inputs from the
vertical amplifier.

Major Blocks in a Practical CRT:
A CRO consists of a cathode ray tube (CRT) and additional control
knobs. The main parts of a CRT are:
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i. Electron gun assembly.
ii. Deflection plate assembly.
iii. Fluorescent screen.
Electron Gun Assembly: Cathodes, intensity grid, focus grid, and
accelerating anode together known as electron gun. The electron
gun generates a sharp beam of electrons, which are accelerated to
high velocity fired along the cathode ray tube. This focused beam of
electrons strike the fluorescent screen with sufficient energy to cause
a luminous spot (light) on the screen.
Deflection plate assembly: This part consists of two plates in which
one pair of plates is placed horizontally and other of plates is placed
vertically. The signal under test is applied to vertical deflecting
plates. The horizontal deflection plates are connected to a built-in
ramp generator, which moves the luminous spot periodically in a
horizontal direction from left to right over the screen. Horizontal
and vertical deflecting plates control the path of the electron beam.
An electric field between the first pair of plates deflects the electrons
horizontally, and an electric field between the second pair deflects
them vertically. If no deflecting fields are present, the electrons
travel in a straight line from the hole in the accelerating anode to
the center of the screen, where they produce a bright spot. In
general-purpose oscilloscopes, amplifier circuits are needed to
increase the input signal to the voltage levels required to operate the
tube because the signals measured using CRO are typically small.
There are amplifier sections for both vertical and horizontal
deflection of the beam. These two deflection plates give stationary
appearance to the waveform on the screen. CRO operates on voltage.
Since the deflection of the electron beam is directly proportional to
the deflecting voltage, the CRT may be used as a linear measuring
device. The voltage being measured is applied to the vertical plates
through an iterative network, whose propagation time corresponds
to the velocity of electrons, thereby synchronizing the voltage
applied to the vertical plate with the velocity of the beam.
Synchronization of input signal: The sweep generator produces a
saw tooth waveform, which is used to synchronize the applied
voltage to obtain a stationary applied signal. This requires that the
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time base be operated at a submultiples frequency of the signal
under measurement. If synchronization is not done, the pattern is
not stationary, but appears to drift across the screen in a random
fashion.
Internal synchronization: This trigger is obtained from the time
base generator to synchronize the signal.
External synchronization: An external trigger source can also be
used to synchronize the signal being measured.
Auto Triggering Mode: The time base used in this case in a self-
oscillating condition, i.e., it gives an output even in the absence of
any Y-input. The advantage of this mode is that the beam is visible
on the screen under all conditions, including the zero input. When
the input exceeds a certain magnitude then the internal free
running oscillator locks on to the frequency.
Control Grid Regulates the number of electrons that reach the
anode and hence the brightness of the spot on the screen. The
control grid, which has a negative potential, controls the electron
flow from the cathode and thus controls the number of electron
directed to the screen. A cathode containing an oxide coating is
heated indirectly by a filament resulting in the release of electrons
from the cathode surface. Once the electron passes the control grid,
they are focused into a tight beam and accelerated to a higher
velocity by focusing and accelerating anodes. The high velocity and
well-defined electron beam then passed through two sets of
deflection plates. An evacuated glass envelope with a phosphorescent
screen which glows visibly when struck by electron beam

OPERATION:
The four main parts of the oscilloscope CRT are designed to create
and direct an electron beam to a screen to form an image. The
oscilloscope links to a circuit that directly connects to the vertical
deflection plates while the horizontal plates have linearly
increasing charge to form a plot of the circuit voltage over time. In
an operating cycle, the heater gives electrons in the cathode enough
energy to escape. The electrons are attracted to the accelerating
anode and pulled through a control grid that regulates the number
of electrons in the beam, a focusing anode that controls the width of
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the beam, and the accelerating anode itself. The vertical and
horizontal deflection plates create electric fields that bend the beam
of electrons. The electrons finally hit the fluorescent screen, which
absorbs the energy from the electron beam and emits it in the form
of light to display an image at the end of the glass tube.

PRACTICE PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the CRO. Turn the AC-GND-DC to GND. Check if a
horizontal trace appears after the CRO warms up. Set the trace
centrally in position on the screen.
2. Become accustomed to the operation of the oscilloscope. Move the
focus, intensity, and position controls to see the effects produced.

MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY:
3. Connect the signal generator output to one vertical input of the
CRO.
4. Set the function generator in sinusoidal mode and adjust the
amplitude of the signal so that it just about fills the screen.
5. Set the signal generator dial at any particular frequency and
move the dial until you have only a few complete cycles across the
CRO face in the horizontal direction.
6. Measure the period T of the signal. To do so, measure (in divisions
& subdivisions) the horizontal distance between two successive
peaks and multiply this distance b button which is the scale of the
time axis. Record your data.
7. This gives the period T of the AC signal; its frequency is then
f = 1/T.

MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE:
8. Use the volts/div selector to convert vertical readings on the
oscilloscope into actual voltages.
9. In measuring the voltage, always measure the value from the
center of the trace to its peak. This "peak voltage" is half the peak-
to-peak voltage, which is the full height of the trace on the CRO
screen.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Forward Bias Condition Reverse Bias Condition

Diode IN4001 (0 50mA) MC Diode IN4001 (0 500A) MC
A K + - K A + -
(0-30V) +
+ RPS + - I k RPS + - I k
- (0-30V) - (0 30V) MC
(0 2V)MC

TABULATION:

Forward Bias
Sl.No
Vf (V)
If (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Reverse Bias
Sl.No
Vr (V)
Ir (A)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

V
A
V
A
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1. CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

AIM:
To draw the voltage current characteristics of PN junction
diode under forward and reverse bias condition and to determine
cut in voltage, reverse saturation current and forward dynamic
resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT TYPE RANGE
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 Diode IN 4001 1
2 Resistor 1 k 1
3 Voltmeter MC (0 2V)
(0 30V)
One from
each
4 Ammeter MC

(0 50mA)
(0 - 500A)
One from
each
5 Regulated Power Supply (0 30V) 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting wires Required

FORMULA USED:
DC (or) Static Resistance, (Rf) = Vf / If
AC (or) Dynamic Resistance, rf = Vf / If
Where,
Vf Change in Voltage in forward bias condition in Volts
If - Resulting Change in current in forward condition in
Amps

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MODEL GRAPH:

V-I characteristics of PN junction diode
V Vs I

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THEORY:
A PN junction diode conducts only in one direction. It is an
example of unilateral element. The V-I characteristics of the diode
are curve between voltage across the diode and current through the
diode. When external voltage is zero, circuit is open and the
potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the
circuit current is zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve
terminal and N type (cathode) is connected to ve terminal of the
supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is
reduced, when diode is in the forward biased condition. At some
forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and
current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The
diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing
forward voltage.
When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type
(Anode) is connected to the ve terminal of the supply voltage is
known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction
increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and
a very small current (reverse saturation current) flows in the
circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current
is due to minority charge carriers.
An ideal PN junction Diode is a two terminal polarity sensitive
device that has zero resistance (diode conducts) when it is forward
biased and infinite resistance (diode doesnt conduct) when it is
reverse biased. Due to this characteristic, the diode finds number of
applications as 1. Rectifiers in DC power supply, 2. Switch in digital
circuits, 3. Clamping, Clipping circuits network used in TV Receiver,
4. Demodulation (detector) circuits.
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PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the anode and cathode terminals of an IN4001 diode
(or equivalent silicon diode such as BY126) and test it using a
multimeter. Set up the circuit on breadboard as shown in
figure.
2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By varying the input voltage
the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted down for
forward bias condition.
the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted down for
reverse bias condition.
4. Plot all the readings curves on a single graph sheet.

RESULT:
Thus the forward and reverse V-I characteristics of a diode
were obtained and the characteristics curves were plotted.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Forward Bias Condition Reverse Bias Condition

IZ9.2 (0 50mA)MC IZ9.2 (0 50mA)MC
A K + - K A + -
+
+ RPS + - RPS + -
- (0 30V) 1 k - (0 30V) (0 10V) MC 1 k
(0 2V) MC

TABULATION:
FORWARD BIAS
Sl.No
Vf (V) If (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

V
A
V
A
REVERSE BIAS
Sl.No
Vr (V) Ir(mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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2. CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

AIM:

To obtain the forward and reverse VI characteristics of a
Zener diode and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 Zener Diode 9.2 V 1
2 Resistor 1 k 1
3 Voltmeter MC
MC
(0 2V)
(0 10V)
One from
each
4 Ammeter MC (0 50mA) 1
6 Bread Board 1

THEORY:
A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially
made to operate in the break down region. A p-n junction diode
normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse
bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting
heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage. High current
through the diode can permanently damage the device to avoid
high current, In Zener diode the reverse breakdown occurs at low
voltages, so the flow of heavy current can be avoided. Once the diode
starts conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the
terminals whatever may be the current through it, i.e., it has very
low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.
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MODEL GRAPH:

V-I characteristics of Zener diode
V Vs I

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PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the Zener diode.
in steps and the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted
down for forward bias condition.
in steps and the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted
down for reverse bias condition.
4. Plot all the readings on a single graph sheet.

RESULT:
Thus the forward and reverse V-I characteristics of the Zener
diode were obtained and the characteristics curves were plotted.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Input Characteristics

Sl.No.
V
CE1 (V) = _____ V
V
CE2 (V) =_____ V

I
B
(A) V
BE
(V) I
B
(A) V
BE
(V)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Output Characteristics

Sl.No.
I
B1 (A) = ______ A
I
B2 (A) =_____ A
I
B3 (A) =_____ A

V
CE
(V) I
C
(mA) V
CE
(V) V
CE
(V) I
C
(mA) V
CE
(V)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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3. CHARACTERISTICS OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT) IN
COMMAN EMITTER (CE) CONFIGURATION
AIM:

To obtain the input and output (V I) characteristics of a BJT
in Common Emitter Configuration and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 Bipolar Junction
Transistor
SL 100 1
2 Resistor 1 k,
33 k
One from
each
3 Voltmeter MC (0 2V)
(0 30V)
One from
each
4 Ammeter MC

(0 500A)
(0 100mA)
One from
each
6 Bread Board 1

FORMULA USED:
Input Impedance = VEB / IB
Output Admittance = IC / VCE mho
Current Gain = IC / IB
Voltage Gain = VCE / VEB

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MODELGRAPH:

Input Characteristics: Output Characteristics:
V
BE
Vs I
B
V
CE
Vs I
C

*** Note V
CE1
< V
CE2
< V
CE3
Similarly I
B1
< I
B2
< I
B3

BJT PIN DIAGRAM

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THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are
emitter, base, collector. In common emitter configuration, input
voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and output is
taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the
emitter terminal is common to both input and output. The input
characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This
is expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is
forward biased. As compared to CB arrangement IB increases less
rapidly with V
BE
. Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher
than that of CB circuit. The output characteristics are drawn
between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the collector current varies with
VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector current becomes
almost constant, and independent of V
CE
. The value of V
CE
up to which
the collector current changes with V
CE
is known as Knee voltage. The
transistor always operated in the region above Knee voltage, I
C
is
always constant and is approximately equal to I
B
.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the Emitter, Base and Collector terminals of the
transistor given and set up the circuit on breadboard as shown
in figure.
2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the output
voltage (Collector Voltage) constant and varying the input
voltage (Base Voltage) ammeter and voltmeter readings are
noted down.
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3. Wire the circuit as shown in figure.
4. By keeping the input current (Base Current) constant and
varying the output voltage (Collector Voltage) ammeter and
voltmeter readings are noted down.
5. The above procedure shall be repeated for different output
voltage and input current and readings can be taken.
6. VI characteristics curves were drawn.

RESULT:
Thus the input and output (V-I) characteristics of a transistor

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Input Characteristics

Sl.No
V
CB 1(V) =_____ V
V
CB2 (V) =______
(V)
V
BE
(V) I
B
(mA) V
BE
(V) I
B
(mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Output Characteristics

Sl.No I
E1 (mA) = _____ mA
I
E2 (mA) = ______ mA
I
E3 (mA)= _______ mA

V
CB
(V) I
C
(mA) V
CB
(V) I
C
(mA) V
CB
(V) I
C
(mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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4. CHARACTERISTICS OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT) IN
COMMAN BASE (CB) CONFIGURATION
AIM:

To obtain the input and output (V-I) characteristics of a BJT
in Common Base Configuration and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 Bipolar Junction
Transistor
SL 100 1
2 Resistor 1 k 2
3 Voltmeter MC
MC
(0 2V)
(0 30V)
1
1
6 Bread Board 1

FORMULA USED:
Input Impedance = VEB / IE
Output Admittance = IC / VCB mho
Current Gain = IC / IE
Voltage Gain = VCB / VEB

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MODEL GRAPH:

Input characteristics: output characteristics:
VEB (V) Vs IB(mA) VcB (V) Vs Ic(mA)

BJT PIN DIAGRAM

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THEORY:
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal
semiconductor device capable of amplifying an ac signal. The three
terminals are called the emitter, the base, and the collector. The
device is made up three layers of p-type and n-type semiconductor
material. BJTs consist of a thin base layer (either P- or N-type)
sandwiched between two layers of the opposite type material. Thus,
BJTs are either NPN or PNP. They are somewhat like two
interconnected, back to- back diodes, with two diode junctions.
In CB configuration, the base is common to both input (emitter)
and output (collector). For normal operation, the E-B junction is
forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased. The input
characteristics are plots of I
E
versus V
BE
at constant values of V
CB
. These
characteristics will look like diode characteristics, particularly if
the collector is shorted to the emitter and the emitter-base junction
is forward biased. The output characteristics, often called the
collector characteristics, are plots of I
C
versus V
CB
at constant values
of I
E.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the Emitter, Base and Collector terminals of the
transistor given and set up the circuit on breadboard as shown
in figure.
2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the output
voltage (Collector Voltage) constant and varying the input
voltage (Emitter Voltage) ammeter and voltmeter readings are
noted down.
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3. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the input current
(Emitter Current) constant and varying the output voltage
(Collector Voltage) ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted
down.
4. The above procedure shall be repeated for different output
voltage and readings can be taken.

RESULT:
Thus the input and output (V-I) characteristics of a transistor
in CB configuration were obtained and the characteristics curves
were plotted.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Transfer Characteristics

Sl.No
V
DS1(V) =____ (V)
V
DS2(V) = _____ (V)

V
GS
(V) I
D
(mA) V
GS
(V) I
D
(mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Drain Characteristics

Sl.No
V
GS1(V) =_____ V
V
GS2(V) =_______ V

V
DS
(V) I
D
(mA) V
DS
(V) I
D
(mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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5. CHARACTERISTICS OF FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

AIM:

To obtain the Drain and Transfer (V-I) characteristics of FET
and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 FET BFW10/11 1
2 Resistor 1 k 2
3 Voltmeter D.C (0 5V)
(0 100V)
One from
each
4 Ammeter D.C (0 50mA) 1
5 Regulated Power Supply D.C (0 30V) 2
6 Bread Board 1

THEORY:
A FET is a three terminal device, having the characteristics of
high input impedance and less noise, the Gate to Source junction of
the FET s always reverse biased. In response to small applied voltage
from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the
drain current increases linearly with V
DS
. With increase in I
D
the
ohmic voltage drop between the source and the channel region
reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the

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MODEL GRAPH:

Transfer Characteristics Drain Characteristics

V
GS
(V) Vs I
D
(mA) V
DS
(V) Vs I
D
(mA)

JFET PIN DIAGRAM

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channel begins to remain constant. The V
DS
at this instant is called
pinch of voltage. If the gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied in
the direction to provide additional reverse bias, the pinch off
voltage ill is decreased.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the terminals of the FET given and set up the circuit on
breadboard as shown in figure.
2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the Gate Source
voltage constant and varying the Drain Source voltage, I
D
readings are noted down.
3. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the Drain Source
voltage constant and varying the Gate Source voltage, I
D
readings are noted down.
4. The above procedure was repeated and ammeter and voltmeter
readings were noted.

RESULT:
Thus the Drain and Transfer (V-I) characteristics of the FET

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Sl.No
V
BB1 =
V
BB2 =
V
E
(V) I
E
(mA) V
E
(V) I
E
(mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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6. CHARACTERISTICS OF UNI JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

AIM:

To obtain the V-I characteristics of a UJT and to plot the
characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 Uni Junction Transistor 2N2646 1
2 Voltmeter MC (0 30V) 2
5 Bread Board 1

THEORY:

A Uni-Junction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic
semiconductor device that has only one junction. The UJT Uni-
Junction Transistor (UJT) has three terminals emitter (E) and two
bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of
silicon. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The UJT, is a
simple device that is essentially a bar of N type semiconductor
material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere
along its length. The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between
the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the length of the
device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode
voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion
(emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the
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UJT PIN DIAGRAM

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base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the
additional current (actually charges in the base region) causes
(conductivity modulation) which reduces the resistance of the
portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2
terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter
junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is
injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter
terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple
oscillator circuits.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the terminals of the transistor given and set up the
circuit on breadboard as shown in figure.
2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the Base Base
voltage (V
BB
) constant and varying the Emitter Voltage
ammeter readings are noted down.
3. The above procedure shall be repeated for different V
BB
and
current readings can be taken.

RESULT:
Thus the V-I characteristics of the UJT were obtained and the
characteristics curves were plotted.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Sl.No
Vf(V)
If(mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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7. CHARACTERISTICS OF SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

AIM:
To obtain the Voltage - Current characteristics of Silicon
Controlled Rectifier and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 SCR TYN616 1
2 Resistor 1 k
10 k/10 W
One from
each
3 Voltmeter D.C (0 300V) 1
4 Ammeter D.C (0 100mA) 2
6 Bread Board 1

THEORY:
A Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is 3 terminals consisting of
four semiconductor layers forming a PNPN structure. It has three PN
junctions namely J
1
, J
2
and J
3.
There are three terminals called
Anode, Cathode and the gate. The SCR resembles the diode
electrically, since it conducts the current in one direction only,
when forward biased. However the SCR is different from diode
because it has an additional gate terminal. This gate is used to
turn ON the device.

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MODEL GRAPH:
V-I Characteristics of SCR

*** VBO Break Over Voltage
IHO Holding Current
IL Latching current
IG Gate current

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When the anode is more positive with respect to the cathode,
junctions J1&J3 are forward biased and the junctions J2 is reverse
biased. Only a small leakage current flows through the device. The
device is said to be in the forward blocking state or off state or cut-
off state.

SCR Schematic Symbol SCR Block Construction

When the anode to cathode voltage is increased to break over value,
the junction J2 breaks down and device starts conducting (ON
state) the anode current must be more than the value known as
latching current in order to maintain the device in the ON state.
Once SCR starts conducting, it behaves like a conducting diode and
gate has no control over the device. The device can be turned off
only by bringing the device in below a value known as holding
current. The forward voltage drop across the device in the ON state is
around one volt. When the cathode voltage is made positive with
respect to the anode voltage junction J2 is forward biased and the
junction J1 and J3 are reversed biased. The device will be in the
reverse blocking state and only small leakage current flows through
the device. The device can be turned on at forward voltage less than
break over voltage by applying suitable gate current.
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SCR PIN DIAGRAM

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The SCR can be used in motor speed control, phase control, light-
dimming control, heater control, battery charger, inverters, static
switchers, rectifier power supplies and relay control.

PROCEDURE:
1. Identify the terminals of the SCR given and set up the circuit on
breadboard as shown in figure.
2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the Gate voltage
constant and varying the Anode and Cathode Voltage,
ammeter readings are noted down.
3. The above procedure shall be repeated for different Gate voltage
and current readings can be taken.

RESULT:
Thus the V-I characteristics of a SCR were obtained and the
characteristics curves were plotted.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR

TABULATION:

S.No. Charging Time,
tc(ms)
DisCharging Time,
td(ms)

Amplitude,Vc(V)

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8. UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR

AIM:
To construct the UJT oscillator and obtain the characteristics.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 UJT 2N2646 1
2 Resistor 15 k
220 k, 33
One from
each
3 Capacitor 0.1 F 1
4 CRO 1
5 Bread Board 1

FORMULA USED:
Charging time of capacitance,
T = RC ln [(E - E0)/E - EC]
E - Supply voltage
E0- Initial capacitor voltage
Ec-Capacitance voltage
THEORY:
The Relaxation UJT oscillator consists of UJT and a capacitor
which is charged through a RE as the supply voltage VBB is switched
ON. The voltage across the capacitor increases exponentially and
when the capacitor voltage reach the peak point voltage Vp, the UJT
starts conducting and the capacitor voltage is discharged rapidly
through EB1 and R1. After the peak point voltage of UJT is reached, it
provides negative resistance to the discharge path which is useful in
the working of the relaxation oscillator. As the capacitor voltage
reaches zero, the device then cuts off and capacitor CE starts to
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MODEL GRAPH:

UJT PIN DIAGRAM

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charge again. This cycle is repeated continuously generating a saw
tooth waveform across the capacitor.The inclusion of external
resistors R2 and R1 in series with B2 and B1 provides spike
waveforms. When the UJT fires, the sudden charge of current
through B1 causes drop across R1, which provides positive going
spikes. Also, at the time of firing, fall of VEB1 causes I2 to increase
rapidly which generates negative going spikes across R2. By
changing the values of capacitance CE or resistance RE, the frequency
of the output waveform can be changed as desired, Since these
values control the time constant RECE of the capacitor changing
circuit. The frequency of oscillation can be obtained by assuming
that the capacitor is initially uncharged.
f= 1/T = 2.3 RE CE log 10 [1/(1-)]
Where, is intrinsic stand-off ratio

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Positive biasing voltage is given to the Emitter and Base-2
terminal.
3. The charging and discharging time of capacitor is observed from
the output waveform of CRO.
4. Positive output waveform of B1 and B2 are obtained.

RESULT:
Thus the UJT relaxation oscillator circuit was constructed and
the output waveforms were noted. The corresponding graphs are
drawn.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Forward Bias Condition

TABULATION:
Forward Bias
Sl.No V (V) I (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Reverse Bias Condition

Reverse Bias
Sl.No V (V) I (A)
Dark Bright
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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9. CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO DIODE

AIM:
To obtain the forward and reverse VI characteristics of a
photo diode and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 Photo Diode 1
2 Resistor 1 k 1
3 Voltmeter D.C (0 2V)
(0 30V)
One from
each
4 Ammeter D.C (0 50mA)
(0 250A)
One from
each
6 Bread Board 1

FORMULA USED:
Variable resistance used, rR = VD / ID
THEORY:
A photo Diode is a two terminal PN junction device which
operates in a reverse bias. It has small transparent window, which
allows light to strike the PN junction. A photo diode differs from a
rectifier diode in a sense that its reverse current increases with the
light intensity at the PN junction. When there is no light incident
the reverse current is almost negligible and is called the dark
current. An increase in the amount of light energy produces an
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MODEL GRAPH:

V Vs I

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increase in the reverse current for a given value of reverse bias
voltage. This device is a low noise, high speed and operates over a
wide temperature range. The application for this photo diode
includes remote control, light curtains, data transmission and
measurement & control.

PROCEDURE:
1. Identify the terminals of the Photo Diode given and set up the
circuit on breadboard as shown in figure.
2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By varying the input
voltage, the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted down
for forward bias condition.
3. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By varying the input
voltage, the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted
down for reverse bias condition

RESULT:
Thus the forward and reverse V-I characteristics of a Photo
Diode were obtained and the characteristics curves were plotted.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Full Wave Rectifier:

Step-down Transformer
(12 0 12V)
P

D
1
D
2

230 V, 50 Hz
1 Supply

D
3
D
4
C

1 k CRO
N PY SY

TABULATION:
Input voltage (V
m
):________ Time in mS: _________

Rectifier
Without Filter With Filter (small value)_______ F With Filter( large value)_______ F
V
m
(V)
T
(mS)
V
m
(V)

V
Ripple

T (mS) V
m

(V)

V
Ripple

T (mS)
Charging Discharging Charging Discharging
Half Wave
Rectifier

Full Wave
Rectifier

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10. HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM:

To construct half wave & full wave rectifier circuits using
diodes & observe the input & output wave forms with & without
filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 Diode IN 4001 4
2 Resistor 1 k 1
3 Capacitor 100 F,33 F One from
each
4 Transformer Step-down 230 V /
(12 0 12) V

1
5 CRO with Probe 1
6 Bread Board 1

THEORY:
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
Figure shows a basic half-wave diode rectifier circuit. During
the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is forward-
biased for all instantaneous voltages greater than the diode cut-
in voltage V. Current flowing through the diode during the
positive half-cycle produces approximately a half sine wave of
voltages across the load resistor, as shown in the Figure. To simplify
our discussions, we will assume that the diode is ideal and that the

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MODEL GRAPH:

V
in
(V)
V
m

Input Voltage

0
Time

V
out
(V)
Output of Half Wave Rectifier without filter

0
Time
V
m

Output of Half Wave Rectifier with filter
V
Ripple

0

Time

V
m
Output of Full Wave Rectifier without filter

0

Time
V
m

Output of Full Wave Rectifier with filter

0
Time

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peak input voltage is always much larger than the V of the diode.
Hence, we assume that the zero of the rectified voltage coincides
with the zero of the input voltage. On the negative half-cycle of the
input voltage, the diode is reverse-biased. Ignoring the reverse
leakage current of the diode, the load current drops to zero,
resulting in zero load voltage (output voltage), as shown in
Figure. Thus, the diode circuit has rectified the input ac voltage,
converting the ac voltage to a dc voltage.

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER:
Figure shows a full-wave bridge rectifier with a load resistor
RL and an input sine wave derived from a transformer. During the
positive half-cycle of the input voltage, diodes D2 and D3 are
forward biased and diodes D1 and D4 are reverse biased.
Therefore, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative, as
shown in Figure. During the negative half-cycle, diodes D1 and D4
conduct, and again terminal A is positive and terminal B is
negative. Thus, on either half-cycle, the load voltage has the same
polarity and the load current is in the same direction, no matter
which pair of diodes is conducting. The full-wave rectified signal is
shown in Figure, with the Vo being the output voltage. Since the
area under the curve of the full-wave rectified signal is twice that
of the half-wave rectified signal, the average or dc value of the
full-wave rectified signal, Vdc, is twice that of the half-wave
rectifier.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Circuit connections were given as per the circuit diagram.
2. Input waveforms magnitude and frequency was measured
with the help of CRO.
3. Supply is switched ON and the output waveform was obtained
in the CRO.
4. Output waveforms magnitude and time period was
measured.
5. Graphs were plotted for Half wave and Full wave rectifier
outputs.

RESULT:
Thus the output of Half wave and Full wave rectifiers were
obtained and the curves were plotted.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

S.No
Frequency,
f (Hz)
With CE
Vo (V) Gain (dB)

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11. COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

AIM:
To obtain the frequency response of Common Emitter amplifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 Bipolar Junction
Transistor
BC107 1
2 Resistors 47 k,10 k,
2.2 k,820 ,
680
One
from
each
3 Capacitors 22 F, 10 F ,
15 F
One
from
each
4 AFO with probe 1
5 CRO with probe 1
7 Bread Board 1

FORMULA USED:
Gain in dB = 20 log (Vo / Vi)

THEORY:
The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency
response. The emitter lead is common to both input & output
circuits and is grounded. The Emitter-Base circuit is forward

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MODEL GRAPH:

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biased. The collector current is controlled by the Base current
rather than emitter current. The input signal is applied to base
terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across
collector terminal. A very small change in base current produces a
much larger change in collector current. When +VE half-cycle is fed
to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias of the circuit which
causes the collector current to decrease, it decreases the voltage
more VE. Thus when input cycle varies through a -VE half-cycle,
increases the forward bias of the circuit, which causes the collector
current to increases thus the output signal is common emitter
amplifier is in out of phase with the input signal. The input AC
signal is applied across the base-emitter terminals and the output
signal is taken across the collector emitter terminals. The emitter
base junction of a transistor is forward biased by the V
BB
supply. The
collector base junction is reverse biased by the V
CC
supply. Each
capacitor acts like a switch, The band width of the amplifier is
calculated from the graph using the expression,
3 dB Bandwidth, BW=f2-f1
Where,
f1 is lower cut-off frequency of CE amplifier, and
f2i s upper cut-off frequency of CE amplifier
which is open to a direct current but shorted to an alternating
current. Because of this, a blocking capacitor blocks the direct
current. This action isolates DC bias from an AC signal in the
circuit. A common emitter amplifier has the following important
characteristics
Its input resistance is in the range of 1 k to 2 k, which
is considered to be moderately low.
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BJT PIN DIAGRAM

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Its output resistance is about 50 k and is considered to
be moderately large.
It produces very large power gain and is of the order of
10000 or so
It produces phase reversal of the input signal.
The common emitter amplifier is the most widely used amplifier of
its large voltage and power gains. In addition to this, its input
and output resistances are suitable for most of the applications.

PROCEDURE:
1 Identify the Emitter, Base and Collector terminals of the
transistor given and set up the circuit on breadboard as
shown in figure.
2 Wire the circuit as shown in figure.
3 Using AFO the sinusoidal input with constant magnitude is
supplied
4 The frequency of the input increases gradually and the output
is obtained.
5 Using a CRO the output waveform is obtained.

RESULT:
Thus the Common Emitter amplifier circuit is constructed and
the amplified input signal is obtained and the graph was plotted.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Sl.No Output in volts Time, T (ms) Frequency, f (Hz)

1.

Amplitude=_____V

Theoretical output frequency :-_________Hz
Practical output frequency :-_________Hz

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12. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

AIM:
To design and set up an RC phase shift oscillator using BJT and
to observe the sinusoidal output waveform.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO.
NAME OF THE
EQUIPMENT
TYPE RANGE
QUANTITY
(NO.S)
1 Transistor BC547 1
2 Resistors 47k,
10k,2.2k,680
one from
each
3 Resistor 4.7k
3
3 Capacitors 1F,22F one from
each
4 Capacitor 0.01 F 3
5 CRO
6 RPS (0 30V) 1
7 Bread Board 1
8 Connecting wires
Required

FORMULA USED:
Output frequency,
6 2
1
RC
fo

THEORY:
An oscillator is an electronic circuit for generating an AC
signal voltage with a DC supply as the only input requirement. The
frequency of the generated signal is decided by the circuit elements
used. An oscillator requires an amplifier, a frequency selective
network and a positive feedback from the output to the input.
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MODEL GRAPH:

BJT PIN DIAGRAM

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The Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillation is A = 1 where A is
the gain of the amplifier and is the feedback factor (gain).The unity
gain means signal is in phase. ( If the signal is 180
0
out of phase and
gain will be -1). RC-Phase shift Oscillator has a CE amplifier followed
by three sections of RC phase shift feed-back Networks. The output of the
last stage is return to the input of the amplifier. The values of R and C
are chosen such that the phase shift of each RC section is 60.Thus The
RC ladder network produces a total phase shift of 180 between its
input and output voltage for the given frequency. Since CE Amplifier
produces 180 phases shift. The total phase shift from the base of the
transistor around the circuit and back to the base will be exactly 360
or 0. This satisfies the Barkhausen condition for sustaining
oscillations and total loop gain of this circuit is greater than or equal
to 1, this condition used to generate the sinusoidal oscillations.

PROCEDURE:
1. Identify the pin details of BC107 Transistor (or equivalent
silicon Transistor such as BC108/547) and test it using a
millimeter. Set up the circuit on breadboard as shown in
figure.
2. A 12V Supply Voltage is given by using Regulated power supply
and output is taken from collector of the Transistor.
3. By using CRO the output time period and voltage are noted.
4. Plot all the readings curves on a single graph sheet.

RESULT:
Thus the RC phase shift oscillator using BJT was obtained and
the output waveform was plotted.
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VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Characteristics of PN Junction Diode
1. Define depletion region of a diode?
2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a
diode?
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and
Ge diodes?
5. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is PIV?
9. What is the break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?

2. Characteristics of Zener Diode
1. What type of temp? Coefficient does the zener diode have?
2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion
width effected?
3. Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary?
4. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns?
5. Draw the zener equivalent circuit?
6. Differentiate between line regulation & load regulation?
7. In which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?
8. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be
controlled?
9. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche
breakdown has?
10. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and
avalanche breakdown diodes?

3. Characteristics of CB Configuration
1. What is the range of for the transistor?
2. Draw the input and output characteristics of the transistor in
CB configuration?
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3. Identify various regions in output characteristics?
4. What is the relation between and ?
5. What are the applications of CB configuration?
6. What are the input and output impedances of CB
configuration?
7. Define (alpha)?
8. What is EARLY effect?
9. Draw diagram of CB configuration for PNP transistor?
10. What is the power gain of CB configuration?

4. Characteristics of CE Configuration
1. What is the range of for the transistor?
2. What are the input and output impedances of CE
configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics?
4. what is the relation between and
5. Define current gain in CE configuration?
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor?
9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
10. What are the applications of CE configuration?

5. Characteristics of Field Effect Transistor
1. What are the advantages of FET?
2. Different between FET and BJT?
3. Explain different regions of V-I characteristics of FET?
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. What are the types of FET?
6. Draw the symbol of FET.
7. What are the disadvantages of FET?
8. What are the parameters of FET?
9. FET is unipolar or bipolar?
10. FET is voltage controlled or current controlled?

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6. Characteristics of Uni Junction Transistor
1. What is the symbol of UJT?
2. Draw the equivalent circuit of UJT?
3. What are the applications of UJT?
4. Formula for the intrinsic stand off ratio?
5. What does it indicates the direction of arrow in the UJT?
6. What is the difference between FET and UJT?
7. Is UJT is used an oscillator? Why?
8. What is the Resistance between B
1
and B
2
is called as?
9. What is its value of resistance between B
1
and B
2?

10.

Draw the characteristics of UJT?

7. Characteristics of Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
1. What the symbol of SCR?
2. IN which state SCR turns of conducting state to blocking
state?
3. What are the applications of SCR?
4. What is holding current?
5. What are the important types thyristors?
6. How many numbers of junctions are involved in SCR?
7. What is the function of gate in SCR?
8. When gate is open, what happens when anode voltage is
increased?
9. What is the value of forward resistance offered by SCR?
10. What is the condition for making from conducting state to
non conducting state?

8. UJT relaxation oscillator
1. What is meant by negative resistance region of UJT?
2. What is interbase resistance of UJT?
3. What waveform is generated across the capacitor in UJT
relaxation Oscillator?
4. What is UJT?
5. Explain the working of UJT relaxation oscillator
6. Explain the term peak point voltage (Vp) of a UJT
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7. Explain the term valley point voltage (Vv) of a UJT
8. What does UJT stand for? Justify the name UJT.
9. Difference between UJT and BJT
10. Draw the structure and symbol of UJT

9. Characteristics Photo diode
1. What is photo diode?
2. Define the term drift current
3. Define the term diffusion current
4. Explain the terms knee voltage and breakdown voltage w.r.t.
diodes
5. What is avalanche breakdown in PN junction diode?
6. What is depletion region?
7. What are factors decides the magnitude of photo current?
8. Difference between PN junction (ordinary) diode and photo
diode :
9. What is Dark current?
10. Applications of Photo diode :

10. Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers
1. What is the peak inverse voltage (PIV) & write its value for Half-
wave and Full-wave rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of half wave & full wave rectifier?
3. What is the rectifier?
4. What is the difference between the half wave rectifier and full
wave Rectifier?
5. What is the o/p frequency of Bridge Rectifier?
7. What is the function of the filters?
8. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?
9. What is meant by ripple and define Ripple factor?
10. What are the applications of a rectifier?

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11. COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
1. What is phase difference between input and output waveforms of
CE amplifier?
2. What type of biasing is used in the given circuit?
3. If the given transistor is replaced by a p-n-p, can we get output
or not?
4. What is effect of emitter-bypass capacitor on frequency response?
5. What is the effect of coupling capacitor?
6. What is region of the transistor so that it is operated as an
amplifier?
7. How does transistor acts as an amplifier?
8. Draw the h-parameter model of CE amplifier?
9. What type of transistor configuration is used in intermediate
stages of a multistage amplifier?
10. What is Early effect?

12. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
1. What are the conditions of oscillations?
2. Give the formula for frequency of oscillations?
3. What is the total phase shift produce by the RC ladder network?
4. Whether the oscillator is positive feedback or negative feedback?
5. What are the types of oscillators?
6. What is the gain of RC phase shift oscillator?
7. What is the difference between damped oscillations undamped
oscillations?
8. What are the applications of RC oscillations?
9. How many resistors and capacitors are used in RC phase shift
network
10.How the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied in RC phase shift
oscillator

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Engineering College, Sivakasi (EE37-Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab)

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