(2) Pier Shape.

— Unlike for spillway and outlet works intake with well-curved

(rounded) Pier shape

a. Detail A.

Detail A

b. Plan.

Figure 1-72. -- Intake pier noses.

upstream pier noses, the shape of the power intake noses is incised by the
trashrack slots (fig. 1-72). To overcome the disruption in the pier shape by the
trashracks, the trashrack bars that lie within the pier limits are located and slanted
such that they are continuous with the pier face through the trashracks.

To obtain the desired flow distribution to the stay ring, the downstream noses of the
intake piers are asymmetrical (fig. 1-72). The noses themselves are cylindrical with a
minimum radius of 12 inches (30 cm) for structural reasons to avoid stress
concentrations.

On the side of the main spiral entrance (either left or right) the 12-inch radius in most
cases is tangent to a straight pier face. The other side of the pier curves towards the
pier nose to guide the flow into the spiral.
 E. SURFACE POWERHOUSE SUBSTRUCTURE
Substructure The substructure of surface (type A) powerhouses (all six
subtypes illustrated in subsection B.1), basically comprises the part of the
structure that lies below the turbine floor and the lowest floors of the sub-bays, i.e.,
the structure below the top of the water conduit roof line

For powerhouses with vertical axis units, the substructure houses the draft tube
elbow, the draft tube structure and the semi-spiral or spiral case, whichever is used.

Figure 1-73.— Staning, Enns, Austria. Units: 3@ 11 MW; Hmax= 14 m (45.9 ft).
(Ennskraftwerke, 1946).

For horizontal axis units, part of the inlet and the draft tube are housed in the
substructure.

Figure 1-74. — Pierre-Benite, Rhone, France. Units: 4@ 20 MW; H= 7.95 m (26.1 ft).
(Compagnie Nationale Du Rhone, 1963).
Integral intakes for vertical axis units and intakes for horizontal axis units form, with
the substructure, the structure that retains the reservoir. The hydrostatic, plus seismic
loads if applicable, are transmitted through intake walls and piers, and draft tube
walls and piers, into the continuous intake and draft tube foundation slab and,
through it, into the foundation.

Thus the intake and draft tube walls and piers are the principal buttresses that resist
the lateral and vertical loads and carry them into the foundation.

1. Powerhouses on Soft Foundations

2. General. — The substructures on soft foundations, such as sand, gravel,
various moraine

a. Powerhouses on soft foundations deposits, or soft rock, must be designed for

low allowable foundation pressures to control differential settlements (figs. 1-
4, 1-10, and 1-21). Consequently, the foundation slabs should be thick
enough to provide the necessary stiffness for acceptable load distribution. The
structure should be proportioned to obtain foundation pressures as uniform as
possible.

b. Intake and Draft Tube Foundation Slab. — The intake and draft tube foundation
slabs for the Sam Rayburn plant (fig. 1-4) were for instance, 13 and 9 feet (5.8 and
2.7 m) thick, respectively, and heavily reinforced. During conceptual studies, the
above aspects should be recognized to preclude substantial changes in excavation
and concrete quantities when final design is made.

(1) Preliminary Slab Foundation Thicknesses. — Preliminary slab thicknesses

can be quickly determined based on rough stability calculations. Approximate shear
and moment depth requirements should be assessed for the foundation slabs at
the wall and pier faces (based on conservative shear strength or design stress
assumptions).

(2) Reinforcement Layers. — For moment requirements it is not considered

advisable, in Reinforcement

interest of acceptable concrete placement, to use more than three layers of

reinforcement.

layers For the same reasons, bar spacing should not be less than 8 inches
(20 cm) o.c. To avoid surprises, these requirements should be assessed during
conceptual studies.

2. Powerhouses on Competent Rock Foundations

Powerhouses

When powerhouses are founded on competent rock, as most powerhouses are, the
loads are transmitted to the foundations through the rigid walls and piers of the
intake, where such are integral with the powerhouse, and the draft tube piers on
competent rock foundations

a. Intake Foundation Slabs. — The intake foundation slabs must be thick enough
to resist uplift pressures that vary between the reservoir and tailwater pressures, with
appropriate reductions when drains are provided as discussed elsewhere in the
Guidelines.

Depending on the head, the intake foundation slab thickness can vary from 4 to 20
feet (1.2 to 6 m), or even more. Therefore, the thickness requirements should be
quickly checked as briefly outlined for slabs on soft foundations.

Draft Tube Elbow Encasement. — The draft tube elbow encasement should be of
conservative concrete thicknesses to receive the thrust acting through the stay ring.

Draft tube elbow encasement

At least 3 feet (0.9 m), better, perhaps 4 feet (1.2 m) clearance is needed around
the draft tube steel liner for erection of same. The surrounding space is backfilled
after erection of the liner as second-stage concrete.

The first stage concrete should not be less than 3 feet thick at the narrowest
section to pro-vide sufficient space for reinforcement and ease in concrete
placement.

Thus, the total minimum elbow concrete thickness adds to about 5 feet (1.5 m) for
structures of medium size founded on competent rock.

The draft tube elbow foundation thickness is greatly affected by the

configuration and thickness of the intake foundation slab (figs. 1-4 and 1-8).

Unwatering

c. Unwatering Pipe Embedment. — At the downstream end of the draft tube elbow,
the pipe embed -foundation slab is usually thickened to provide for embedment of the
draft tube unwatering pipes. These connect to each draft tube and run under
the draft tubes either to the unwatering sump located, generally, in the erection
bay, or also between units in multi-unit powerhouses.

ment.

The size of the unwatering pipes, depending on the draft tube volume, may vary
between 12 to 18 inches. With a clearance of at least one pipe size diameter
provided at the top and bottom for embedment, the minimum slab thickness may vary
between 3 feet, for smaller powerhouses, to 6 feet or more, for medium and larger
powerhouses.

Structural requirements to resist uplift loads may require thicknesses larger than
indicated above, in the order of 10 to 12 feet (3.0 to 3.6 m).

The powerhouses of the La Grande complex of James Bay, Quebec, do not haveFoundati
embedded drains for complete unwatering of the draft tubes. Instead, a drainon slab
outlines
header below the draft tube access gallery dewaters the draft tubes below the
access opening. Portable pumps are used for complete unwatering [Ludwig and
Olive, 1980].

d. Draft Tube Foundation Slabs. — In the draft tube area, where the draft tube walls,
and intermediate piers for larger draft tubes, transfer the load to the foundation, the
draft tube floors can be rather thin and need to resist only uplift pressures from
tailwater.

Design for full uplift pressures is required only when the rock is very jointed and
highly permeable and cannot be improved with consolidation grouting.

Draft tube slabs on rock foundations that are reasonably watertight (no open joints
visible on the excavation surface or with joints that can be sealed) can be
provided with weep holes to relieve pressures.

Weep boles The weepholes are spaced approximately 8 to 10 feet on centers, and
are drilled 2 to 5 feet (0.6 to 1.5 m) or more into rock. Assuming that 50 percent of the
weepholes eventually clog, the draft tube foundation slabs can be designed for, say,
50 percent of the actual uplift pressures.

On soft rocks with higher compressibility, it is assumed that foundation pressures

act also against the draft tube floor and the floor is designed accordingly.
For conceptual studies, it is recommended to check draft tube slab thicknesses for
the latter approach which will assure conservative excavation and concrete
quantities. Design refinements, that reduce quantities, can be attempted during the
final design stage if contractual provisions allow for such changes without price
increase.

For initial layouts, draft tube slab thickness can be assumed about 4 to 6 feet thick
and then quickly checked for shear and moment requirements.

Moment requirement check for a moment of 0.1w!2, will suffice for such purposes.

Heavier foundation slabs may be required if a powerhouse, especially a semi-indoor

type, is designed for high-flood tailwater levels. It should, however, be kept in
mind that deeper foundation slabs require deeper excavations and also result in
higher uplift pressures along the foundation contact area.

Heavier thicknesses may also be required if the draft tubes extend appreciably
downstream beyond the draft tube piers and resist foundation pressures as
cantilevers. Cantilever type designs should be avoided. Instead, draft tube piers
should be extended to brace the draft tube extensions.

3. Foundation Slab Outlines

It is recommended that the foundation slab contact area with the foundation be
developed as simple and with as few break points in foundation planes as possible.
The more complicated the excavation is, the more it costs. Also, reinforcement
becomes more complicated requiring additional lap lengths at each break point.

Any deepened "cutoff' keys (figs. 1-2, 1-9, 1-10, 1-13, and 1-15) at the upstream
ends of integral intakes foundations and draft tube outlets should, preferably, be
avoided. The following disadvantages result with provision of such keys:

• Disturbance of good rock by blasting resulting in a more effective seepage path,

i.e. the opposite effect is achieved

• Complication of excavation at premium cost

• Complication of reinforcement resulting in higher cost

If seepage "cutoffs" are needed at the upstream and downstream ends of the
structure, other, more effective means can be utilized depending on the type of
foundation material:

• Steel sheet piles where they can be applied

• Consolidation grouting

• Concrete aprons with sealed joints at the structure

• Impermeable clay blankets

Grouting and a.

Grouting and Drainage Galleries.

— If cut-off grouting and drain curtains are needed then the upstream end of the
intake foundation slab

Drainage for an integral intake powerhouse, m a

galleries have to be deepened to include a grouting/drainage gallery (fig. 1-36).

The grouting gallery size and location with respect to the upstream face of the
foundation slab should be as indicated below:

Figure 1-75. — Grouting and drainage gallery location.

b = Gallery width, should at least 5 feet which has proved to be adequate for
numerous foundation grouting galleries in concrete dams.

h = Gallery height, 8 feet minimum.

t = Gallery clearance with respect to surfaces exposed to reservoir. USBR

recommends that the distance be not less than 0.05H, where H is the reservoir head
at the gallery level, or not be less than 5 feet. These minimum requirements should
he confirmed by check for shear requirements at the gallery roof and floor.

d = Thickness of gallery floor slab when in contact with foundation. This thickness
can be somewhat less than the clearance, t, because there is no direct exposure to
the reservoir in case of cracking. A minimum thickness of 3 feet is recommended,
 Intake walls
and piers

however, the actual requirements to resist actual uplift and grouting pressures shall
be determined.

Walls and4. Walls and Piers of Integral Intakes and Draft Tubes piers

Intermediate piers are provided for structural reasons when the intake and draft tube
width become too wide to:

• Be closed off by a single gate •

• Support the concrete gravity weights at and above the

intake and draft tube roof level

• Resist the reservoir and tailwater loads and to deliver them

to the foundation

a. Integral Intake Walls and Piers. — Except for horizontal axis unit intakes and
integral intakes for small power plants, usually integral intakes are designed with at
least two gate openings and one central intermediate picr. This provision is made for
two reasons:

• To provide needed buttress effect against the reservoir pressures

• To keep the service pier widths, and thus the water loads acting on the Intermediate
peer
gates and their hoists to a minimum so that a fast gate closure is ensured

The integral intake acts as the dam. It resists full reservoir pressures when the
gates are closed. The intake walls and intermediate piers must be designed
accordingly to resist all the imposed loads from the reservoir.

Because the main purpose for the intake is to convey water from the reservoir to
the turbines, the hydraulic requirements dictate the width of the water passages.
The thicknesses of the intake walls and piers are governed by structural
requirements imposed by the need to contain the flow and the resulting hydrostatic
effects within the water passages.

By necessity, the design of the intake walls and piers shall be conservative to limit
deformations and cracking. However, overly conservative designs will result in
excessive widths of the unit monoliths, with the resulting cost increases, especially
for multi-unit powerhouse.

For free-standing walls (not placed against concrete and anchored thereto) the
thicknesses may range between 4 feet and more than 10 feet depending on the
head. For most cases a thickness in the range between 5 and 8 feet will suffice.
The thickness of the intermediate piers will be somewhat less than that for the
walls, except when minimum pier thickness provisions, as discussed for draft tubes
in subsection D.2.e, govern to satisfy the depths requirements for gate slots and
minimum concrete thickness required between them.

Thus, minimum thickness for intermediate piers will be about 6 feet 8 inches
(see fig. 1-64) unless the depth of the gate slots can be less than 20 inches as
assumed in the referenced figure.

b. Intermediate Pier Downstream Nose Location. — The length of the intake

intermediate piers is dictated both by structural and hydraulic requirements.

Structurally, it is desirable to carry the intermediate pier downstream as far as

possible to provide all available support for the intake roof and the walls above. With
reference to figures 1-1, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-7, and 1-14, the downstream nose
preferably should extend far enough downstream to support the headwall of the
powerhouse that is exposed to the reservoir.

It is true that for supporting the gravity loads such watts can easily span between the
intake watts as deep beams, but it is also very desirable to obtain for the entire
structure as much rigidity as possible against the reservoir pressures.

The above structural considerations are, however, preceded somewhat by hydraulic

considerations in that the intermediate pier must be terminated at some distance
upstream from the stay ring.

The location of the downstream nose of the piers (if more than one) shall be
selected in such a way that the intermediate piers do not interfere with uniform
distribution of the flow around the stay ring. Moreover, the downstream noses of the
piers shall be arranged and shaped so that they serve as guides for uniform flow
distribution around the stay ring. Because of the foregoing requirements, if two
intermediate piers are provided, their noses may be slightly differently shaped and
may not be at the same location from unit center line. There are exceptions to this
simple arrangement in that some plants have very intricate intermediate pier
arrangements to obtain the desired flow distribution, e.g. Bonneville, Columbia River
[Mosonyi, 1957].

Since, generally, the turbine designers (manufacturers) are responsible for

determination of the spiral case inlet geometry, they will also determine the pier nose
location. For preliminary layouts, however, it can be assumed that the pier noses are
located as indicated on figure 1-76 based on the expressions for the dimensions
given.

For the purpose of preliminary powerhouse layouts, the following information is

given from publications by de Siervo and de Leva [1976 and 1977] for the outlines of
spiral cases and draft tubes of Kaplan and Francis units, and by de Siervo and
Lugaresi [1978] for the casings and spiral cases of Pelton units. In addition to the
expressions given here, the referenced publications provide experience curves
plotted on the basis of statistical information obtained from a great number of plants
investigated.

Kaplan units
 Figure 1-76. -- Kaplan unit spiral cases.
[de Siervo and de Leva, 1977/1978].

Runner size:

Runner size

Dm= 84.5 ku(H„)°.5/n ku= 0.79 + 1.61 x 10-3n,

Dm/DM = 0.25 + 94.64/n5; Hm/Dm = 6.94ns-0.403

HilD„i= 0.38 + 5.17 x 10-5n,

Semi-spiral case dimensions:

Semi-spiral case

Inlet velocity: V2= 2.44 - 1.19 x 10-3ns

Dimensions (DM):

B2 = 1/(0.76 + 8.92 x 10-5ns) C2 = l/(0.55 + 1.48 x 10-5ns)

D2 = 1.58 - 9.05 x 10-5ns E2 = 1.48 - 2.11 x 10-5ns

F2 = 1.62 - 3.18 x 10-5n G2 = l.36 + 7.79/n,

H2= 1.19 + 4.69/n, /2 = 0.44 - 21, 47/ns

L2= 1.44 + 105.29/ns /M2 = 1.03 + 136.28/n,

Steel spiral case dimensions:

Steel spiral case

Inlet velocity: V1= 3.17 + 759.21/ns

Dimensions (DM):

A1 = 0.40n50.20 B1 = 1.26 + 3.79 x 10-4ns

C1= 1.46 + 3.24 x 10-4ns D1= 1.59 + 5.74 X 104ns

El = 1.21 + 2.71 x 10-4ns F1= 1.45 + 72.17/n,

G1 = 1.29 + 4.63/ns H1= l.13 + 31.86/n,

I1 = 0.45 - 31.80/n, L1=0.74 + 8.7 x 10-4ns

M1 = 1/(2.06 - 1.20 X 10-5ns)

Based on the above, concrete semi-spiral case width = 3.04 DM, and steel spiral
case width = 2.76 DM.

Spiral case width

To enable design of concrete spiral cases for heads between 30 and 40 meters (100
and 130 ft), their width should be reduced below the above value. This is possible
without sacrificing turbine efficiency.

Figure 1-77. — Kaplan unit wheel

dimensions.
[de Siervo and de Leva, 1977/1978].

elides centerlines
 Figure 1-78. — Kaplan unit draft tube dimensions.
[de Siervo and de Leva, 1977/1978].

Draft tube dimensions:

Inlet velocity: V3 = 8.42+250.25/n,

Dimensions (Dm):

Ht= 0.24 + 7.82 x 10-5ns N = 2.00 – 2.14 x 10-6n,

O = 1.40 – 1.65 x 10-5n, I" = 1.26 – 16.35/n,

Q= 0.66– 18.40/n, R= 1.25 – 7.98 x 10-5n,

S =4.26 + 201.51/n, T= 1.20 + 5.12 x 10-4ns

Z = 2.58 + 102.66/n,

(2) Francis Units

 Figure 1-79. — Francis units runner and spiral case outlines.
[de Siervo and de Leva, 1976].

Runner size:

D3 = 84.5ku(H n) " I n k = O 31 + 2 5 x 10-3n

u–• - s

D1/D3 = 0.4 + 94.5/n, D2/D- = 3 1/(0.96 + 0.00038n5)

o oc)I4

Hi/D3 =0:94 + 0.000025ns H2ID3= 0.05 + 42/ns for 50 <n, <110

H2/D3 = 1/(3.16 – 0.0013ns) for 110 <ns <350

Spiral case dimensions:

Inlet velocity: V1= 844 n5-144

Dimensions (D3):

A = 1.2 – 19.56/ns B = 1.1 + 54.8/ns

C = 1.32 + 49.25/ns D = 1.50 + 48.8/ns

E = 0.98 + 63.60/ns F = 1.0 + 131.4/ns

G = 0.89 + 96.5/ns H = 0.79 + 81.75In3

I = 0.1 + 0.00065ns L = 0.88 + 0.00049ns M = 0.60 +

0.000015ns

Draft tube dimensions:

 Figure 1-80. — Francis units draft tube dimensions.
de Siervo and de Leva, 1976].

Inlet velocity: V2 = 574 + 248/n,

Dimensions (D3):

N = 1.54 + 203.5/n, O = 0.83 + 140.7/n,

p = 1.37 – 0.00056n, Q - 0.58+22.6/n,

R = 1.6 – 0.0013/ns S = ns/(-9.28 + 0.25ns)

T = 1.50 + 0.00019/n, U = 0.51 – 0.0007n,

V = 1.10 + 53.7/n, Z = 2.63 + 33.8/n,

(3) Pelton Units:

Casing dimensions:

L = 0.78 + 2.06D3 G = 0.196 + 0.376D3

F= 1.09 + 0.71L H = 0.62 + 0.513L

I = 1.28 + 0.37L

Spiral case dimensions:

Inlet velocity: V = 0.82 + 0.358 Hn

B = 0.595 + 0.694L C = 0.362 + 0.68L

 %dm% beyond per nose Nen
Sachen beyond per nose
Ron a atoe leve e uunernue
maintaining Ifloor Non e/ 44411
moretertma
duo wr.kar

—7 Strocturol 1 SIncford
reourtmen r e q u e m o * nvy
te alter
rnoT ; rs. per endtlf
alter
5
crd ~ore •• ond lbenrket
varan enernt
1 r ___

13

PROJECTED PLAN PROJECTED PLAN

D Dmtributor

Turbe* runrer Ascocrot

Chstrt►etorChstrt►etor

1 --

Turbe* nene

TerMote
Orer Lent 1JIyok One tref fulliote
–
Mournorn Vox I
al
of streombe0 ersombeet
(Ponme,
I
_ –
done
– –
135 --•-
5.150
f 5.
"" ' J d
h
3 E Cmin
ta ad usti
T DOUBLE PIER Devanes( 10
°d'usted SINGLE PIER
lo red lomee dele DRAFT TU BE IECTION DRAFT TUBE
O, • 7 rilz.131.404 504e b Met karest
(0.3m)
arde fest
D, • 4 To 7 IT 11.02TO
AD ~PM aroccenened All dminucres proporfitred b 15, 0.131)

Socnon beycndlobeS,
"tont of rod moy Pus o
anwonuol fkor mor* of 1, 1dole
CONICAL TUSE PROPONTIONS
moustsenino
orees
NmA:r =0.219 + R.. th :1 r 4.5 Di
30 ft.M1envs) R, Vel. -7.5 ft/e12-3 Wel
•

L ad R, may vary as required by

070L E ony :medie insfollotion.
Datntepter

= 0.43 + Turbina
To•leroter
~net ore tont fv11-9:44
0.70L Siseo/roe
–1---

7_5
R Bey044 Mes p0411 pass044 may boye
A
ELE ~me Pope of 0 mune" of 0:1

PROJECTED PLAN

Dntnbuter
Figure 1-81. —Draft° tube dimensions.
Tonina rumor deseMeso
[USBR, 1976: fig.
E 181. Turbe» temer Pudores.
...y–Cone 'denme( fo permt ~ A n d ID ft .
la Srn eubenereeme 10 10 15
and odiuttnent to
'13; ando ' For 111 dpreet
MI 'nade hev•
concrete tornera of
of 0.5 0, yodo». follete
greltmmore layouts I •••! 2
I •
y
=1 rollvater
on tu surf Dee sell
opproach silbe len dna ohnosphere.
ene unff folLoote

Loe peent CONICAL DRAFT TUSE

1" AA
OECTION D, . ente 444104 LISO 14 pu r a Tule

All Almena ion[ d 4 1 1 ~ 11[OVIRE1 EXCESO tXC•Y•TICSII

% !"11, 11-4r, 1:, tuba.

hratim (and lo R 507 D. • •rfle.ttellOR LESO.
135
Montee tol_____________1.00
tem tert Icatrerf .tole feo-1(03m) SEC CONE ANO ELBOW
T ION AR órneUSCOS :report DRAFT TUSE
once to 0, •
2T04FTI0 SI 5LLL. I -11/ • MI 1I1CV (4 -10.54) 11✓1054) 11✓10.-4.3 1 - 11-75 los-D-rIs
 Figure 1-82. — Pelton unit casing dimensions.
[de Siervo and Lugaresi, 1978].

Figure 1-83. — Pelton unit spiral case dimensions.

[de Siervo and Lugaresi, 1978].

Draft tube

c. Draft Tube Outline — Walls and Piers. — Preliminary draft tube outlines can be
deter-
walls and mined from the information given on figures 1-78 and 1-80 for Kaplan and
Francis units, piers respectively. The information presented is helpful to establish the
overall draft tube dimensions, which is all that is needed for conceptual studies.

Detailed dimensions that can be used for final designs for the draft tube geometry are
supplied by the turbine manufactured.

The draft tube floor can be sloped upward as much as 4 horizontal to 1 vertical for
economy in excavation.

The draft tube walls and piers perform somewhat similar functions to their intake
counterparts except to a lesser degree as far as hydrostatic thrust is concerned.

The draft tube walls and piers can be envisioned as extensions of the intake walls
and piers and, as such, they are involved to carry the reservoir pressure
overturning (lateral) effects into the foundation. They resist higher bearing
pressure intensities than the intake walls and piers because of the higher
foundation pressures under the draft tube.

Also, the draft tube piers and walls act as counterforts to resist lateral tailwater
pressures against the downstream wall and the uplift effects. The upstream areas
of the draft tube walls and piers receive substantial gravity loads from the
substructure and the superstructure above.

The need for intermediate piers will be governed by the overall width requirements for
the draft tubes, which is discussed under section D. Large, slow-speed units require
wider draft tubes with at least one or, in many cases, two intermediate piers.

The number of intermediate piers is governed mostly by structural requirements

discussed above and less for reasons to limit the gate width as is the case for
intakes. The draft tubes are not closed under operating conditions and their gates
serve only as closure bulkheads for inspection and maintenance.

For structural reasons, it is preferable to locate the upstream noses of the piers
as far upstream as possible, preferably, reaching under the downstream wall of
the generating bay. However, turbine design dictates that, for best flow conditions,
the pier noses be located approximately 1.35D (D = turbine discharge opening
diameter) downstream of the unit centerline, as indicated on figure 1-81. This should
be checked against the information on figure 1-78.

Semi-spiral case 5. Semi-Spiral Case

The term "semi-spiral" denotes an incomplete spiral when compared with a steel
spiral casing with a nose angle of approximately 320° to 340°. The angle for the nose
or baffle vane (the last stay vane in the semi-spiral) of the semi-spiral is
approximately + 180° depending on the design by the turbine manufacturer (fig. 1-
76).

The semi-spiral case is formed in concrete with varying cross-sections around the
stay ring (fig 1-76a). Preliminary information can be quickly obtained from [de Siervo
and de Leva, 1977/1978].

The walls of the semi-spiral cases are stressed in hoop tension in a horizontal plane
and as vertical wall sections spanning between the floor and roof. They must be
sufficiently rigid to control deformations and related cracking and must be designed
to be watertight. Low water content in the concrete mix and precooled aggregate for
concrete placement lead to good results. Reinforcement requirements should be
checked for acceptable crack widths which, preferably, should not exceed 0.008 inch
(0.2 mm).

Designs with concrete semi-spiral cases are feasible for heads up to about 130 feet
(40 m).

It is advisable to make the semi-spiral cases as narrow as feasible hydraulically to

reduce not only the overall length of the powerhouse but also, especially for
the upper head ranges, to reduce the hydrostatic pressures on the roof and the
corresponding reactions acting as tension forces on the walls. For this latter reason,
the upper and lower cones, which support the stay ring, should be made as wide as
hydraulically feasible at their contact with the roof.

According to Mosonyi [1957], the semi-spiral case width varies between 2.7 and
3.5D where D is turbine discharge opening. This variation in width is related to
the specific speed of the turbine as given by the preceding expressions by de Siervo
and de Leva. The lower values of the above coefficients should be used for the
higher head ranges for reasons explained above. An ongoing study for a plant
with 180-MW units to be operated under a 36-meter (118-ft) head and a semi-
spiral case width of 2, 750 feet has been confirmed by manufacturers.

According to the USBR, spiral case inlet ama should be checked so that the inlet
velocities do not exceed 0.14(2gh)0•5. More recent information is given in the
preceding expressions of de Siervo and de Leva.
 a. Semi-Spiral Case Roof. — The roof of the semi-spiral case spans between the
stay ring cones and the outside walls. On the upstream side, at the hila, the roof
gains support also from the upstream head wall or upstream wall of the generating
bay (fig. 1-84).

The semi-spiral case roof protects the interior of the powerhouse against the water
in the spiral case acting on the underside of the roof under reservoir pressures.

The top of the roof forms the turbine floor, which may contain blocked-out channels
for mechanical piping, electrical cables and conduits. There are also large
blockouts for the servo motors.

The blockouts reduce the effective structural depth of the otherwise massive roof slab
and, therefore, when the slab thickness is estimated to determine the turbine floor
level, an additional thickness of at least 12 inches should be added to the structural
slab depth that otherwise would be considered adequate.

Steel
spiral case

Figure 1-84. — Semi-spiral case roof support.

Minimum semi-spiral case roof thicknesses are in the range of about 5 feet or even
somewhat less.

6. Steel Spiral Case

For heads over about 130 feet (40 m), when integral intakes and semi-spiral cases
become structurally infeasible, steel spiral cases are used.
 Concrete
cover of
spiral case

Steel spiral cases may be connected to reinforced concrete conduits (fig.

1-25) in the lower head ranges, or to steel penstocks when concrete conduits
cannot be designed economically for the reservoir pressures resulting from higher
heads (fig. 1-24). For preliminary layouts, steel spiral case dimensions can be
obtained from figure 1-76.

To control cracking of the concrete contact surface with the steel spiral case under
operating pressures, spiral cases should preferably be embedded under
hydrostatically pressurized conditions. The pressures maintained during
embedment shall be equivalent to normal operating pressures. SpiralDraft tube
roof
case embedment follows hydrostatic pressure testing usually performed
under pressures equivalent to 150 percent of the static head. For plants with high
heads, spiral case embedment under pressure, from a civil engineering point of
view, is the preferred procedure because less load is transferred to the concrete.
Reduced internal pressures against the embedment concrete greatly reduces the
possibility for cracking and, thus, the potential for seepage from tailwater.

Lately, some manufacturers have recommended that, even for high-head plants,
spiral case pressurizing is not required during embedment. In that case, appropriate
structural investigations should be performed to determine how the surrounding
concrete would be affected.

Because steel spiral cases are designed to resist full operating pressures,
including any dynamic effects, the encasement concrete resists only a part of the
latter.

a. Concrete Cover over the Spiral Case. — The concrete cover over the steel spiral
case is required to from the turbine floor and the foundation for the generator barrel.

AH the embedment concrete also provides a part of the weight needed for
powerhouse stability and the necessary mass to control vibrations. The larger the
units capacity-wise, the more important the presence of the mass is.

Minimum concrete cover over the spiral case can be less than the thickness of the
roofs for reinforced concrete semi-spiral cases. However, the thickness should he
sufficient for embedment of the generator barrel reinforcement. Based on the above:

• Minimum spiral case cover should not be less than about 3 feet
 • The thickness of the cover will, for most cases, exceed 3 feet and be in the
Downstream
head wall range of 5 to 8 feet, and, quite often, more than that depending also on convenient
floor level selection.

7. Draft Tube Roof

The draft tube roof can be divided in two parts:

• The downstream part of the draft tube inlet cone and elbow embedment

• The part that forms the draft tube downstream of the elbow extending beyond
the generating bay (figs. 1-1 through 1-7 and others)

Because of the draft tube elbow geometry, the upstream part of the draft tube
roof (fig. 1-85) is a very deep massive feature that receives a substantial part of the
gravity loads of the structure, the weight of the turbines and generators, and the
hydraulic thrust. Its weight contributes to overcome the uplift forces.

The massive outline of the elbow roof offers a convenient mass for provision of a
service gallery along the downstream side of the units. Access ways to the
individual draft tube inlet eones for inspection and maintenance of the turbine
runners are provided as stubs from the service gallery (fig. 1-85a and b). Some
plants, for ease of installation of maintenance platforms through the draft tube cone,
also have an upstream service gallery.

The downstream pan of the roof usually tapers in downstream direction or the
downstream end of it can be of uniform thickness, depending on provisions made
above the draft tube.

If a downstream service bay is provided above the draft tube, the top of the draft tube
roof forms the lowest floor in that bay. Consequently, the draft tube roof must be
designed for the applicable uplift pressures. For major plants a minimum draft tube
roof thickness of 4 feet or 0.10H (H = depth of submergence), whichever governs,
is provided at the inside face of the downstream wall to ensure adequate
watertightness and reinforcement tie-in with the downstream service bay wall, which
acts as a headwall against the tailwater (figs. 1-85 and 1-86).

The minimum roof thickness should be checked against actual shear requirements
at the wall and pier faces assuming that only concrete, without any shear
reinforcement, resists the unbalanced shears.

8. Downstream Headwall
If a downstream service bay is provided, its enclosure against the tailwater is
provided by the draft tube roof and the downstream headwall (fig. 1-86).

The headwall, sometimes also called the bulkhead wall, spans vertically between
the draft tube roof and the draft tube deck. It may also be supported horizontally
by the draft tube piers. Interior floor slabs provide intermediate supports. For this
reason, such slabs shall be sufficiently thick to control slenderness. The minimum
thickness recommended is 18 to 24 inches, or even more, depending on the wall
submergence and the resulting hydrostatic pressures.
 Figure 1-85. — Generating and downstream service bays, Sam Rayburn,
Angelina,
Texas. (Courtesy of Harza).

The draft tube piers, depending on how much they are extended downstream of the
head wall, may effectively act with the wall section as T-beam webs. The wall itself
then also spans horizontally between the piers.

For deep tailwater submergence, the length of the pier protrusion downstream of the
head wall should he determined to suit the structural design requirements. On the
other hand, if the piers support a transformer deck, they will probably provide more
width than required for the wall design.

During conceptual studies, it is advisable to be on the conservative side and to

assume that the wall is supported vertically in one-way action spanning between the
slabs without the assistance of the piers. The wall thickness, as before for other
principal structural components, shall be quickly assessed on basis of simplified
shear and moment calculations.

As in the case of the draft tube floor, for major plants the minimum thickness
provisions at the draft tube roof level should be 4 feet or 0.10H. This thickness will
be substantially more for deeper submergences and can be reduced gradually, by
tapering the outside face of the wall, for higher elevations. The thickness can also be
reduced in steps at the intermediate floor levels thus gaining more space, if needed,
for the upper floor levels. With this latter arrangement, the inside face vertical wall
reinforcement becomes offset and, thus, more complicated where the offsets occur
(fig. 1-86b).
Draft tube
deck

Function

Figure 1-86. — Downstream service bay wall.

Thickness 9. Draft Tube Deck

a. Function. — The draft tube deck functions primarily as access to the draft
tube gate slots for handling of the draft tube gates. For indoor powerhouses (figs.
1-3 through 1-7, 1-9, and 1-10), an appropriate traveling gantry crane is located
on the draft tube deck to handle the gates. The main powerhouse gantry crane
for semi-indoor (figs. 1-11, and 1-13), or outdoor powerhouses (fig. 1-34) generally
reaches over the draft tube gate slots negating the need for a special draft tube
gantry crane.

When the draft tube deck is also used as transformer deck, the deck width increases
appreciably. The additional width required is for the transformer bank itself, with
adequate passage clearances with other transformers during installation and
possible removal for their maintenance.

Ultimately, the draft tube deck functions also as the roof over the space of the
Downstream Service Bay. As such, it must be reinforced for crack control to make
the deck watertight

b. Thickness. — If the deck does not carry any transformers, it can, depending
on the spans, be a relatively light slab, yet still about 8 to 16 inches thick, spanning
between the generating bay wall and the downstream headwall, if the latter exists.
Otherwise, a spandrel for the gantry crane rail or some wall framing below (figs. 1-1,
1-7, and 1-14) would provide the support. If there are no rooms below, the piers
provide supports in the longitudinal direction.
 Figure 1-87.— Draft tube deck framing.

With transformers located on the deck, the framing requirements increase

substantially, depending on the size of the transformers and, because of the pressure
of the oil overflow sumps below the transformers.

Two choices are available for the deck design:

• Slab and beam construction

• One-way flat slab construction with local beam reinforcement or beams as

needed under the transformers only

The first choice, with the beams running in the upstream and downstream directions
and framing into a spandrel along the gate slots, or supported on a wall is a
conventional approach; however, it results in a rather complicated framing (fig. 1-87)
of the deck slab, beams, spandrel, and the oil sumps under the transformers.

Wherever possible, it may be advantageous to eliminate the beams supporting the

deck and make the latter thicker, say 24 to 36 inches, as needed to support the
loads. More concrete will be required but the construction will be simplified. The flat
soffit of the deck is also preferable for any exposed conduit or piping runs hung from
the deck if the headroom is limited.
 Superstructure
E. SUPERSTRUCTURE
Generator
barrel 1. General

Under "superstructure" it is understood that the part of the powerhouse that lies
above the turbine floor (figs. 1-73 and 1-74) and the draft tube roof, when a service
bay is provided, may comprise, depending on the concept of the powerhouse, the
following components:

• Generator barrel (or pedestal) with or without generator floor, again depending on the
layout

• All interior framing and walls above the turbine floor in the generating bay

• Crane support columns and girders if such are provided

• Exterior walls

• Roof

• All interior framing. walls and roof of any adjoining service bays

Generat 2. Generator Barrel

or The generator barrel supports:
barrel
outlines • The weight of the turbines and generators

• The hydraulic thrust from turbine operation

• Dead and live loads from the generator floor if such is provided

• Short-circuit torque effects from the generator

• Hydrostatic pressures against downstream bulkhead wall or downstream wall

of the generating bay if such loads are transmitted into the generator floor

• Similarly, the barrel may also support headwater pressures against the head
walls (or upstream generating bay wall) if generator floor is provided, or the barrel
itself may be in contact with the wall.

a. Generator Barrel Outlines. — The generator barrel outlines are mostly dictated by
the:

• Outlines of the equipment it supports,

• Erection and maintenance clearances and access provisions,

 • Structural requirements to obtain a rigid foundation for the equipment,
concrete dead loads and live loads supported,

• And last, but not least, the designer's preference.

The inside outline is an extension of the cylindrical turbine pit outline which, by a
provision of a circular corbel, necks down to a circular opening, slightly larger than
the turbine head cover. The corbel serves as the bearing bracket support (fig. 1-88).
Also the opening above the bearing bracket corbel is cylindrical.

The exterior outline of the barrel can be square, rectangular, octagonal, or round. The
shape used is mostly the designer’s prerogative, based on considerations for
obtaining adequate space for other equipment on the turbine floor and for passage
for personnel and for equipment during installation and maintenance.

Square and rectangular shapes are the simplest to form, but some valuable
turbine floor space may be sacrificed. The reinforcement is of simple configuration,
but more concrete is required.

If floor beams support the generator floor, the flat wall faces in both directions offer
simple framing for the beam supports.

Octagonal shapes are still simple to form, however, reinforcement becomes

Access
somewhat more complicated, but concrete volume is decreased and more floorprovisions
space is gained. The forming costs are, of course, increased. The generator floor
girders, if provided, may, however, have to be framed in barrel faces skewed under
45°, i.e. the bearing length on the barrel varies along the two sides of the girder. This
usually affects only the reinforcement.

Cylindrical generator outlines are quite common, they occupy the least space on the
turbine floor and, when exposed to the view without the presence of the
generator floor, have a pleasing appearance by matching the generator housing
outline (mostly cylindrical, too).

The forming of the cylindrical barrel is more expensive than for the other types; also
all horizontal reinforcement consists of curved bars, which are more expensive
than straight bars.

If the generator floor is supported with beams, their framing into cylindrical
generator barrels presents some complications for the beam-barrel tie-in area.
For that reason, sometimes rectangular support pilasters are incorporated into the
barrel to offer a less complicated beam framing into the barrel (fig. 1-88).

The generator barrel (pedestal) wall thickness may vary between 1.5 feet for small
units and, perhaps, 8 feet or more for large units. In most cases, a thickness of 4
to 6 feet will suffice.

b. Access Provisions in Generator Barrel.

Blockouts are provided in the barrel walls to gain access to the turbine pit, located
below the turbine floor level, and for access to the thrust bearings above.
Blockouts are needed for the passage of the low-voltage leads.

The turbine pit access should be at least 4 feet wide and with headroom of at
least 6.5 feet. This clearance requirement dictates where the top of the bearing
bracket support can be set. Assuming the bearing bracket sole place anchor bolts
to be 3 feet long and a cover of 6 inches over the access opening, the bearing
bracket is set approximately 8 to 10 feet above the turbine floor. This assumes
that the roof of the turbine pit access slopes. The 10 feet would apply if the roof
would be horizontal.

Other openings are needed for access, to the air coolers between the stator and the
generator pit wall, or housing. Their location and sizes will be determined by the
generator manufacturer.
 Generator
floor

Framing
without
columns or
beams
 Figure 1-88.— Generator barrel arrangement. 3. Generator Floor

The generator floor, if provided, frames into the top of the generator barrel
and the upstream and downstream walls of the generating bay.

For most designs, the generator floor does not support any permanent equipment
loads but may be used extensively during equipment installation as laydown area or,
quite frequently, as a temporary erection floor in extension of the erection bay floor or
where space is available between the generators.

If the generator housing protrudes above the generator floor level, access to the top
of the generator housing and the exciters is provided from the generator floor.

It is preferable to design generator floor slabs without columns and beams. The
columns are undesirable because they take up space on the turbine floor and may
interfere with the equipment.

The beams take up valuable headroom below and may interfere with the routing
of conduits, cable trays, and piping.

It is recommended to span the generator floor slab between the barrel and walls in
direction parallel to the flow, and to cantilever them from the barrel in the direction
perpendicular to the flow. With this arrangement, the slabs of the adjoining units
should be keyed along the contraction joints to control, and prevent differential
vertical off-sets and also, possibly, to control vibrations of the cantilevers.

If, because of wide unit spacing and, therefore, long slab cantilevers, beams are
needed to support the slab along the contraction joints, columns will be needed along
the contraction joints.

Without beams, the minimum slab thickness should be about 12 to 24 inches

depending on the spans. With beams, the thickness should not be less than 12
inches to provide mass around the generator barrel. To control vibrations of the
larger units (say, 100 MW or more) in major plants, a 24-inch slab thickness is
appropriate.

If generator floor slabs are used as lay-down or erection area for heavy equipment,
the slab thickness may have to be increased above the minimum recommended.

Slab thickness

4. Oth
er Interior Floors
Other floors

The floors of the service bays usually can be of slab construction if the bay width is
limited to approximately 30 feet. Beams may be needed for heavy equipment
loads, or when the bay width is increased much beyond 30 feet.

The minimum slab thickness should be 12 inches. Appreciably greater thickness

will be needed if the slabs are used as struts against hydrostatic pressures. In that
case, slab thickness of 24 to 36 inches are not unusual.

The above minimum thicknesses may be excessive to support the floor loads, but
it is prudent to provide more rigidity in the framing systcm and also mass to control
vibrations.

Generating Bay Walls

Generating bay walls

The generating bay walls perform several functions:

• Enclose the generating bay along its sides and support its roof.

• Provide support for the generator floor, if such is provided (figs. 1-3, 1-4, 1-7, 1-
11, 1-26, 1-34, 1-41, and 1-47).

• Support the powerhouse crane (same figs. as above and others).

• The upstream wall may act as a headwall to retain the reservoir if the
powerhouse is integral with the intake (figs. 1-3, 1-5, 1-7, 1-9, 1-10, 1-11, 1-14, and
others).

• The downstream wall may also act as head wall to retain tailwater if there is no
downstream service bay head wall (figs. 1-11, 1-13, 1-27, 1-31, and 1-41).

a. Upstream Wall of Generating Bay. — ( I ) Upstream Wall Integral With Intake. —

If the

Upstream wall powerhouse is built integral with the intake, the upstream wall of the
powerhouse is

exposed to the reservoir and resists the applicable hydrostatic pressures applied
against it.
 The headwall is tied-in with the intake piers and walls and spans between them.
This wall, in conjunction with the intake forms the dam and, when the water
passages are not closed, the head wall represents the watertight barrier between the
reservoir and the interior of the powerhouse, i.e. it functions as a fixed bulkhead.

Consequently, the thickness of the headwall must be determined on the basis of

conservative shear resistance values and considerations illustrated on figure 1-89.

Figure 1-89. — Headwall support.

As for the downstream bulkhead wall, discussed in section E.8, the minimum
thickness for major plants again should be 4 feet or 0.10H determined at the base
of the wall. This criteria is considered as a minimum requirement to control
seepage (watertightness), but usually structural requirements govern. For most
major plants, the actual thickness will be appreciably more (fig. 1-5). For minor
plants a lesser wall thickness in the range of 2 to 3 feet will suffice.

With respect to the reservoir pressures (fig. 1-89), the wall "hangs" from the intake
walls and piers. Consequently, a potential crack could develop as indicated on
figure 1-89 and the headwall could lose support.

Thus, adequate thickness to resist shear, induced by the reservoir pressures, is not
Upstream wallthe only design provision that is needed. The wall should be tied back into the
support
intake walls and piers by adequate reinforcement assuming that water pressure
acts also over the full width of the potential cracks.

In the vertical plane, the headwall spans between the intake end walls with additional
supports on the intermediate piers (if such are provided) of the intake.
The headwall itself supports the spiral case roof with equipment loads acting
downward, and uplift pressures, against the spiral case roof. Unless cast integrally
with the spiral case roof, keys should be provided if construction joint is introduced
at the downstream face of the wall (fig. 1-90).

PROVIDE KEYS IF CONSTR. JOINT IS PROVIDED AT WALL FACE

Figure 1-90. — Headwall–semi-spiral case roof joint.

(2) Upstream Wall Separated from the Intake or for Detached Powerhouses. — If the
generating bay is separated from the intake by a service bay (figs. 1-4, 1-6, 1-8,
and 1-13), or if the powerhouse is located at the toe of the dam or for detached
powerhouses (figs. 1-36 through 1-47g), the upstream wall of the generating bay is,
in most cases, a free-standing wall. The wall is supported on the substructure and
has lateral support by the generator floor (if provided) and by the roof.

The upstream wall may have to support:

• Live and dead loads from floors, decks and roofs framing into the wall,
including the equipment loads they carry.

• High-voltage line pull-off loads (fig. 1-24, 1-35, 1-41, and 1-45).

• Vertical and lateral crane loads (fig. 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-7, 1-11, 1-12,
etc.).

• Tailwater pressures transmitted from downstream wall through floor slabs,

decks or roof (figs. 1-11, 1-13, 1-30, and 1-41).

Conservative wall thickness should be provided (see subsection d (3) in this section)
to control deformations from combination of all load effects.
 b. Downstream Wall of Generating Bay. — The downstream wall of the generating
bay is Downstream similar to the upstream wall of the type described in paragraph (2)
above and supports similar loads wall of generating bay

For high tailwaters, the downstream wall may be exposed to hydrostatic pressures in
addition to the other load effects.

The downstream wall usually contains the equipment and personnel access doors.
In case of high flood levels, they may have to be bulk-headed unless all access
is from the roof level (semi-indoor type powerhouses).
End walls
It is recommended that the access level for indoor type powerhouses is set above
maximum powerhouse design flood level, say with 200-year return frequency. If the
PMF level is not substantially higher, the access level should be set at or slightly
above the PMF level.

For substantially higher PMF levels semi-indoor powerhouses with walls designed
for the high water levels should be selected.

c. End Walls. — The end walls close off both ends of the generating bay — at the
erection bay and at the last unit. They may be extended to serve as end walls
also for the service bays, if any provided. Endwalls, depending on their construction
type, may have to support the following loads:

• Loads transmitted by longitudinal walls connected to them, normal and

Type ofparallel to the end wall plane
construction
•Loads from interior floor slabs

• Longitudinal crane thrust

• Roof loads

Walls for •Exterior fill loads

indoor houses
•Tailwater or groundwater pressures

The end walls receive and transmit any exterior fill and hydrostatic loads to the
interior slabs and the longitudinal walls framing into them. If they retain fills or water
loads, their outside faces are usually battered to account for the varying pressures.
The thickness of the wall at the top should be 24 inches minimum to allow for
Reinforced concrete placement.
concrete walls
d. Wall Type Construction. — The construction type of the superstructure walls
can be dictated by:

• The type of the powerhouse, indoor or semi-indoor

• By considerations of economic aspects, availability of material

• Preferential treatment by owner

(1) Walls for Indoor Powerhouses. — Superstructures of indoor powerhouses

can be designed for a great variety of construction types and materials:

• Solid cast-in-place reinforced concrete walls

• Cast-in-place reinforced concrete columns with brick, concrete block or

precast concrete panel infills between the columns

• Structural steel framing faced with material as for concrete framing plus
various types of insulated metal wall panels

Figures 1-l, 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. illustrate typical integral-intake powerhouses and
figures 1-24, 1-30, 1-39, 1-41, etc. illustrate powerhouse designs with cast-in-place
concrete wall construction. The arrangement may vary somewhat from project to
project depending on unit setting, generator size and interior floor arrangement.
The upstream wall is thicker than the downstream wall because the former resists
hydrostatic pressures or higher pressures than the latter.

Minimum thickness requirements for the walls are discussed in subsections 5.a, 5.b,
and 5.c.(3). If the concrete walls are not exposed to water or fill pressures, their
minimum thickness will still be in the range of 2 to 3 feet, perhaps, even more
depending on the crane size they support and structural support provided.

The wall thickness is reduced above the crane rail corbels. This thickness, however
still must be approximately 18 inches thick to provide at least 12 inches for the roof
girder bearing and approximately 6 inches minimum, better 8 inches, at the girder
blockouts.

The crane corbels protrude the inside face of the walls to provide for the
required crane Crane support. The crane rail should be set to provide minimum
clearances between the crane and clearances the wall. For conceptual studies, the
information in table 1-1 can be used, subject to confirmation by crane designers.

Cast-in-place pilaster-type superstructure walls for a detached powerhouse are

illustrated on figure 1-91. The walls appear recessed at the pilasters for
architectural treatment to break up an undesirably plain, bunker type of effect of the
wall type discussed above.

A very pronounced architectural treatment was obtained for the Grand Coulee Third
Power Plant with a cast-in-place, folded-wall design, as shown on figure 1-92.

Table 1-1. — Crane clearance data.

Span (ft) 8A B C D (in)

• 200 T Crane 13-6 12-4 8-0 13

90 13-9 12-6 8-6 13

300 T Crane
70 16-6 15-0 8-6 15
80 16-9 15-3 8-6 15
90 17-3 15-6 9-0 15
400 T Crane
70 17-3 16-9 11-6 17
80 17-6 17-0 11-6 17
90 18-0 17-0 11-6 17
500 T Crane
70 18-9 18-0 19-3 20
80 19-0 13-0 19-6 20
90 19-3 18-6 19-6 20
600 T Crane
70 20-0 19-3 20-6 23
80 20-3 19-6 20-9 23
90 20-6 19--6 21-0 23
700 T Crane
70 21-6 20-6 20-6 26
80 21-9 20-9 20-6 26
90 21-9 21-0 21-0 26
800 T Crane
70 22-0 21-0 21-0 27
80 22-3 21-0 21-6 27
90 22-6 21-6 22-0 27
 Figure 1-92. — Grand Coulee Third Powerhouse. (Courtesy of USBR).

Another attractive example of superstructure wall and roof treatment is shown on

figures 1-93a and 1-93b, the auxiliary powerhouse of the Angat Plant in the
Philippines. A folded place roof is supported on tapered columns. The crane girder,
cast integrally with the wall, spans over doubly tapered columns that are also cast
with the wall.
Figure 1-94 shows a design with reinforced concrete framing, a thin cast-
Structural
in-place upstream wall and glazing for the downstream wall, the cast-in-steel framing
place reinforced concrete crane girders tie the columns (pilasters) and
provide support for the walls above.

Superstructures with structural steel framing offer the distinct advantage that they can
be erected faster than cast-in-place concrete structures, but they have to be painted
and maintained during the plant's life.

Steel framing also saves one column at each contraction joint, i.e., no double column
arrangement, as for concrete structures, is required because any movements
resulting from temperature differential are taken up by sliding in the boli holes.

Similar to the concrete design, also for structural steel designs appropriate
corbels or brackets are needed for the crane girder support. Simple rolled column
shapes, with welded-on brackets offer the simplest, most economical solution (fig. 1-
96). However, a more pleasing effect can be achieved with tapered columns, as
shown on figure 1-95. Such a design costs slightly more, but so does the
concrete design shown on figures 1-92 and 1-93. Considering the lifespan of the
power plants of at least 50 years and more, a small investment for a more pleasing
appearance would appear justified.

Such decisions, however, ultimately may be made by the owner who may prefer to
the simplest, most economical solution, unless convinced by the designer otherwise.
For, it should be remembered that powerplants are not only energy producing
facilities but also places of work for the operating and maintenance
Walls for
personnel and facilities frequently exposed to visitors and the surroundingsemi-indoor
communities. powerhouses

Figure 1-95 illustrates a powerhouse superstructure consisting of steel bents, faced

with 12-inch-thick cast-in-place reinforced concrete walls for the lower half, and
porcelain aluminum panels for the upper half. A row of glass block panels is also
included in the upper wall portion to expose the interior of the powerhouse to
daylight, and also as part of the exterior architectural treatment.

Figure 1-96 illustrates application of precast panel wall along the transformer bank,
and insulated metal wall panels for the other wall, both types supported on
structural steel framing.
(2) Walls for Semi-Indoor Powerhouses. — Semi-indoor type powerhouses are
normally used under conditions when there is insufficient headroom for access at
the erection floor level. This usually is the case for low-head installations when the
units are set relatively high with respect to tailwater and when the maximum flood
tailwater may be close to the roof level. Figure 1-12 illustrates an example of the
former case. In the given example the maximum tailwater is below the service
walkway allowing fenestration in the downstream wall. Because of the relatively
heavy gantry crane and the loads it carries, the wall design is in cast-in-place
reinforced concrete, braced by the roof deck which controls the lateral load effects.
Superstructure
wall
thicknesses
Figure 1-96. — Kinzua pumped storage powerhouse (conventional unit), Allegheny,
Pennsylvania. Unit: 25 MW; H = 873 ft (266.2 m).
(Courtesy of Harza).

With higher tailwaters, the downstream wall must be in solid concrete as illustrated
on figure 1-11. In this case, the roof was not constructed integrally with the walls and,
therefore, the downstream wall had to be designed accordingly.

(3) Superstructure Wall Thicknesses. — During conceptual studies of powerhouse

layouts, realistic wall thicknesses must be indicated to preclude surprises during
final design. Undersizing of walls initially may require changes in the overall
superstructure width later, causing a chain reaction of changes in other areas.

Smaller wall thicknesses will be required with units of smaller physical size because
of the smaller span for the cranes, indoor or outdoor. The headwall thickness will
be affected by the width of the intake openings and the hydrostatic head on the
wall. Tailwater pressure may control the thickness of the downstream wall and the
end walls.

Minimum wall thicknesses as given below in table 1-2 may be considered for
inicial layouts which, however, should be confirmed by rough calculations (M =
0.1WL; V = 0.5W at support; W = total load) for the uniformly distributed loads, such
as hydrostatic pressures, or for lateral crane loads, tension due to floor slab or roof
restraint, backfill pressures with surcharges and, possibly, others.
With higher tailwaters, the downstream wall must be in solid concrete as illustrated
on figure 1-11. In this case, the roof was not constructed integrally with the walls
and, therefore, the downstream wall had to be designed accordingly.

Superstructure

(3) Superstructure Wall Thicknesses.

During conceptual studies of powerhouse layouts, realistic wall thicknesses must be

indicated to preclude surprises during final design.

Wall thicknesses

Undersizing of walls initially may require changes in the overall superstructure width
later, causing a chain reaction of changes in other areas.

Smaller wall thicknesses will be required with units of smaller physical size because of
the smaller span for the cranes, indoor or outdoor. The headwall thickness will be
affected by the width of the intake openings and the hydrostatic head on the wall.
Tailwater pressure may control the thickness of the downstream wall and the end
walls.

Minimum wall thicknesses as given below in table 1-2 may be considered for initial
layouts which, however, should be confirmed by rough calculations (M = 0.1WL; V =
0.5W at support; W = total load) for the uniformly distributed loads, such as
hydrostatic pressures, or for lateral crane loads, tension due to floor slab or roof
restraint, backfill pressures with surcharges and, possibly others.

.
Table 1-2. Minimum wall thicknesses for major plants
Superstructure
Minimum wall thickness
roofs t, inches
Type of wall

Headwall at integral intake or downstream 48 or 0.1 H

bulkhead wall resisting water pressure (H = head on wall)
Cast-in-place walls without columns, supporting 24
cranes
Cast-in-place walls not supporting cranes 12

Cast-in-place walls between columns (pilasters) 12

Insulated precast wall panels supported on framing 5

8 (maximum unbraced length or

Brick or concrete block
height 18t)

Concrete columns supporting main powerhouse crane 30 deep

Steel columns supporting main powerhouse crane 24 deep

The information in table 1-2 should be checked against similar existing designs, if
available, and the latter information, if different from information given above,
should be used for preliminary layouts. If information of existing projects is not
available, the above minimum dimensions can be checked against the principal
governing loads.

6. Superstructure Roofs

a. General. — The superstructure roof is provided for indoor and semi-indoor type
powerhouses and the roof design may, by necessity, be substantially different for
each type of powerhouse.
 For outdoor powerhouses, the roof is similar to that of semi-indoor powerhouses,
except is penetrated by the generator housing (fig. l-34).

The primary function of the roof is to protect the interior of the powerhouses
against weather. However, it may also be used to support switchyard structures
(figs. 1-1, 1-35 1-44, and 1-96) and as laydown space for light equipment during
Structural
steel roofs equipment installation for semi-indoor type powerhouses.

b. Roofs for Indoor Powerhouses. — For indoor type powerhouses (figs. 1-91
through 1-95), the roof structure can be of relatively light design, supporting only
snow loads (in climates where such are applicable) and loads expected during
construction and maintenance of the roof. Such roofs are preferably framed, for
expediency in construction, either with structural steel or prestressed concrete
girders. The type of framing may depend on what material is available within an
economical hauling distance to the plant and on the type of framing used for the
crane support.

Cast-in-place concrete beams or girders are not recommended because of the high
cost of shoring and forming.

(1) Roofs with Structural Steel Framing. — Structural steel girders can be used with
cast-in-place concrete walls or, of course, as part of a structural steel frame.

The girders can be seated in blocked-out pockets in the wall, or on corbels protruding
from the wall which reduces the span length. On the other hand, wall pockets
complicate the wall reinforcement and may be less accessible than corbels for
maintenance.

Adequate number of transverse beams shall be provided as lateral bracing in

Prestressed
concrete addition of the deck.
girder
framing The decks may be of following construction:

a. Steel roof deck with built-up roofing

b. Cast-in-place concrete, 4 to 6 inches thick, placed in steel deck used as forms,

0.75 percent reinforcement for water tightness; 0.5 percent reinforcement if
nonshrink cement used (preferable in cold climates)

c. Cast-in-place concrete deck formed conventionally, forms supported from

girders and beams, otherwise same as item b
d. Precast, post-tensioned concrete flat panels, or channel-shaped elements,
fastened to the girders and topped with reinforced 2-inch-thick cast-in-place
surfacing (this design is used mostly with precast concrete girders)

Figure 1-96, shows a cast-in-place, reinforced concrete deck slab with concrete
pads to support switchyard structures.

In all designs, adequate number at transverse beams shall be provided to obtain

economic spans for the deck type used and also to brace the girders.

(2) Roofs with Prestressed Concrete Girder Framing. — Prestressed concrete girders,
compared with structural steel girders, cost less to maintain because no corrosion-
preventive painting is needed. This aspect should especially be evaluated in humid
areas.

The prestressed concrete girders can be supported in the same manner as the steel
girders, except that seating of girder ends on individual corbels may not be advisable
for safety reasons — a continuous ledge, with shear pockets, is recommended
instead. Usually, a row of two or three cast-in-place cross-beams (diaphragms),
doweled into the webs of the girders, are needed.

The deck types that can be used with prestressed, precast girders are the same as
described under items b, c, and d for the steel girders.

Figures 1-97 and 1-98 show prestressed concrete and cast-in-place slab construction
(Bath County Powerhouse) with steel deck as forms — details at a contraction joint
and a girder seat at the wall. The slab was designed for 500 lb/ft2 load to allow for
equipment laydown and vehicle traffic. The slab contained 0.75 percent
reinforcement for watertightness. This amount could have been reduced to, say, 0.5
percent because it was decided shortly before construction to use shrinkage
reducing cement. The approximately 65-foot-wide slab contains no construction
joints without any signs of cracking.

Similar other alternatives, most likely, have been used in other designs. Either
structural steel or precast—prestressed concrete girder construction has given
satisfactory service. Which type to use should be determined on the basis of
availability of the prefabricated material and appropriate cost comparison studies.
Interior space
requirements

1. General

In most cases, once the unit bay width is determined for the water passage
requirements as outlined in section D, the resulting overall length of the
powerhouse usually suffices to obtain the necessary space for station and unit
services.

With minimum provisions for station services, such as offices, personnel and public
service rooms and arcas, it is possible to locate all station and unit service equipment
within the generating/erection bay area as has been done in numerous plants even
with fairly large units.

Figure 1-97. — Roof design with prestressed concrete girders and cast-in-place
slab,
Bath County. (Courtesy of Harza).

With expanded station service requirements, combined with transformer location

either on the draft tube deck or upstream of the generating bay, the need for a
downstream or upstream service bay, respectively, or both, arises.

The service bay length, in most cases, matches the length of the generating bay,
including the erection bay. Such an arrangement simplifies the design (no re-entrant
jogs in the structure), construction (simplified forming with continuous end walls),
and also simplifies access at both ends of the service bay.
 A service bay width of about 30 feet enables simple, one-way slab construction
without any beams. Such a design simplifies cable, conduit, and piping routing
and may save in floor heights.

Station
service
equipment

Figure 1-98. — Roof girder wall seat detail.

The available space may also depend on the powerhouse location with
respect to the dam. Powerhouses located at the toe of dams (figs. 1-24, Unit service
equipment
1-30, and 1-37) or immediately downstream of an integral intake with
long water passages (fig. 1-4) may afford provision of relatively inexpensive
additional space for service bays because the foundation (substructure) is already
there.

For detached powerhouses (fig. 1-41) the substructure of the generating bay is
extended under the service bay and, therefore, requires additional excavation and
concrete, which may be combined with penstock encasement concrete (figs. 1-42
and 1-46).

2. Unit Service Equipment and Provisions

The unit service provisions include the mechanical and electrical portions for the
control of each unit installed and access to the equipment for installation and
maintenance.

Unit service equipment shall be placed adjacent to the unit and consists of:

a. Mechanical equipment
 • Servo motors to control wicket gates

• Raw water piping with valves, pumps, strainers, etc

• Oil, air, and cooling water systems

• Fire protection system

b. Electrical provisions/equipment

• Common leads and gallery

• Low-voltage switches, breakers

• Instrument transformers

• Lightning arresters, reactors

• Station service connections

c. Access and erection provisions:

• Passages to equipment, turbine pit

• Stairs between different levels

• Access to generator housing and exciter

There should be a convenient, free passage between the upstream and

downstream sides at the turbine and generator floor (where such is provided) levels.

3. Station Service Equipment and Provisions

Station Service equipment and provisions are those features that serve the entire
plant and may consist of:

a. Equipment access, unloading and erection bay, usually located at one end of
the powerhouse in a separate monolith, next to the first unit monolith, or other
arrangements

b. Maintenance shops with machine and electrical shop and testing equipment

c. Material storage spaces

d. Draft tube and station unwatering sumps

e. Powerhouse and draft tube cranes

f. Control room, cable spreading room

g. Auxiliary mechanical equipment

• Lubricating and insulating oil pumps, purifiers, storage tanks

 • Raw water pumps and strainers

• Air compressors and receiving tanks

• Water treatment equipment

• Sanitary facilities, septic tank

• Fire protection for oil system

• Tailwater gauge well

• Emergency diesel generator usually provided outside the powerhouse

• Heating, ventilating and air conditioning equipment

h. Auxiliary Electrical Equipment:

• Main auxiliary power switchboards

• Station service transformers

• Battery room

• Motor generator sets

• Station service switchboards for lighting, heating

• Communications room

i. Personnel and Public Service Facilities

• Offices

• Wash rooms, lockers

• First aid room, laboratory, dark room

• Visitors reception and display room, rest rooms

• Elevators, stairs, corridors

The provision of the various facilities will vary from project to project depending on
the plant owner's needs.

4. Sizes of Individual Equipment Rooms

There is no standard for sizing of the individual space provisions. The room size
will depend on the size and number of equipment installed and the space needed
for the necessary erection and maintenance clearances.

The space requirements will be governed by the plant size and owner's preference. It
also depends whether a plant is built by public or private sector. The private sector
generally invests less for provisions other than the generating plant equipment
that is necessary to make the plant operable.

The public sector, on the other hand, will generally make provisions to receive the
public, and other space provisions will tend to be more generous.

Table 1-3 gives approximate space provisions for three plants, the 52-MW (2 units)
Sam Rayburn plant in Texas, 200-MW Angat (4-unit pit-type powerhouse) in the
Philippines, and the 1000-MW Karun (4 units) plant in Iran.

Table 1-3. - Room sizes for three power plants. Width/length in meters.

Room or space Sam Rayburn Angat Karun

1. Air compressors, 8.2/33.5 7/10

receivers
2. Air conditioning, ventil. 4.6/29.6 5.5/55 11/14
5.5/31/5
3. Battery 4/6.1 0 -
4. Carrier current 3.8/7 5.5/14 11/11
5. Cable gallery 8.9/16.8 5.5/62 -
6. Control 9.2/18.3 5.5/30 11/19
7. Diesel generator 4/7 outside 7/23
8. Electrical shop 3.7/9.8 4.5/9 5.5/18
9. Erection bay 12.8/14.6 15/16 19.5/25
10. First aid, toilet 4/4.6 5.5/8 6.5/8.5
11. Machine shop, tools 9.2/12.2 9.9 11/19
12. Mech. station eqpt. turb. floor 5/47 11/53
13. MG room 4/5.5 in open in open
14. Offices 4/15.2 5.5/53 8/20
15. Oil storage 5.5/30.5 10.15 11/19
16. Sewage treatment 3.7/6.4 5/5.7 6/7
17. Storage 6.1/13.1 6/9 5/17
6/50
18. Switchgear, electrical eqpt. 8.2/30.5 5.5/49 11/82
3.5/9
19. Toilets, janitor 6.l/10.7 5.5/10 11/15
20. Unloading bay - 10/16 7/19.5
7/12
21. Unwatering pumps 3.1/4.6 4.3/7 6.5/10
22. Visitors facilities 9.2/10.l - -
23. Water treatment 6.l/10.7 8/10.5 -
The vertical distance between individual floor levels below the access (draft tube
deck) level will be dictated first by the level of the turbine floor and, second, by the
level of the lowest floor provided (usually in the downstream service bay).

The generator barrel height may range between 15 and 20 feet which represents
the floor height between turbine and generator floors.
The number of floors provided below the entrance level draft tube deck for indoor
powerhouses, and the roof for semi-indoor powerhouses, will generally depend on
the available distance between the access levels and the lowest floor level selected.

For rooms housing station or unit service equipment, the floor height should not
be less than, say, approximately 15 feet to allow sufficient clearance for cable
trays, ventilating ducts and piping runs. Recommended height is in the range of 17
to 20 feet.

Floors supporting office and general non-equipment spaces may be limited to a

height between 13 to 15 feet. The clear height to the suspended ceilings should
be about 9 to 10 feet.

The clear structural height for all floors will be the above recommended heights less
the structural floor thickness — to the bottom of beams, or slabs of floors without
beams.