AN EXTENDED OBJECT-ORIENTED MODELING METHOD

FOR BUSINESS PROCESS REENGINEERING

by
KAZUO NAKATANI, B.A., M.B.A.
A DISSERTATION
IN
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
^ppf?5V4
Accepted
May, 1999
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank all of my dissertation committee members. Dr. Surya B.
Yadav, Dr. Ralph R. Bravoco, Dr. Solomon Antony, and Dr. Mario G. Bemvides, for
their encouragement, suggestions and guidance. I especially express my sincere
appreciation to my advisor. Dr. Yadav, for his understanding and support.
I would also like to thank all the expert committee members, who have
participated in the validation process of the dissertation, for their time and patience.
Without their participation, the dissertation could not be completed.
I thank all of my family and friends for their encouragement and supports. Finally,
special thanks are due to Juri and Nyanya.
11
TABLE OF CONTEXTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
ABSTRACT vii
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES xi
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Background 2
Problem Statement 5
Research Objectives and Issues 6
Deliverables of the Research 8
Importance of the Research 9
Stmcture of the Dissertation 10
n. LITERATURE REVIEW 11
Introduction 11
Concepts of Business Process Reengineering 11
Process View of Business 11
Characteristics of BPR 12
Methodologies for BPR 14
Modeling Methods Used in BPR 26
Flowcharts 27
Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs) 28
Integration Definhion Methodology 28
Role Activhy Diagramming 31
REAL Business Process Modeling (BPM) 32
CIMOSA Business Modeling 33
Obj ect-Oriented ( 00) Modeling 3 5
Entity-Relationship Models 38
Dynamic Simulation Modeling 38
111
Workflow Design 39
Other Modeling Techniques 40
Summary 40
III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 41
Introduction 41
Formulation of the Problem 42
Constmction of Knowledge-Level Theories or Principles 43
Constmction of Symbol-Level Theories or Principles 43
Operationalization of Knowledge-Level Theories and
Formation of Behavioral-Oriented Hypotheses 43
Identification and Constmction of Symbol-Level Design and
Formation of Symbol-Oriented Hypotheses 44
Development of Prototype System 44
Validation of the Extended 0 0 Modeling Method 45
Testing the Modeling Method and Evaluating Test Results 46
Refinement of the Problem, Theories, Principles and
Hypotheses 48
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF AN EXTENDED 0 0 MODELING
METHOD FOR BPR 49
Introduction 49
Behavior of the BPR Modeling Method 50
Knowledge-Level Concepts and Propositions 54
Knowledge Concepts 54
Knowledge-Level Proposhions 66
Conceptual Model for a BPR Modeling Method 66
Symbol-Level Concepts and Propositions 67
Symbol-Level Concepts 68
Symbol-Level Proposhions 95
A Symbol-Level Conceptual Model for a BPR Modeling
Method 97
Summary 97
IV
V. VALIDATION PROCEDURE 99
Evaluation Framework 99
Modeling Methods Compared 104
Data Collection 105
Evaluation Process 106
Known Limhations of Validation Procedure 110
VI. DATA ANALYSIS 111
Benchmark Methods 111
Process Flow Diagrams 111
Role Activity Diagrams 113
Jacobson's 0 0 Modeling Method 113
Evaluation Results 116
Process Flow Diagrams 116
Role Activhy Diagrams 118
Jacobson's 0 0 Modeling Method 120
Proposed Extended 0 0 Modeling Method 122
Comparative Analysis 124
Abilhies to Capture Information About a Business Process 124
Ability to Support BPR Activhies 127
Abilhy to Support Particular BPR Activhies in More
Detail 127
Abilhy to Provide a Model that Contains More
Information about a Business Process for a Specific
Analytical Action 132
Summary 133
VII. SUMMARY, CONTRIBUTIONS, AND LIMITATIONS 136
Summary of the Research 136
Deliverables of the Research 136
A Knowledge-Level Conceptual Model for a BPR
Modeling Method 137
A Symbol-Level Conceptual Model for a BPR Modeling
Method 138
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A.
B
C
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
Validation of the Extended 0 0 Modeling Method
Contributions of the Research
Limhations of the Research
THE FIRST-ROUND DELPHI PACKET SENT TO THE
EXPERT COMMITTEE
THE FIRST-ROUND DELPHI RESULTS
THE SECOND-ROUND DELPHI LETTER AND
QUESTIONS SENT TO THE EXPERT COMMITTEE
THE SECOND-ROUND DELPHI RESULTS
THE THIRD-ROUND DELPHI LETTER AND
QUESTIONS SENT TO THE EXPERT COMMITTEE
THE THIRD-ROUND DELPHI RESULTS
THE LETTER SENT TO THE ORIGINAL
DEVELOPERS OF THE BENCHMARK METHODS
THE FINAL EVALUATION RESULTS
139
140
141
143
148
149
212
249
259
271
280
287
290
VI
ABSTRACT
Existing Business Process Reengineering (BPR) methodologies rely on modeling
approaches. Due to high risks involved in BPR, an organization needs a modeling
method that efficiently supports a BPR project. The dissertation has identified a problem
in BPR as the lack of an efficient modeling method to support a BPR project under the
concept of business process change management. The dissertation proposes a modeling
method that utilizes the object-oriented ( 00) concepts to resolve this problem. A unified
research methodology has been used to develop the modeling method.
The dissertation first presents a conceptual model as a theoretical basis on which
the proposed modeling method has been developed. While developing the conceptual
model, the desired behavior of a BPR modeling method has been determined. Then,
three types of knowledge required to produce the behavior have been specified. The first
type of knowledge contains kinds of information about a business process that should be
captured in a model. The second type of knowledge specifies BPR project activities that
should be carried out during a BPR project. The last type of knowledge contains which
information about a business process is relevant to each BPR project activity.
The dissertation then presents an extended 0 0 modeling method that has been
developed based on the above conceptual model. The method consists of three main
parts: (a) a modeling framework, (b) steps of the modeling method, and (c) information
collection templates and information presentation formats.
The proposed method has been compared whh three existing methods to evaluate
its comprehensiveness. Three expert committee members have evaluated the four
methods for the comparative analysis. The comparative analysis has showed that the
proposed method is more comprehensive than the three benchmark methods in four areas:
(a) abilhy to capture more information about a business process, (b) abilhy to support
more BPR activhies, (c) ability to support particular BPR activhies in more detail, and (d)
ability to provide more information about a business process for a specific analytical
action.
Vll
LIST OF TABLES
4.1. BPR Activhies and Actions 58
5.1. Relationship among the Original Questions, Adapted Questions and
Columns in the Framework for the Enterprise Model Feature 101
5.2. Relationship among the Original Questions, Adapted Questions and
Columns in the Framework for the Analysis and Visualization Features 103
6.1. Summary of Information Captured by Four Methods 125
6.2. The Number of Kinds of Information Captured by Four Methods 126
6.3. The BPR Phases Supported by the Four Methods 127
6.4. The Number of Actions Specified by Each Method for BPR Phases 128
6.5 The Average Number of Information Items per Action Provided by Each
Method 132
A. 1. Inhial Evaluation of Rummler and Brache' s Method (Enterprise Model
Feature) 180
A.2. Initial Evaluation of Rummler and Brache's Method (Analysis and
Visualization Features) 182
A.3. Initial Evaluation of Quid's Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 187
A.4. Initial Evaluation of Quid's Method (Analysis and Visualization Features) 189
A. 5. Initial Evaluation of Jacobson et al.' s Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 194
A.6. Initial Evaluation of Jacobson et al.'s Method (Analysis and Visualization
Features) 196
A. 7. Initial Evaluation of Proposed Method (Enterprise Model Feature). 203
A. 8. Inhial Evaluation of Proposed Method (Analysis and Visualization
Features). 204
B. 1. 1 St Round Responses for Rummler and Brache's Method (Enterprise
Model Feature) 213
B.2. 1 St Round Responses for Rummler and Brache's Method (Analysis and
Visualization Features). 216
B.3. 1st Round Responses for Quid's Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 221
B.4. 1 St Round Responses for Quid's Method (Analysis and Visualization
Features) 224
B. 5. 1 St Round Responses for Jacobson et al.' s Method (Enterprise Model
feature) 229
Vlll
B.6. 1 St Round Responses for Jacobson et al. 's Method (Analysis and
Visualization Features) 232
B.7. 1 St Round Responses for Proposed Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 238
B.8. 1 st Round Responses for Proposed Method (Analysis and Visualization
Features) 241
CI . 2nd Round Questions for Rummler and Brache's Method (Enterprise
Model Feature) 252
C.2. 2nd Round Questions for Quid's Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 253
C.3. 2nd Round Questions for Quid's Method (Analysis and Visualization
Features) 254
C.4. 2nd Round Questions for Jacobson et al. 's Method (Enterprise Model
Feature) 255
C.5. 2nd Round Questions for Jacobson et al.'s Method (Analysis and
Visualization Features) 256
C.6. 2nd Round Questions for Proposed Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 257
D. 1. 2nd Round Responses of Rummler and Brache's Method (Enterprise
Model Feature) 260
D.2. 2nd Round Responses of Quid's Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 262
D.3. 2nd Round Responses of Quid's Method (Analysis and Visualization
Features) 264
D.4. 2nd Round Responses of Jacobson et al. 's Method (Enterprise Model
Feature) 265
D.5. 2nd Round Responses of Jacobson et al. 's Method (Analysis and
Visualization Features) 267
D.6. 2nd Round Responses of Proposed Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 268
E. 1. 3rd Round Questions for Rummler and Brache's Method (Enterprise
Model Feature) 274
E.2. 3rd Round Questions for Quid's Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 275
E.3. 3rd Round Questions for Quid's Method (Analysis and Visualization
Features) 276
E.4. 3rd Round Questions for Jacobson et al.'s Method (Enterprise Model
Feature) 277
E.5. 3rd Round Questions for Jacobson et al.'s Method (Analysis and
Visualization Features) 278
E.6. 3rd Round Questions for Proposed Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 279
IX
F. 1. 3rd Round Responses for Rummler and Brache's Method (Enterprise
Model Feature) 281
F.2. 3rd Round Responses for Quid's Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 282
F.3. 3rd Round Responses for Quid's Method (Analysis and Visualization
Features) 283
F.4. 3rd Round Responses for Jacobson et al.'s Method (Enterprise Model
Feature) 284
F.5. 3rd Round Responses for Jacobson et al.'s Method (Analysis and
Visualization Features) 285
F.6. 3rd Round Responses for Proposed Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 286
H. 1. Final Evaluation of Rummler and Brache's Method (Enterprise Model
Feature) 291
H.2. Final Evaluation of Rummler and Brache's Method (Analysis and
Visualization Features) 293
H.3. Final Evaluation of Quid's Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 298
H.4. Final Evaluation of Quid's Method (Analysis and Visualization Features) 300
H.5. Final Evaluation of Jacobson et al.'s Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 306
H.6. Final Evaluation of Jacobson et al.'s Method (Analysis and Visualization
Features) 308
H.7. Final Evaluation of Proposed Method (Enterprise Model Feature) 315
H.8. Final Evaluation of Proposed Method (Analysis and Visualization
Features) 317
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1. A Methodology by Elzinga, Horak, Lee and Bmner (1995) 22
2.2. A Process Reengineering Life Cycle by Kettinger, Guha and Teng (1995) 24
3.1. Verification and Validation Process 46
4.1. A Conceptual Model of a BPR Modeling Method 67
4.2. A Stmcture of the Process Object 70
4.3. A Whole-to-Part Relationship of the Process Obj ects 73
4.4. A Stmcture of a Resource Object 74
4.5. Whole-to-Part, General-to-Specific, and Functional Relationships of
Resource Objects 75
4.6. A Template of a Process Object 77
4.7. A Template of a Resource Object 78
4.8. A Template of a Process Object for Process Selection Activity 78
4.9. A Template of a Process Object for Process Monhoring Activity 79
4.10. A Process Object Diagram for Process Selection 81
4.11. A Resource Object Diagram for Process Selection 81
4.12. Process Selection Table 81
4.13. A Process Object Diagram for Process Analysis and Design 82
4.14. A Resource Object Diagram for Process Analysis and Design 82
4.15. A Process Object Diagram whh Cycle Time Information 83
4.16. A Performance Comparison Table for Process Analysis and Design 84
4.17. Objective Hierarchy Diagram and a Process Object Diagram whh
Objective Information 85
4.18. A Resource Object Diagram whh Related Process Objects and Their
Classification 85
4.19. A Process Object Diagram for Process Implementation 87
4.20. Steps of an Extended 0 0 Modeling Method 89
4.21. Symbol-Level Conceptual Model of a BPR Modeling Method 98
5.1. A Framework for the Enterprise Model Feature 102
5.2. A Framework for the Analysis and Visualization Features 103
6.1. Graphical Notations Used in Process Flow Diagrams 112
XI
6.2. Graphical Notations Used in RAD 114
6.3. Graphical Notation Used in Jocobson et al. 's 0 0 Method 116
XI1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Several methodologies for Business Process Reengineering (BPR) have been
proposed by many researchers since a seminal article by Hammer (1990) was published.
Many of them rely on modeling approaches developed in the field of information systems
development to support BPR project activhies included in those methodologies. In
addition, many software tools for BPR have also been developed based on such modehng
techniques. Although many companies use those methodologies, modeling approaches,
and software tools to pursue their BPR projects, the success rates of BPR projects are still
not high (Bashein, Markus & Railey, 1994; Klein, 1994).
BPR involves drastic changes in how to conduct a business process and thus a high
risk. For this reason, an organization that attempts BPR seeks a systematic approach to
support BPR project activities. One way is to analyze the existing process, deriving a
redesigned process, and evaluating the impact of the change (Klein, 1994). To achieve
changes, most methodologies for BPR include the modeling phase as part of their
approaches. During the modeling phase, a variety of information about a business process
is gathered and specified. Then, the information captured in the model(s) is used to carry
out subsequent BPR project activhies. Therefore, h is critical to have a modeling method
that specifies an efficient way to gather information about a business process, develop a
model of the business process and analyze h. However, very littie research has been
conducted to identify what information should be gathered and how h should be presented
to BPR analysts. Also, very little research has been conducted to identify how to analyze
the information. This research proposes a BPR modeling method to help an organization
pursue a BPR project efficiently. The proposed BPR modeling method shows what kind
of information about a business process should be collected and presented, as well as how
to analyze it.
The first section of this chapter discusses the background of this research. The
problem statement of this research is presented in the second section. This is fohowed by
the discussion of research issues and objectives. Then, deliverables of this research are
listed. The fifth section discusses the significance of this research. The final secfion of this
chapter describes the stmcture of this dissertation.
Background
Intensified global compethion in business has dramatically affected how American
companies conduct their business. Historically, American companies have been successful
by dividing work into small repeatable tasks. This division of work has facilhated local
optimization but frequently has led to poor overall performance in an organization. As
global compethion has intensified, several companies have recognized that this traditional
approach is no longer the way to achieve success. Rather, they have recognized that an
organization must be flexible, responsive, and customer-oriented. To achieve a flexible,
responsive, customer-oriented organization, many companies must attempt drastic
changes in their organizations. This attempt for drastic changes in a business process is
called Business Process Reengineering (BPR).
The term "Business Process Reengineering" is defined by several researchers.
Hammer and Champy (1993) defined "Reengineering" as follows: "the fundamental
rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in
critical, contemporary measures of performance such as cost, quality, service, and speed"
(p.32). In their book, the authors emphasized four key words used in this definition. The
first key word is "fundamental." They suggested that reengineering first determines what
a company must do by asking fundamental questions about business mles and underlying
assumptions. The second key word is "radical." They suggested disregarding all existing
stmctures and procedures and inventing complete new ways of accomphshing tasks. The
third key word is "dramatic." According to Hammer and Champy, reengineering is not
about making marginal or incremental improvements. It is about achieving "quantum
leaps" in business performance. The last key word is "processes." They defined a
business process as: "a collection of activities that takes one or more kinds of input and
creates an output that is of value to the customer" (p. 3 5).
They emphasized that a company needs to shift from tradhional thinking to
process-based thinking. The tradhional thinking is based on the concept of "division of
labor" and tends to focus on the individual tasks thereby losing sight of the larger
objective. In short, they emphasized that reengineering is "starting over" and "beginning
again with a clean sheet of paper." They also emphasized that BPR is different from
incremental business process improvement.
While Hammer and Champy (1993) differentiated BPR from incremental business
process improvement, several researchers think of BPR in the context of a broader, more
comprehensive process management concept. Davenport (1993 a) used a continuum of
process change to handle both continuous improvement and radical BPR under one
concept. Davenport also suggested (1993b) that both approaches use the same unit of
analysis and require rigorous measurement of process performance such as cycle time,
defects, productivhy and cost although individual projects differ in the degree of
improvement sought and in the extent to which the existing process is examined and
improved. Moreover, he pointed out that a redesigned business process must be
maintained by continuous improvement to keep up with changing customer needs and the
competitive environment.
Kettinger and Grover (1995) described that "they have observed an evolution of
the reengineering concept over the past several years" (p. 11). They mentioned that the
radical tone of BPR has been decreased because the implementation of BPR frequently
requires an incremental approach. They also added that the reconcihation with more
incremental process change methods has resuhed in the evolution toward a broader, more
comprehensive process management concept. According to them, the purpose of both
BPR and incremental business process improvement is to transform a business process in
order to achieve strategic objectives. They concluded that theories describing, explaining,
and predicting the impact of all of the change approaches should be formalized under the
context of business process change management.
Under the concept of business process change management, models of a business
process may need to be developed for several purposes. For example, during a BPR
project, a model of an organization may be used to select a target process. Another type
of model may be needed to document the functional requirements of a business process.
A model may be used to specify the sequential relationship among process steps. In
addition, models developed during a BPR project should be useful for hs subsequent
continuous improvement. More specifically, information captured in the models should be
maintained and presented in a useful format for future continuous improvement.
For a model to serve different purposes at different stages of business process
change management, it must capture a variety of information about a business process.
(In this dissertation, capturing information represents collecting, storing and presenting
information.) Therefore, the specific modeling technique used is a vital issue in BPR
because it determines what aspect of a process is represented in a resulting model. Curtis,
Kellner and Over (1992) identified four perspectives that people should use to describe a
process adequately. Although they identified these four perspectives for software process
modeling, Huckvale and Quid (1995) and Wang (1994) suggested that these four
perspectives can be used to model a business process for BPR. Those four perspectives
are functional, behavioral, informational, and organizational. The functional perspective is
used to represent what process elements are performed and flows of entities (inputs and
outputs) that are relevant to them. The behavioral perspective is used to represent when
process elements are performed and the sequential relationships among them. The
informational perspective is used to represent what enthies are produced and manipulated
by a process, as well as the relationship among them and the stmcture of each. The
organizational perspective is used to represent where and by whom process elements are
performed.
Currently, several modeling approaches must be used to capture all four aspects of
a business process and support a variety of BPR project activities, since the focuses of the
four primary modeling approaches available for BPR are different. The process-oriented
modeling approach focuses on capturing information about a process from the functional
perspective. The data-oriented modehng approach focuses on capturing information
about a process from the informational perspective. The dynamic modeling approach
focuses on capturing information about a process from the behavioral perspective. The
0 0 modeling approach focuses on capturing information about a process from the
informational perspective, as well as the fiinctional perspective. Even though those
modehng approaches do capture information about a process from other perspectives,
they do not capture information about a process explicitly from all four perspectives.
Until recently, a combination of process-oriented modeling methods and data-
oriented modeling methods has been used as a primary modehng method for BPR.
However, the 0 0 approach is gaining popularity in the area of information systems
development and several researchers have attempted to use h for BPR (Jacobson,
Ericsson, & Jacobson, 1995; Wang, 1994). Dynamic modeling methods with animation
capability are also getting popular in the field of workflow management.
BPR involves drastic changes in an organization and high risk. Competitive
environment and customer needs are changing rapidly. Under these conditions,
organizations are seeking a modeling method that supports the comphcated activities of a
BPR project sufficiently and efficiently. However, the capabilhies of the four currently
available modeling approaches as a desired BPR modeling method have not been
evaluated. A BPR modeling method should have the capability to support a variety of
BPR activities efficiently throughout a project, including subsequent continuous
improvement projects.
Problem Statement
Due to the high risks involved in BPR, it is critical for an organization to have a
BPR modeling method that efficiently supports a BPR project. During a BPR project, a
variety of information about a business process must be gathered and stored in a model or
models. Although the four perspectives identified by Curtis et al. (1992) are useful to
identify how a business process should be viewed, it is necessary to identify clearly what
information about a business process should be captured in a model to support BPR
project activities. However, very little research has been conducted to identify what
information about a business process should be gathered and how h should be presented
to BPR analysts so that they can carry out BPR project activhies efficiently.
Once we have clear knowledge about what information about a business process is
necessary to support BPR project activities, a modeling technique that can capture all such
information must be selected. As discussed earlier, traditional modeling approaches may
not have sufficient capabilities to capture all the information. If none of them have enough
capabilities to capture all the information by themselves, several modeling techniques must
be used. When several models are used, the information independently captured in several
models must be integrated to produce relevant information for supporting a BPR activity.
This requires the integration of several modeling approaches into a BPR modeling method.
Although several software tools support several modeling approaches, they are not well
integrated to support BPR project activhies efficiently. In addhion, little research effort
has taken place in order to develop an integrated modehng method for business process
change management, that supports BPR activities throughout a project, as well as
subsequent process improvement. It is necessary to develop a BPR modeling method that
has sufficient capabilities to capture information about a business process for BPR.
Finally and most importantly, it is necessary to specify how information captured
and specified in a model should be used in order to carry out BPR project activities. No
research has proposed a modeling method that defines specific steps to support BPR
project activities such as deriving a model of a reengineered business process from a
model of the existing process. A redesigning process still rehes mostly on a BPR analyst's
experiences and intuitions.
Research Objectives and Issues
The objective of this research is to develop a new modehng method to support
BPR activhies under the business process change management concept. This modeling
method uses the 0 0 concept to capture information about a business process sufficient to
support BPR activhies. The modeling method consists of several steps to model the
current business process, analyze the model, derive a model for a reengineered process.
and evaluate the impact of reengineering. Such a modeling method tailored for supporting
BPR projects can help an organization carry out each BPR project activity efficiently and
effectively throughout a project.
To achieve this research objective, the following four research questions are
addressed:
1. What kinds of information about a business process should be captured in a
model for BPR?
2. What mechanisms should a modeling framework have in order to capture all the
information for BPR?
3. What kind of analyses should be done on information captured in the existing
model to derive a model of a reengineered process?
4. What are the steps of an 0 0 modeling method needed to model the current
business process, and to design and evaluate the reengineered business process?
As mentioned earlier, one of the major problems of research in BPR is that it is still
not clear what information about a business process should be captured, and how it should
be presented in a model. It is impossible to identify what mechanisms a modeling
framework should have whhout knowing what information is used to analyze an existing
process and redesign it.
The second issue in the research is the development of a modeling framework that
has the mechanisms to capture information about a business process necessary to support
BPR project activhies. Traditional modeling approaches do not have sufficient capabilities
to store all the information about a business process necessary to carry out BPR project
activities. Therefore, the development of a modeling framework with such capabilities
helps BPR analysts collect, specify, and analyze information about the existing and
redesigned business processes efficiently.
Third, after the information necessary to support BPR project activities is captured
in a model, systematic analyses should be conducted on the information to derive a
reengineered business process and evaluate the impact of the redesign. Although a BPR
analyst's experience and intuition play a critical role in redesigning a business process, the
7
identification of analytical actions that should be conducted to reengineer a business
process and evaluate the impact of the redesign helps BPR analysts pursue a BPR project
efficiently.
Fourth, for a modeling method to be useful, a general step-by-step guideline must
be provided. Whhout the guideline, BPR practhioners are not able to use the modeling
framework efficiently or misuse h. To help an organization pursue a BPR project, h is
essential to establish a general guideline although the apphcation of a modeling method is
dependent on the analysts' experience and skills.
In addition, an organization needs to improve its reengineered business process
continuously in order to keep h current with dynamically changing customer needs and
business compethion. Therefore, a model should be easy to update and helpful in
identifying a problem in a business process. For a model to possess this capability, it
should be able to maintain all the information in one place and provide the user with all
relevant information for specific needs in a timely fashion.
A unified approach to artificial intelligence research methodology (Baldwin &
Yadav, 1995) was used to address the research issues and develop a modeling method.
Starting with the problem formulation, this research methodology provided a systematic
procedure for building a theory and testing h. The details of this methodology appear in
Chapter III.
Deliverables of the Research
The principal deliverables of the research are as follows:
1. A description of the kinds of information about a business process that are
necessary to perform BPR activhies.
2. A modeling framework that has capabilhies to capture all the information
necessary for supporting BPR activhies.
3. A set of analytical techniques that help analysts redesign a current business
process and evaluate a redesigned process.
4. A general guideline of the specific steps of the modeling method.
8
5. Validation of the proposed modeling method.
Importance of the Research
The research addresses the shortcomings of modeling approaches used in BPR
projects and to provide a modeling method that supports BPR activhies in a more efficient
manner. With the deliverables listed in the previous section, the research makes the
contribution to both academia and practhioners.
First, the research identifies information about a business process necessary to
carry out essential BPR activhies. This provides a theoretical basis for evaluating the
capabilhies of modeling approaches to BPR. In addhion, h helps practhioners to select a
more appropriate modeling approach for the activhies they need to complete.
Second, the modeling method developed in this research provides a set of
techniques for analyzing information captured in its model. The importance of modeling
an existing process tends to be emphasized less because it is time-consuming. The lack of
systematic techniques to analyze a model of an existing process may have contributed to
this trend. The lack of analytical techniques resuhs in greater reliance on a BPR analyst's
experience and intuhion in reengineering. By developing a set of analytical techniques, the
research provides a more systematic way to derive specifications of a reengineered process
from the model of the existing process. Consequently, it reduces rehance on a BPR
analyst's experience and intuition.
Third, the modeling framework developed in the research can be used as a
theoretical basis for designing a reposhory for a computer-aided tool for BPR. The
modeling framework has the capability to show how the information is related to each
other. Using the modeling framework, it is possible to produce several diagrams, each of
which focuses on different aspects of a business process.
Fourth, the specified modeling method's steps in the research can be used as a
theoretical guideline to design comprehensive software tools for BPR. Practhioners can
also use h as a general guidehne for a BPR project. In short, a conceptual model of a
BPR modeling method that includes the modeling framework and a step-by-step
procedure provides a theoretical basis to constmct an automated tool for BPR.
Stmcture of the Dissertation
The rest of the dissertation is organized as follows: Chapter II discuses mainly the
previous research concerning modeling methods for BPR. Chapter III addresses the
details of the research methodology used in the research. In Chapter IV, the development
of a BPR modehng method is presented. Chapter V discusses the vahdation procedure
used in this research. Chapter VI discusses the data analysis. Finally, Chapter VII
concludes this dissertation by presenting the deliverables, contributions and limitations of
the research.
10
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This research is concerned with the development of a BPR modeling method to
help organizations pursue BPR projects efficiently. The first section of this chapter
discusses the primary concepts that make up BPR. This review clarifies what BPR goals
are and thus what should be done to pursue a BPR project successfully. The second
section discusses the existing methodologies for BPR. This review identifies what BPR
project activities need the support of a BPR modeling method. This is important in order
to identify the desired functionality of a BPR modeling method. The third section
discusses the modeling methods used in those BPR methodologies. This review identifies
what capabilities those modeling methods have and what their shortcomings are. This is
important in identifying the desired capabilities of a BPR modeling method.
Concepts of Business Process Reengineering
This section first discusses the process view of business as a fundamental idea of
BPR. Then, definhions of BPR are reviewed to identify the primary concepts of BPR.
Process View of Business
The idea of BPR started whh looking at business from the process view. Most
American companies organize their work as a sequence of simple, separate tasks. Then,
they use complex mechanisms and many managers to control those tasks (Hammer, 1990;
Hammer & Champy, 1993; Davenport, 1993 a). This division and specialization of labor
have been helpful in reducing inefficiencies and taking advantage of economies of scale.
However, many organizations have recognized that this approach frequently resuhs in
local optimization but poor overall performance. In order to improve overall
performance, organizations need to view their work in terms of a process and not
fiinctions or divisions (Hammer & Champy, 1993; Davenport, 1993a). Several
researchers defined a "process" to facilitate the process view.
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Davenport and Short (1990) defined a business process as a "set of logically
related tasks performed to achieve a defined business outcome" (p. 12). According to
them, processes have two important characteristics: (a) they have customers (ehher
intemal or external to the firm); and (b) they cross organizational boundaries. Later,
Davenport (1993 a) redefined a process as "simply a stmctured, measured set of activhies
designed to produce a specified output for a particular customer or market" (p. 5). He
also described a process as "a specific ordering of work activhies across time and place,
whh a beginning, an end, and clearly identified inputs and outputs: a stmcture for action"
(p. 5). He emphasized that process stmcture can be distinguished from an organization's
hierarchical stmcture. According to him, while an organization's hierarchical stmcture
shows a view of responsibilhies and reporting relationships, process stmcture is a dynamic
view of how the organization delivers value to the customers. He also identified the four
measurements of a process to evaluate whether BPR has succeeded. Those four are: (a)
cost, (b) time, (c) output quality, and (d) customer satisfaction. Hammer and Champy
(1993) and Harrington (1991) have also developed similar definitions.
From these definitions, the present review identified those common characteristics
of a business process that are important for BPR. First, a process is composed of a set of
activities or tasks. Second, a set of those activities or tasks is stmctured logically. The
stmcture is independent of the organizational stmcture. Third, a process may cross the
organization's functional boundaries. Fourth, a process uses inputs (resources) to
produce specific outputs that are used for achieving the organization's predefined
objectives. The outputs should denote values to customers. Fifth, a process can be
measured using costs, time, output quality and customer satisfaction.
Characteristics of BPR
In the previous section, the characteristics of a business process that are important
for BPR were discussed. This section discusses the primary concepts that make up BPR.
Many researchers have defined BPR. The present review clarifies those primary concepts
of BPR that should be considered while a BPR project is being pursued. The review
revealed that the definhion of BPR has evolved
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Originally, researchers emphasized the radical aspect of BPR and the importance
of information technology (IT) as the BPR enabler. Hammer (1990) described
"reengineering" as using "the power of modern information technology to radically
redesign our business processes in order to achieve dramatic improvements in their
performance" (p. 104). Davenport and Short (1990) also emphasized the importance of
IT as an enabler of BPR. This led the several studies about IT as a BPR enabler (Grover,
Fielder, & Teng, 1994; Teng, Grover, & Fielder, 1994a, Teng, Grover, & Fielder, 1994b;
Venkatraman, 1994)
However, the emphasis has been shifted from the radical aspect and use of IT to
the process view and use of other BPR enablers. Hammer and Champy (1993) mentioned
that they originally thought that "radical" was the most important concept in BPR but they
realized that the most important concept in BPR is "process." Davenport (1993a) uses
"process innovation" to represent radical change in business processes. He describes
"process innovation" as that which "... combines a stmcture for doing work with an
orientation to visible and dramatic results. It involves stepping back from a process to
inquire into its overall business objective, and then effecting creative and radical change to
realize order-of-magnitude improvements in the way that objective is accomphshed" (p.
10). He clearly points out that it is cmcial to look at a process using an organization-wide
perspective and restmcture a process to achieve the organization's objectives. He also
identified organizational stmcture and human resource architecture as important BPR
enablers.
In addhion, the radical tone of BPR has been reduced as more empirical research
on BPR has been conducted. Many researchers asserted that there are business processes
that cannot be redesigned with a clean sheet of paper due to implementation constraints
(Caron, Jarvenpaa, & Stoddard, 1994; Davenport and Stoddard, 1994; Eari, Sampler, &
Short, 1995; Harrison & Pratt, 1993).
BPR has then evolved toward a more comprehensive process management by
reconciling h to existing concepts such as incremental process improvement, strategic
planning, and change management. Davenport and Stoddard (1994) asserted that most
firms believe that no single approach to organizational change is appropriate for all
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circumstances. Thus, firms should have a portfolio of approaches to operational changes,
including reengineering, continuous improvement, incremental approaches, and
restmcturing techniques. Davenport's and Stoddard's expectations were that
reengineering would be combined whh qualhy and other process-oriented improvement
approaches into an integrated process management approach.
Kettinger and Grover (1995) asserted that "the (r)evolution of BPR, the
requirement to sustain process change, the need to reconcile alternative process
improvement and innovation approaches, and the recognition of organizational constraints
to implementation have all served to broaden the concept of business process change..."
(p. 12). Based on these broader concepts of BPR, Kettinger, Guha and Teng (1995)
defined "business process reengineering as an organizational initiative to accomphsh
strategy-driven (re)design of business processes to achieve competitive breakthroughs in
quality, responsiveness, cost, flexibility, and satisfaction. These initiatives may differ in
scope from process improvement to radical new process design" (p. 213). This research
uses this broader definhion of BPR. Thus, the modeling method for BPR developed in
this research is not limhed to a radical, clean-slate approach. It is designed to support a
wide range of BPR approaches, including a less radical, relatively incremental approach.
By reviewing definhions of a process and BPR, the primary concepts that make up
BPR are summarized as follows: (a) a strategy-driven, organization-wide change initiative;
(b) hs purpose of achieving organizational objectives; (c) a relatively clean slate approach
limhed by implementation constraints; (d) the search for radical change in process
performance from the customers' point of view; (e) involvement of changes in how work
is done, organizational stmcture, and human resource arrangements; (f) the use of
information technology as an enabler of the changes; and (g) the needs for maintenance
and continuous improvement of the redesigned process.
Methodologies for BPR
To pursue BPR successfially, an organization needs to complete several activhies
considering the important concepts of process view and BPR discussed above. In general,
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BPR researchers have derived their stmctured methodologies by examining successfully
completed BPR projects and finding commonahies among them.
Kettinger, Guha and Teng (1995) stated that the methodologies for BPR share
some high-level similarities. Those similarities include the necessity of articulating
strategic vision, the development of a BPR plan, the establishment of appropriate
performance measures, and the implementation of improved process and organizational
systems. However, they also pointed out those methodologies often differ in the following
aspects: (a) the extent to which a BPR project focuses on redesigning an existing process
as opposed to immediately focusing on designing a new process; (b) the inclusion and
sequence of steps; and (c) the specific techniques applied. A BPR team or analyst can
carry out some of those steps efficiently using a modeling method. The present review of
the existing BPR methodologies identifies those steps which need the support of a
modehng method. This was critical in deriving the desired functionality of a BPR
modeling method.
The origin of BPR methodologies appears in the article written by Hammer
(1990). He stated that BPR needs to analyze the existing business process to understand
what the process is trying to accomplish, determine which of hs process elements really
adds value, and search for new ways to achieve the resuh. To achieve these, he identified
seven principles of reengineering. Those seven principles are:
1. Organize around outcomes not tasks.
2. Have those who use the output of the process perform the process.
3. Subsume information-processing work into the real work that produces the
information.
4. Treat geographically dispersed resources as though they were centralized.
5. Link parallel activities instead of integrating their resuhs.
6. Put the decision point where the work is performed, and build control into the
process.
7. Capture information once and at the source.
Although these principles can be used as guidelines to redesign a business process, they
are not organized as a step-by-step methodology. In this article, he did not mention any
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specific tools available for conducting a BPR project. Hammer, with Stanton, later
asserted that analyzing the current process is a waste of time although understanding h is
necessary (Hammer & Stanton, 1995). According to them, understanding is achieving a
high-level, goal-oriented overview of an existing process that provides you whh enough
information to begin with a clean sheet of paper. On the other hand, they stated that
analysis involves the detailed documentation of every aspect of the process. However,
one major issue that must be clarified constitutes what is enough information. The
identification of "enough information" is one of the main goals proposed in the present
research.
Davenport and Short (1990) proposed the first step-by-step methodology. Those
steps are:
1. Develop the business vision and process objectives.
2. Identify the process to be redesigned.
3 Understand and measure the existing process.
4. Identify IT levers.
5. Design and build a prototype of the new process.
Davenport and Short suggested two major approaches to identify the processes for
innovation or redesign. Those two approaches are the exhaustive approach and high-
impact approach. For the exhaustive approach, they suggested the use of the Data-
Activity Matrix of the Information Engineering (Martin, 1989). Using this matrix, a BPR
team identifies all processes whhin an organization and prioritizes them in the order of
urgency. In the high-impact approach, cmcial processes for success are sensed and
identified by senior management. In this methodology, Davenport and Short emphasized
two primary reasons for understanding and measuring processes before redesigning them.
First, h is necessary to understand problems in order to remove them from a redesigned
process. Second, an accurate measurement is necessary to measure whether the objective
established in the first phase is achieved. Davenport and Short mentioned that
brainstorming is a usefial tool for the identification of IT levers. Brainstorming, process
models and prototypes of IT applications are suggested to design and build a prototype.
Computer simulation is also suggested for testing and evaluating the new process.
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Davenport (1993a) proposed another five-step methodology for business
improvement. Those five steps are:
1. Identify processes for innovation.
2. Identify change levers.
3. Develop process visions.
4. Understand existing processes.
5. Design and prototype the new process.
He again mentioned that process selection is a critical prerequishe to process change. A
firm needs to identify key business processes and to set their boundaries. Then, a BPR
team or analyst needs to consider strategic relevance, process health, process
quantification, and manageable project scope to select a process for innovation. The
development of process vision requires the assessment of current strategies, benchmarking
the process for targets, and obtaining customer perspectives. The process vision should
include quantified process objectives and process attributes such as technology used,
process operators, and outputs produced. The Critical Success Factors (CSFs) (Rockart,
1979), strategic-planning, and systems-planning are suggested as useful tools for process
visioning.
In this methodology, Davenport identified four reasons to document the existing
process before proceeding with process innovation. Those four reasons are:
It facilhates communication among participants.
It is essential to migrate a new process and plan implementation.
It helps to ensure identified problems are not repeated in a new process.
It provides a measure of the value of the proposed innovation.
Davenport also emphasized that documenting the existing process leads to process
improvement efforts naturally. He mentioned that many firms have incorporated process
improvement with breakthrough innovation. Brainstorming, process models, and
prototyping, as well as computer simulation are suggested to design and build a prototype.
He mentioned that there are no tools available that fiilly support this phase. However, he
also mentioned that 0 0 modeling methods may be a better modeling approach than
Information Engineering.
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O'Sullivan and Geringer (1993) proposed the natural value chain framework,
which is based on the Information Engineering. The natural value chain is a set of value-
adding accomplishments. It represents what has to be accomplished with the resources of
the enterprise. There are three components in the natural value chain: vhal actions, vital
objects, and natural interrelationships. Vital actions are the business accomplishments the
enterprise must execute in order to fulfill hs strategies. Vhal objects are the things that the
enterprise must know about in order to perform the vital actions. Natural
interrelationships are relationships between vital actions and vital objects. A natural
linkage is a sequential relationship between vital actions. The natural interrelationships
and natural linkages are concerned whh how the result of one vhal action is transmitted to
the naturally linked vhal action. They differentiate the natural value chain from the
contrived value chain, which is the imperfectly implemented natural value chain due to the
constraints of the organization.
In their method, first, the natural value chain is specified by analyzing the
environment and the existing business processes. The natural value chain is treated as an
ideal stmcture of a business process. Then, the best possible contrived value chain is
designed based on the natural value chain, considering the constraints of the organization.
They specified the procedure of defining the natural value chain as follows:
1. Context analysis: understand the enterprise drivers and their source, products, and
objectives and approach.
2. Action analysis: identify mission critical actions, fundamental constraints, derivative
actions, and business knowledge needed by each vhal action.
3. Linkage analysis: identify vital objects and specify how each process makes use of
each vital object.
4. Stage analysis: establish the natural sequence of the vhal actions of the enterprise.
The main purposes of the above approach are (a) to identify common value chain portions
that are carried out in different lines of business; and (b) to streamline the value chain by
removing redundancy and repethion. The interrelationship matrix between vhal objects
and vhal actions is used to identify natural linkage between vhal actions. The matrix is
also used to cluster vhal actions that share common objects and goals. These
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commonalties among actions provide the basis for achieving economies of scale when they
are implemented in one place in the contrived value chains. Their method emphasizes the
usefulness of the interrelationship matrix to establish the desired stmcture of a business
process.
Hahm and Lee (1994) proposed an iterative seven-step approach to BPR. Their
approach focuses on the development of a master plan for business process change to
optimize the overall performance of an organization. Their approach shows how to
develop a BPR master plan by following the seven steps presented below.
1. Select the objectives of an organization.
2. Specify the hierarchy of tasks.
3. Evaluate processes.
4. Specify relationships among tasks.
5. Analyze the impact of change in a process to the objective.
6. Develop a reengineering master plan.
7. Estimate resuhs.
In their method, after the objectives of an organization are identified from a global point of
view, an organization broken down into business tasks and their hierarchical relationships
are defined. Then, a set of tasks that constitute a business process is selected and the
sequential relationships among those tasks are specified. Each of these processes is
related to the objectives of the organization and its importance is evaluated. Diagrams are
used to show the relationship between a process and the objectives, as well as sequential
relationships of tasks. Analytic Hierarchy Process (Saaty & Keams, 1985) is suggested to
evaluate the importance of each process. In addhion, input-output relationships among
tasks are specified along the process using a diagram. Also, process performance
measurement variables are selected for each task. Then the hierarchy and sequence of the
tasks are analyzed in order to identify a task where the BPR master plan should start.
Stmctural self-interaction matrices, minimum edge adjacency matrices, reachability
matrices and digraphs for interpretive stmctural models (Harary, Norman, & Cartwright,
1965; Malone, 1975; Sage, 1977) are suggested to find the starting point of a master plan.
Then, a detailed action plan is established considering the sequence and importance of
19
each task. Finally, following the master plan, this method attempts to achieve global
optimization. Hahm and Lee emphasized the importance of analyzing the interrelationship
among the existing processes to develop a master plan for BPR.
Harrison and Pratt (1993) proposed a stmctured methodology that incorporates a
radical change and continuous improvement. Their methodology consists of the following
seven steps:
1. Set direction.
2. Estabhsh a baseline and benchmark.
3. Create vision.
4. Launch problem-solving projects.
5. Design improvement.
6. Implement change.
7 Embed continuous improvement.
In the first step, the steering committee selects a business process for redesign and sets
macro-level targets for overall performance improvement. The steering committee then
selects a process evaluation team for the process. In the second step, the process
evaluation team studies the existing process and articulates the business process mission
and objectives. The team also identifies the customers of the process as well as their
requirements and value criteria. The team develops a model of the existing process and
performance metrics. After analyzing the existing process, opportunities for immediate
improvement are identified and line management is made responsible for explohing them.
In the third step, the process evaluation team begins to visualize the future process and
create a vision of new ways of organizing processes. The team members analyze
comparable organizations, strive to understand industry trends, and familiarize themselves
with emerging information technology. In the fourth step, the process evaluation team
conducts an investigation of detailed problems. In the fifth step, the process evaluation
team consolidates their analyses and develops a comprehensive plan for process
improvement. The team develops a model of the future process and supporting
technology architecture. The team also develops detailed implementation plans for line
management.
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In the sixth step, pilot processes are established to demonstrate and validate the
process changes before the full-scale implementation begins. In the seventh step,
participative management and continuous improvement will be reinforced by embedding
teamwork behavior. Harrison and Pratt emphasized that this methodology does not have
an end point and the change process is ongoing. The process evaluation team periodically
monitors process performance, benchmarks emerging best practices and makes continuing
recommendations for process improvement. They did not mention any specific modeling
tools for their method.
Maull, Weaver, Childe, Smart and Bennett (1995) developed a five-stage
composhe methodology by investigating methodologies used in a wide range of
companies. Their methodology consists of the following five stages:
1 Identify or create corporate, manufacturing and IT strategies.
2. Identify key process(es) and performance measures.
3. Analyze existing process(es).
4. Redesign and implement process(es).
5. Monitor and continuously improve new process(es).
Although they developed this methodology as a step-by-step methodology, they asserted
that strict adherence to such a step-by-step approach is not appropriate. A user of this
methodology must make conscious choices about how the methodology should be
implemented for different types of business process change. An organization planning
radical design may skip the analysis of the existing processes while one planning more
incremental approach carries out extensive analysis of the existing processes.
Elzinga, Horak, Lee, and Bmner (1995) proposed a generic step-by-step method
for business process management. Their method encompasses from incremental
improvement methods to reengineering methods. They unified a variety of approaches
used by various companies into a generic business process management method. They
claimed that all methods employed for business process management can be mapped into
their method. They also emphasized the iteration of steps, implying the life cycle of
business process change management. Their method consists of the six stages as shown in
Figure 2.1.
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Benchmarking
^ '
Preparation
^'
Process
Selection
4
1
1
1
V
Process
Description
1
1
1

>'
Process
Quantification
1
1

V
Process
Improvement
Selection
1
1
1
1

V
Implementation
Continuous Improvement Cycle
Figure 2.1. A Methodology by Elzinga, Horak, Lee and Bmner (1995).
In the preparation phase, the statement of vision, mission and goals is set. A
subdivision of the enterprise can also have its specific vision, mission and goals in concert
with those of the enterprise. The CSF approach is the main method used in this phase. In
the process selection phase, a specific process is selected from several processes for
analysis and improvement. CSFs, as well as benchmarking, are useful to prioritize
alternative processes. Goals, CSFs and processes are related in order to estimate the value
or importance of a process to the enterprise. Analytical Hierarchy Process is suggested as
a useful tool for this analysis.
In the process description phase, a detailed description of a selected process is
developed. They suggested a precise documentation of what the process actually is and
what h is doing. Flowcharts, cause-and-effect diagrams, and IDEFQ are recommended as
useful tools for the documentation. At this point, an immediate improvement opportunity
may be identified. In the process quantification phase, a quantification of the process is
carried out to identify extraneous resources or possible targets for improvement.
Activhies are classified into value-adding and non-value-adding. Information about cost,
cycle-time, and resource requirements is also obtained. Cost-time profiles, pie charts,
histograms, Pareto charts and activity-based costing are suggested as useful tools. A
computer simulation of the process is also suggested.
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1
In the process improvement selection phase, opportunities for improvement are
selected based on the knowledge about the process obtained in the previous two phases.
First, all the information obtained should be reviewed to redesign or eliminate non-value-
adding activhies. For value-adding activities, a process cost-value matrix is used to select
activhies for redesign. The matrix classifies activities into four types: low cost-low value;
low cost-high value; high cost-low value; and high cost-high value. Activhies whh high
cost and low value should be redesigned for cost reduction. Activhies whh high cost and
high value should receive special attention and be analyzed for possible cost reduction.
Activities whh low cost and low value should be investigated for elimination. Activities
whh low cost and high value are investigated for explohation.
In the implementation phase, specific improvements are recommended and
.mplemented. A model for the redesigned process should be developed. The model
should describe the redesigned process in contrast to the existing process. After the
improved process is implemented, the process selection phase will be restarted again for
further study and continuing improvement.
This method emphasized the cyclical nature of business process change
management. Throughout the cycle, a company should select an appropriate business
process improvement approach according to the types of problems the process has.
Elzinga, Horak, Lee, and Bmner (1995) also pointed out that it is important to understand
the existing business processes at the early phase of the cycle in order to undertake the
process improvement successfully. They mentioned that it is impossible to carry out
subsequent phases successfully whhout a thorough understanding of the current processes.
They emphasized the importance of modeling tools in understanding the existing processes
and in managing process change.
Kettinger, Guha and Teng (1995) identified commonality in existing
methodologies and developed a process reengineering life cycle (PRLC). The PRLC
discussed here is a revised version of the PRLC developed by Guha, Kettinger and Teng
(1993). The life cycle consists of six phases as shown in Figure 2.2. As shown in Figure
2.2, each phase consists of several steps. We focus on those steps that use information
about a business process and models in this review.
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ENVISION
INAUGURATE
DIAGNOSE
Feedbaclc'"
EVALUATE
(RE)CONSTRUCT
(RE)DESIGN
Figure 2.2. A Process Reengineering Life Cycle by Kettinger, Guha and Teng (1995)
After clearly specifying corporate goals, objectives, and key performance
indicators, major corporate processes that support those business objectives and goals are
identified. Certain planning tools such as Information Systems Planning (Martin, 1989),
Business Systems Planning (IBM Corp, 1975), CSFs and Core Process Analysis (Kaplan
& Murdock, 1991; Ostroff & Smith, 1992) may be used in the identification of business
processes. Then, a preliminary analysis is completed to assess the health of each business
process. A technique suggested to assist in this assessment is the CFS/Process matrix. In
the third step, IT enabling opportunhies are identified. The potential to use new IT should
be examined. The IT/CSF linkage matrix is a technique that facilhates this analysis (Teng,
Kettinger, & Guha, 1992). In the fourth step, a BPR project is selected based on the
importance of a business process.
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During the diagnosis phase, if the existing process is considered worthy of detailed
analysis, then the BPR project team should document and critically analyze the pathologies
of the existing process. Documentation of the existing process requires capturing the
activhies, resources, controls, business mles and information flows, relationship between
activhies, information and their relevant process characteristics. Data Flow Diagramming
(DFD), Block Diagramming, Process Flowcharting and Process Data Flow Diagramming
(PDF), and commercially available work flow design tools are suggested. This
methodology also suggests the use of an Integrated Computer and Manufacturing
program. To develop a detailed measurement of the current process cost, activity-based
costing is suggested. To document the current process relative to jobs and IT, Job
Analysis, and Critical Incident Technique are suggested. To specify frequency and
purpose of formal and informal communication patterns associated with the processes,
techniques such as Information Control Network Modeling (Cook, 1979), Communication
Media Analysis and Speech Interaction Modeling (Mora-Medina Winograd, Flores, &
Flores,, 1992) are suggested. To uncover pathologies, they suggested many commonly
used TQM and Industrial Engineering techniques, such as Backward Chaining, Fishbone
Analysis, Force Field Analysis, and Pareto Diagramming.
During the (re)designing phase, a BPR team explores process ahematives that
meet strategic objectives and integrate new human resources and IT architectures. If the
diagnose stage was undertaken, input from this stage should be used to eliminate the
pathologies identified. To explore ahernative designs, brainstorming, critical analysis,
backward chaining, and affinity diagramming are suggested. Customer analysis matrix is
also suggested as a usefial tool to translate process ahernatives into customer
requirements. Process flowcharting, block diagramming, DFD, PDF, IDEFQ, IDEFi,
IDEF3 and workflow design are recommended to generate and document the basic
configuration of several alternative process designs. The ahemative design may be
evaluated using a variety of approaches such as dynamic process modeling, process
simulation, and investment analysis. Brainstorming is recommended to identify new ideas
for human resource archhecture. The focus of a brainstorming session should be on job
jignments, organizational stmctures, layers of management and authorizations, extern of
assi{
25
team-based stmctures, reward stmctures and metrics. Job-design (Alic, 1990; and Smith
& Carayon-Sainfort, 1989) or socio-technical systems technique (Mohramm & Cummings,
1989; Pasmore, 1988, Taylor & Fehen, 1993) and team-based management (Katezenback
& Smhh, 1993) can be used. To select an IT platform, the enterprise-wide information
systems archhecture should be specified. By developing a prototype, the entire process is
to be "rehearsed." Role playing, paper process tests, and workflow designs are suggested
to identify further opportunities for refinements.
During the (re)constmcting phase, new information systems are developed and
deployed. In addhion, human resources are reorganized. The focus of this stage is a
smooth transhion. The information systems archhecture, as well as human resource
architecture, specified in the redesign phase is executed thoroughly.
While evaluating process performance, the performance of the (re)designed
process is measured. This evaluation stage also provides a fundamental link between the
more radical, one time focus of BPR and the continuous incremental improvements of
TQM (Kettinger & Lee, 1994). By using tradhional TQM techniques on the newly
defined process it is possible to anticipate that addhional substantial process improvement
will be made over time.
After reviewing the methodologies for BPR, h has been identified that a variety of
activities must be carried out by a BPR team or analyst. Some of those activhies are
carried out by developing and analyzing a model of a business process. It has also been
verified that a variety of information about a business process must be captured using
various modeling methods. What is lacking at present is a comprehensive BPR modeling
method that can support BPR project activities by capturing a variety of information about
a business process. The review revealed that the development of a modeling method whh
such capabilhies is critical in order to support BPR analysts to carry out a BPR project
efficiently.
Modeling Methods Used in BPR
BPR methodologies use a variety of process modeling methods to support
activities carried out at different stages of a BPR project. As mentioned earlier, according
26
to Curtis et al. (1992), a good process model should capture information about a process
using four perspectives: functional, behavioral, organizational, and informational. In
addhion to these four perspectives, a review of BPR definition and methodologies
revealed that a process model should capture the strategic aspect of a business process.
Information about the strategic importance of a business process and hs value to
customers are some of the examples that should be captured as a strategic aspect of a
business process. This section reviews modeling methods used by BPR methodologies
regarding their capabilhies to capture information about a business process and support
BPR project activities.
Flowcharts
Several BPR methodologies suggest flowcharts to analyze the existing process
(Elzinga et al., 1995; Kettinger et al., 1995; Maull et al., 1995). Flowcharts use three
constmcts: (a) a process activity, (b) decision making, and (c) the order of process
activities. Flowcharts use three types of stmctures to show relationships among process
activities. Those three are (a) sequence, (b) selection and (c) iteration. Flowcharts have
several shortcomings as a BPR modeling method. In general, flowcharts have difficulty in
representing a complex stmcture of a process because they are not suitable for showing a
hierarchical relationship among tasks. BPR requires a model of a complex, cross-
fiinctional business process. Thus, the capability of hierarchical decomposition is essential.
In addhion, inputs and outputs of activities are not specified in flowcharts. The lack of
ability to capture this information is critical because interrelationships between resources
and process activhies must be analyzed to streamline the process activhies. Third,
flowcharts do not specify where and by whom the processes are performed. Finally,
nehher process measurement variables nor strategic aspects of a process are captured in
flowcharts.
The Process Map proposed by Rummler and Brache (1995) extended flowcharts
by adding organizational responsibility for process steps, performance constraints and
goals. The organizational aspect is represented by a horizontal axis. Flowcharts are
mapped into this diagram. However, this method does not support the informational and
27
strategic aspects. Therefore, h does not facilitate strategic-driven analysis and design of a
process. Whhout capturing the informational and strategic aspects of a process, h is
difficuh to identify which process elements are fundamental to a business process.
Rummler and Brache (1995) proposed the Relationship Map to complement the Process
Map and capture the organizational-level performance measurement. However, this still
does not capture the informational aspect of a process. Runmiler and Brache's method
(1995) is discussed in detail in Chapter VI because this method is used as one of the
benchmark methods used in the validation.
Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs)
DFDs are also used in several BPR methodologies (Kettinger et al, 1995; Lucas,
Bemdt & Tmman, 1996). DFDs use four constmcts: (a) a process activity (process); (b)
a datastore, (c)an external agent and (d) a flow of data. A process transforms inputs into
outputs. External agents define boundaries of the process. Datastores are used to store
inputs and outputs. DFDs are used to model information flow and transformation in
varying levels of detail. DFDs have capability to show the hierarchy of a business process.
The DFD has several shortcomings as a BPR modeling method. First, a change in
functional representations may resuh in serious changes in the DFDs of the system (Wang,
1994). Second, the lack of a time dimension does not show when a process is activated
(Wang, 1994). Third, the definition of a data store is ambiguous and thus, its
informational perspective is not supported well (Wang, 1994). Finally, the strategic
perspective is not supported. In short, like flowcharts, the DFD has difficulty supporting
strategic-driven analysis and design of a process due to lack of informational and strategic
perspectives.
Integration Definition Methodology
Several researchers suggest Integration Definition Methodology (IDEF) is a
suitable modeling method for BPR (Appleton, 1995; Bradley, Browne, Jackson, &
Jagdev, 1995; Elzinga et al., 1995; Kettinger et al., 1995; Maull et al, 1995; Mayer,
Benjamin, Caraway, & Painter, 1995). IDEF is composed of several models. LDEFQ is a
28
fiinction model that shows the hierarchical stmcture of a business process. IDEFi is an
information model, and IDEFix is a semantic model, which has been extended from
IDEFi. IDEF2 and IDEF3 are dynamic models. IDEF5 is used to visualize an ontology.
IDEF4 is an 0 0 design model. IDEF4 is not intended to support the analysis phase.
Although Kettinger and Grover (1995) recommended IDEF4 to specify information
systems requirements, no other researchers suggest h to model a business process. This
review focuses on a modeling method to represent a business process, therefore, IDEF4 is
not discussed here.
An IDEFQ model consists of three components: diagrams, text and a glossary, all
cross-referenced to each other. The diagrams are the major components of the model.
The diagram uses (a) function, (b) input, (c) output, (d) control and (e) mechanism. The
diagram shows constrained functions and a hierarchical decomposhion of functions. The
function transforms inputs into outputs constrained by controls. A control constrains,
influences or determines the function performed. A mechanism is a tool or resource that is
used to perform the function. The viewpoint and purpose of a model are explicitly
specified at the top level IDEFQ also allows decomposhion of information (input, output,
control). Cross-referenced glossary and text are used to store additional information
associated whh functions, inputs, outputs, controls and mechanisms in a text format.
EDEFi and IDEFix capture the informational aspect of a business process.
Because IDEFix is an extension of IDEFi, only IDEFix is discussed here. The IDEFix
model is a semantic model. IDEFix uses four constmcts. Entity classes represent a
collection of physical or conceptual objects that share common attributes. Messages
represent a transaction between two or more activhies. Attributes (key or nonkey)
represent characteristics of an entity. Relationships represent the constraint on how two
or more enthies can be interrelated. IDEFix supports a generalization-specialization
relationship between a parent entity and one or more category entities. IDEFix provides a
basis for identifying what information is currently managed in the organization and what
the information lacks to support operations and decision making. It can also be used to
specify what information should be managed in a new process.
29
IDEF2 represents the time-dependent characteristics of a process. It describes the
behavior and information of a process interacting over time. More specifically, h
describes activation and termination events, sequence of operations, and conditional
relationships between inputs and outputs. Using this model, quanthative information
about the duration of activhies, total duration of a process, and the resources used and
produced by activities can be captured.
IDEF3 is a scenario-driven process modeling method used to describe the sequence
of activhies performed in a system. IDEF3 uses two components to describe a process:
the process flow descriptions; and the object state transhion network (OSTN)
descriptions. The process flow descriptions consist of a diagram and text descriptions.
The process flow diagram is made up of three constmcts: unhs of behavior (UOBs), links
and junction boxes. Using these three constmcts, the process flow diagram shows a
temporal sequence between activities represented by UOBs. It also shows the relative
timing of process paths that converge or diverge at a certain point in the sequence using
junction boxes. Text descriptions are used to elaborate the details of each UOB.
Information captured in the descriptions includes relating objects, constraints, and detailed
description of behavior. OSTN diagrams are used to model allowable state transitions of
objects. The OSTN diagrams use two basic elements: (a) nodes and (b) arcs. Nodes
represent different states of the object. Arcs represent possible transitions.
IDEF5, Ontology Description Capture Method, is used to divide and categorize
objects in a system. The purpose of IDEF5 is to obtain knowledge and information about
objects by categorizing objects under a certain kind. IDEF5 provides classification
schematics and relation schematics to visualize an ontology. Classification schematics are
used to show "subkind-of' relations between kinds. A "subkind-of' relation can be one of
the following three: (a) generalization/specialization, (b) a kind of (AKO), and (c)
description subsumption. Relation schematics are used to discover and characterize the
part-whole relation. In addition to these schematics, IDEF5 elaboration language is used
to define complex relation knowledge in a stmctured text format.
IDEFQ provides insight into "what" activhies are performed and the data flows
connecting them. However, h does not show explichly sequential relationship among
30
activhies. Using mechanisms, it captures some of the organizational aspect of a process.
A sequential relationship among activhies is captured in IDEF2 or IDEF3. The focus of
these models is to show "how" a process is performed. These two models can provide a
basis to conduct quantitative analysis such as discrete-event simulation. IDEFi and
EDEFix support the informational perspective. They provide a basis with which to identify
unnecessary information in the existing process and the information required in a new
process. IDEF5 is useful to find the varieties of product's or service's components, as
well as varieties of a product or services. The IDEF5 elaboration language can specify
different processes required by those different components, products or services.
Therefore, this ontological knowledge about components, products or services is useful in
understanding the underlying constraints of the existing process and in generating a future
process (Mayer et al, 1995). Each of these models uses a unique perspective to
document business processes and an organization. As a set of models, IDEF supports all
four perspectives specified by Curtis et el. (1992), although none of them by themselves
support all four perspectives. IDEF does not support the strategic perspective.
Role Activity Diagramming
Huckvale and Quid (1995) suggest Role Activity Diagrams (RADs) as a modeling
method for BPR. RAD was proposed by Hoh, Ramsey, and Grims (1983) for modeling
coordination in the workplace. This method has been used as one of the benchmark
methods in the validation of this research. Chapter VI discusses this method in detail.
Huckvale and Quid (1995) claim that RADs can show:
1. How activhies are divided among roles.
2. What the organization is trying to achieve whh the process.
3. What people do to achieve the goals.
4. How people whhin groups interact collaboratively to get the job done.
5. What constraints the organization puts on what people can do and how they
should operate.
In short, RAD strongly represents the behavioral and organizational perspectives.
However, h supports the fiinctional perspective only partially. RAD does not support
31
hierarchical decomposition. Rather, RAD explodes an activity or interaction into a new
RAD to handle the complexity. However, the roles and enthies referted to in the new
RAD are not formally connected to those in the higher-level RAD. The information
perspective is not supported. A state shows where the goal of a business process is
achieved. The goal is described as the final product of a business process. However,
RAD does not provide information for evaluating the importance of each activity in order
to produce this final product. Therefore, the strategic perspective is only partially
supported.
REAL Business Process Modeling (BPM)
The REAL BPM method uses the "events" perspective of business processes to
capture information about resources, events, agents, and locations, all of which
collectively describe the essential characteristics of business processes and events (Denna,
Cherrington, Andros & Sawyer-Hollander, 1993; Denna, Perry & Jasperson, 1995). The
REAL BPM has been developed based upon the concepts of an event-driven database
stmcture proposed by McCarthy (1982). According to Denna et al. (1995), this modeling
method is useful for an organization to use in aligning its business processes, stmcture and
stewardships, strategy, measurements, and IT application architecture. Thus, it helps in
achieving reengineering. The REAL BPM focuses on answering the following five
questions about each business event (Denna et al, 1995):
1. What happens? "What" refers to which business events occur.
2. When happens? "When" describes the order of the events such as starting time,
ending time, and duration.
3. What roles are played and who/what performs the roles? Roles can range from
internal responsibilities to external ones. Roles can be performed by individuals,
organizations, or programmable machines called agents.
4. What kinds of resources are involved and how much are they used? The type and
quantity of resources involved in each event.
5. Where does the event occur? The location of the agents or resources involved
provides the location of the event.
32
In REAL BPM, constmcts of Entity-Relationship (E-R) diagramming or 0 0 modeling can
be used to capture the information specified above (Denna et al, 1995). A business
process is decomposed into a sequence of discrete business events which management
wants to plan, control and evaluate. Each business event is represented as an entity class
or an object class. Each of the agents, resources and locations are also represented as an
entity class or as an object class. Sequence of events is represented by connecting events
with a line. Roles involved in an event, resources used by an event, and locations where
an event occurs are specified by connecting them to the event using hnes. An event can be
decomposed into lower-level subevents. The resulting diagram describes what event
happens, when the event happens, who is involved, what is involved, and where the event
occurs.
Denna et al. (1995) suggested that BPR requires a clear definition of a business
process. According to them, the modeling method achieves this by reducing a business
process to a series of events. Attributes of each entity or object are used to store detailed
information about event, agents, resources and locations. However, this method does not
specify what information about each of those enthies should be captured.
CIMOSA Business Modehng
ESPRIT (European Strategic Programme for Research and development in
Information Technology) Consortium AMICE (European CIM Archhecture-in reverse)
has developed CIMOSA (Computer Integrated Manufacturing Open System Architecture)
as a modeling methodology for supporting enterprise integration. It attempts to capture
all aspects of the information required by all the functions in a manufacturing enterprise.
According to Zelm, Vernadat and Kosanke (1995), CIMOSA provides a
framework that guides its users to model business requirements, derive enterprise system
design, and implement the design. Starting from enterprise objectives and constraints, the
system requirements are defined in the Particular Requirements Definhion Model (RDM).
In CIMOSA RDM, an organization is represented as a set of Domains, each of
which represents the boundaries of a business area. Each Domain is decomposed into a
set of Domain Processes (DPs), and each DP is decomposed into a set of Business
33
Processes (BPs). Each BP is decomposed into a set of Enterprise Activhies (EAs).
CIMOSA RDM uses a template to capture information about Domains, DPs, BPs, EAs
and Object View. Each Domain, DP, BP, and EA uses hs own unique template. The
information captured for Domain includes: (a) a brief domain description, (b) objectives
and constraints of developing a model, (c) a set of DPs that comprise the Domain, (d)
inputs and outputs, and (e) other Domains that provide inputs to or receive outputs from
the Domain. The information captured for DP includes: (a) objectives and constraints of
developing a model, (b) declarative mles, (c) brief functional descriptions of DP, (d)
inputs and outputs, (e) behavioral mles that show logic about when a particular BP is
activated, (f) hs parent Domain, (g) hs child BPs, and (h) events that trigger the DP and
its BPs. The information captured for BP includes the same kind of information captured
for a DP except for Events. The information captured for EA includes: (a) objectives and
constraints of developing a model, (b) declarative mles, (c) brief functional description,
(d) required skills to execute the EA, (e) inputs and outputs, (f) ending status, (g) detail
logic of EA's behavior, and (h) quantified data about the EA.
After establishing behavior and functionality of a business process by filling out
templates, its informational and organizational aspects are specified using Object View
Templates. The information captured in Object View Templates includes: (a) Nature of
objects, (b) Description, (c) Properties (attributes), (d) Constraints, (e) Leading Objects,
and (f) Related Objects. A hierarchy of objects is shown in the Object View Table. This
table indicates where objects are produced and where they are used. The relationship
among objects is also presented in a diagram format, called an ERA diagram. A
hierarchical organization diagram is also constmcted to show the hierarchical stmctures of
an enterprise organization and its resources.
The CIMOSA modeling framework can support five aspects of a manufacturing
system: fiinctional, behavioral, informational, resource, and organization (Zelm et al,
1995) ahhough CIMOSA Reference Archhecture supports functional, informational,
resource, and organizational views as defauh (Kosanke, 1995). The main purpose of the
CIMOSA modeling method is to provide the base for evolutional development of an
enterprise-wide computerized integrated manufacturing system.
34
A primary problem of CIMOSA as a BPR modeling method is that h does not
support the conceptual-level analysis of an enterprise. CIMOSA does not support a "tme"
definition of requirements about what activhies should be performed and what resources
should be used in business terms (Zwegers & Gransier, 1995). In CIMOSA, a scenario
must be developed to specify the desired definition of requirements in business terms.
CIMOSA does not specify how to develop multiple scenarios. However, once all detailed
design specifications of the enterprise model are documented, several manufacturing
scenarios can be simulated by changing part of the enterprise model. Throughout the
simulation, the optimized scenario can be identified. Therefore, this methodology is useful
as an evolutionary approach. In short, CIMOSA has trouble in supporting the conceptual-
level analysis of an enterprise model to identify a new way of conducting a business
process before detailed design specifications are developed. Another problem CIMOSA
has is that h uses different stmctures for Domain, DP, BP, and EA. Since an enterprise is
represented as a network of EAs at the lowest level, it limits the level of decomposition to
four levels.
Object-Oriented ( 00) Modeling
There are many 0 0 modeling methods for information systems development.
Most well-known methods are: Shlaer and Mellor (1988), Coad and Youdon (1991),
Booch (1994), Rumbaugh, Blaha and Premeriani (1989), Wirfs-Brock and Wilkerson
(1989), Martin and Odell (1992), and Jacobson (1993). These modeling methods use
different notations and support different concepts. However, they share common
concepts such as object class, encapsulation and inheritance. In this section, those
common concepts of 0 0 modehng are reviewed first, rather than reviewing each of weU-
known methods. Then Jacobson et al.'s 0 0 modeling method (1995) is briefly reviewed
here but discussed in detail in Chapter VI, because h has been used as one of the
benchmark methods in the validation of this research. Finally, Wang's 0 0 modeling
method for BPR (1994) is reviewed in detail in this section.
0 0 modeling methods use object classes to represent real-worid objects. They use
references to renresent relationship between objects. The major concepts of 0 0 modeling
35
methods include objects, object classes, encapsulation and inheritance. An object is a
stmcture that encapsulates attributes and methods that operate on the object. The
attributes' values express the state of an object. The behavior of an object is expressed by
a set of methods. An object class is a logical grouping of objects that have common
attributes and methods. Encapsulation is the property that attributes and methods of an
object are hidden from the outside world and do not have to be known to access the
object's data values or invoke the object's methods. A method is activated by sending a
message from one object to another. Another unique feature is that 0 0 modeling
explicitly models class-subclass relationships, which show generalization and specialization
of real-world enthies. Generalization hierarchy is a hierarchical grouping of objects that
share common attributes and methods. Inheritance is the property in which each class
assumes the attributes and methods of hs ancestors when classes are arranged in hierarchy.
Properties that are unique to each subclass are defined in that subclass. In 0 0 modeling, a
new composite object can be defined from previously defined objects in nested or
hierarchical fashion. 0 0 modeling method also explicitly represents assembly stmcture
(whole-to-part).
0 0 modeling approach captures the informational aspect explicitly. It also
captures what activhies are performed on the attributes of an object class as methods.
However, the 0 0 approach has several limhations as a BPR modeling method. First, the
0 0 approach does not support the definition of process steps as an aggregation of
activities or as top-down decomposition of the process (Fichman & Kemerer, 1992).
Second, 0 0 modeling does not support specifying an end-to-end processing sequence
(Fichman & Kemerer, 1992). To find a process sequence, method paths must be traced.
Third, the 0 0 approach does not support how to define inputs and outputs of a process
explichly. Fourth, the 0 0 approach does not have a mechanism to show who performs
each of the process steps. In sum, 0 0 modeling supports informational and functional
perspectives but lacks organizational perspective (Wang, 1994). Also, the timing
information in descriptions of event classes is not specified explichly (Wang, 1994).
Jacobson et al. (1995) proposed an 0 0 approach to BPR. Their method uses two
types of models: the use-case model and the object model The use-case model describes
36
how the external environment interacts with the business. The use-case model provides an
overall picture of what a business system performs. The object model is used to capture
details of a business system, such as how the business system is internally stmctured, how
activities are linked into a process, what outcomes are produced or what resources are
used in the business. An object can be an interface object, a control object or an entity
object. The interface and control objects typically represent people who belong to a
certain resource category. Using these two objects, this method can exphcitly capture
who performs the operations. Entity objects represent things handled in the business
system. A state transhion diagram is also used to show different states of an object.
Stimuli and conditions that cause the transition are also specified in this diagram. In
addition, the interaction diagram is used to show how the various objects collaborate to
execute a certain flow of events.
In sum, this 0 0 method supports the informational perspective using the attributes
of an object class. The organizational perspective is also supported by packaging a set of
tasks into an interaction object or a control object representing people who perform the
tasks. The behavioral perspective is only partially supported by the narrative descriptions
of a use case. The interaction diagram shows the sequence of process steps. The
functional perspective is also supported by the use-case model, which shows a set of use
cases. The input-output relationship among activities is not explicitly specified. In this
method, once a use-case model for a new process is developed, the object model for a
new process can be developed. However, the way to develop a use-case model for a new
process is not specified in detail. Moreover, the strategic perspective is not supported by
this modeling method.
Wang (1994) proposed an 0 0 process modeling method, an extension of an 0 0
system analysis model for BPR. He expanded the traditional 0 0 modeling so that the
organizational and behavioral dimensions can be captured. His method uses four types of
object classes: output object classes, physiomorphic object classes (physically existing
enthies such as a customer or machine), event object classes, and input object classes. His
diagram has fiinctional departments on the vertical axis and time dimension on the
horizontal axis. An 0 0 model is mapped into this diagram. An end-to-end processing
37
sequence is captured using event objects and the time dimension. However, the time
dimension may not be able to handle a complex situation. To capture the organizational
aspect of a business process, an object class is placed in a section of the department
dimension, whh each section representing a particular functional department. In this
modeling method, the strategic perspective is not supported. More importantly, Wang's
0 0 approach does not provide systematic ways of analyzing and redesigning the existing
process. A redesigning process still relies mostly on a BPR analyst's experience and
intuition.
Entity-Relationship Models
Entity-Relationship (E-R) models (Chen, 1976; Teorey, Yang, & Fry, 1986;
Storey, 1991) encapsulate informational aspects of objects. In E-R models, an entity is
used to represent an object and its relationship is used to represent an association between
objects. Superclass-subclass is capture by IS-A relationship. E-R model captures the
informational aspect of a business process but not other aspects of a business process. E-R
model is primarily used to complement the insufficiency of functional modeling methods to
specify the informational aspect of a business process.
Dynamic Simulation Modeling
Dynamic modeling whh simulation capability is suggested by several researchers
(Kettinger et al, 1995; van Meel, Boys & Sol, 1995). Dynamic models are formal,
executable representations of a business process. In dynamic models, a process is defined
as a series of inter-connected activhies. A process can be defined at any level of
aggregation. Dynamic models exphchly represent the sequences of activhies and the
behavior of a business process over time. Discrete event simulation with animation
features is frequently used to evaluate the possible ahemate designs of a business process.
The simulation outcomes are compared in order to select the final solution.
In a dynamic model, the process steps that comprise a process are identified.
Inputs, outputs, and other resources used to produce the outputs are also identified for
each activity as events. Then, the sequential relationship among events is defined. Also,
38
activation and termination events, as well as conditional relationships between inputs and
outputs, are specified in the model. After the business process is described in terms of
objects and task stmcture, output variables are specified for the model. Using these
output variables, the model produces quanthative information about the duration of
activities, total duration of a process, and the amounts of resources used and produced by
activities.
In short, a dynamic model describes the behavior of a process. It is also possible
to specify the organizational aspect of a business process by adding locations where
activities are performed on the animation. However, it does not support informational and
strategic aspects of a business process. Consequently, this model is suitable to evaluate a
business process performance quantitatively. However, it may not be useflil to identify
strategically important or value adding process elements.
Workflow Design
Workflow design is suggested by several researchers as a useful tool for BPR
(Kettinger et al , 1995; Koulopoulos, 1995; Murphy, 1994; Roberts, 1994). In workflow
design, a process is represented as a set of tasks, which have mles associated whh them.
It also identifies data objects processed by mles and roles that perform tasks. Workflow
design usually uses a time-based, event-driven model, which is similar to dynamic models.
Events, time, data objects, and routes of data objects are specified in the model. The
routes of data objects are specified as the order of events. Data objects are placed into a
sequence of events through an initiation event, which triggers the business process. Then
data objects are transferred into the next event, where the data objects are processed. The
task time required to complete an event is specified. The transfer time and queuing time
are specified separately from the task time. For each task, associated tools and resources
are specified. Prerequishe events are also specified for their dependent events. The
sequence of event is terminated by the termination event at the point where the goal of a
business process is achieved. The main purposes of workflow design include the
elimination of transfer time and queuing time and the reduction of task time through the
compression and automation of information-based tasks. Therefore, workflow design is a
39
part of a BPR project, and models developed for workflow design can be used primarily to
reduce cycle-time. However, the model may not be enough to support other BPR project
activities.
Other Modeling Techniques
There are several modeling techniques to support some BPR project activhies,
such as association matrix (Data-Process Matrix, CSF-Process matrix, etc.). Analytical
Hierarchy Model, Cause-Effect Diagram, and Pareto Diagram. Those techniques have
their specific objectives and thus support one or two BPR project activhies. However,
they do not have capability to capture information about a business process using multiple
perspectives and therefore do not support many of BPR project activhies.
Summary
In summary, several varieties of modeling methods are being used for BPR.
However, ah of those modeling methods have two common problems. First, each of those
modeling methods by itself does not possess mechanisms to efficiently and effectively
capture information about a business process from all the perspectives necessary to
support BPR project activities. Second and more importantly, those methods do not
provide systematic ways to analyze a model of the existing process and derive a model of
the future process, considering the primary concepts of BPR. Therefore, reengineering
still relies mostly on a BPR analyst's experience and intuition. Chapter IV presents our
BPR modeling method that resolves the shortcomings of these existing modeling methods
used in BPR.
40
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The objective of this research is to develop and test a BPR modeling method. This
modeling method provides a step-by-step approach to develop a model for an existing
process. It also provides steps to analyze and redesign a business process. The method
employs an 0 0 modeling framework. The modeling framework used in the method
possesses mechanisms to capture the information necessary to support BPR activities in an
effective and efficient manner. Moreover, the modeling method presents relevant
information in an appropriate format to support BPR activhies efficiently.
We used the unified research methodology proposed by Baldwin and Yadav
(1995) to achieve our research objective. The primary reason for using this research
methodology was that h specifies detailed steps for developing a conceptual model that
provides a good basis to develop a system. In the research, we treated a modeling method
as a system. By doing this, the required components of a BPR modeling method and their
relationship were defined more clearly. The lack of good tools to support BPR is a critical
issue (Davenport, 1993 a). This means that a BPR modeling method needs to be
implemented as a computerized tool in order to be useful for practitioners. Consequently,
it was important to provide a conceptual model of a BPR modeling method that is more
amenable to automation. Chapter IV elaborates the idea of treating a modeling method as
a system in detail.
The unified research methodology consists of the following nine steps:
Problem Identification Phase:
1. Formulate the problem.
Theory Building Phase:
2. Constmct knowledge-level theories or principle that address the problem.
3. Constmct symbol-level theories or principles.
Theory Testing Phase:
4. Operationalize knowledge-level theories and possibly form behavioral-oriented
hypotheses.
41
5. Identify and constmct symbol-level design and form symbol-oriented hypotheses.
6. Develop prototype systems based on the above designs.
7. Test the system.
8. Evaluate and validate the resuhs.
9. Refine the problem, principles, theories and hypotheses and repeat steps 1 to 8, if
necessary.
Although the unified research methodology was developed for research in the field of
artificial intelligence, h was adapted to provide a systematic procedure for developing and
testing a theory in other fields (used in Kim, 1996; Marquis, 1997). The rest of this
chapter discusses how each of the nine steps was applied to the research.
Formulation of the Problem
The first step of the unified research methodology is the formulation of the
research problem. In this research, this has been done by identifying shortcomings in the
previous BPR research through historical analysis. The problem addressed by this
research is the lack of a modeling method that supports business process change in an
effective and efficient manner. More specifically, the existing modeling methods do not
have capabilities to document and present the information necessary to carry out key BPR
project activities throughout a BPR project. Moreover, the existing modeling methods do
not provide specific steps for a strategy-driven analysis and redesign of the existing
process, which are key issues in BPR.
Following the formulation of the main problems, the purpose of this research has
been defined as the development of a modeling method that supports BPR projects, as
well as subsequent incremental process improvement, under the concept of business
process change management. Then, more specific research questions have been defined.
Those research questions address primarily the following issues:
What kinds of information about a business process exist and how those should be
captured and presented in a model.
How the information should be analyzed in order to derive a new process
stmcture.
42
Constmction of Knowledge-Level Theories or Principles
Knowledge-level theory describes how certain characteristics of knowledge
interact with characteristics of the environment to produce observed behaviors (Baldwin
& Yadav, 1995). For this research, the system behavior has been described in terms of the
capabilities of a BPR modeling method. Through these capabilhies, BPR analysts should
be able to pursue a BPR project more efficiently. Following the identification of the
desired behavior of a BPR modeling method, a knowledge-level theory has been
developed. The knowledge-level theory in this research explains what information about a
business process is captured in a model and what kind of analyses is done to the
information. Since the research has treated a modeling method as a system, the
knowledge concepts identified have been treated as components of a system. The
interactions between those knowledge concepts produce the desired behavior of the
system and support BPR activities more efficiently.
Constmction of Symbol-Level Theories or Principles
Constmction of a symbol-level theory or principle requires the derivation of the
internal archhecture that represents the knowledge level constmcts. In this research,
symbol-level theory has described what mechanisms a modeling framework uses to
capture all the information for BPR. It has also described what formats are used to coUect
and present the information. Moreover, h has described what steps in a modeling method
are used to redesign a business process.
This step concerned an archhectural design that best achieves the behavior of a
BPR modeling method specified at the knowledge level. The architectural design included
diagramming notations and the stmcture of each constmct used in the diagram. The
detailed steps of how to use the modeling framework were another archhectural design.
Qperationahzation of Knowledge-Level Theories and
Formation of Behavioral-Oriented Hypotheses
In the unified research methodology, the purpose of this step is to transform
abstract constmcts of knowledge-level theories and principles into specific unhs that
comprise operationalized proposhions or behavior-oriented hypotheses in a certain
43
problem domain. The proposhion described using those domain-specific units represents a
set of instances of the knowledge-level theories or principles. In this research, the
comprehensiveness of the modeling method was evaluated at the conceptual level
regardless a specific problem domain. Since this step could be critical to determine
whether the modeling method works in a specific problem domain, this was addressed as
an area of future research.
Identification and Constmction of Symbol-Level Design
and Formation of Symbol-Oriented Hypotheses
In the unified research methodology, the overall purpose of this step is to
transform constmcts of symbol-level theories or principles into specific units that comprise
operationalized propositions or symbol-level hypotheses in a certain problem domain. The
propositions described using those domain-specific units represent a set of instances of the
symbol-level theories or principles. Another purpose of this step is to develop formal
system specifications from symbol-level theories or principles for developing a prototype
of artificial intelligence. Thus, it is possible to mn experiments using a prototype to
validate both knowledge-level and symbol-level theories or principles. For this research, a
computerized prototype was not necessary.
In the research, the validation was conducted whhout a software tool. It was also
conducted whhout referring to a specific problem domain as mentioned before. Since this
step could be critical to determine whether the modeling method implemented in a
software tool works in a specific problem domain, this was addressed as an area of future
research.
Development of Prototype System
As mentioned in the previous section, this research did not require the
development of a prototype system to validate the proposed modeling method. The
validation was conducted without a computerized tool; therefore, this step focused on
planning the validation procedure. The validation focused on demonstrating the primary
advantageous capabilities of the proposed modeling method. Those capabilhies included
the comprehensiveness of the proposed modeling method. Testable questions were
44
derived from knowledge-level and symbol-level proposhions. Then, an evaluation process
was designed. According to the plan, three experts evaluated the proposed method and
three benchmark methods. Then, those methods were compared to determine the
comprehensiveness of the proposed modeling method. The comprehensiveness was
measured in terms of the following hems: (a) ability to capture the information necessary
to support BPR activities, and (b) coverage of phases or activities throughout a BPR
project.
The four methods were initially evaluated by the primary researcher of this
research. Then, three experts evaluated the evaluations. The Delphi method was used to
achieve consensus among the experts. After this expert evaluation was completed, the
evaluation was sent to the original method developer in order to receive the feedback.
The feedback from the original developer, if received, was planned to be evaluated by the
experts to determine the final evaluation of the modeling methods. However, the feedback
from the original developers could not be obtained.
Validation of the Extended 0 0 Modeling Method
The seventh and eighth steps concern the validation of the knowledge-level and
symbol-level theories and principles. In this research, the focus of validation was on the
ability of the extended 0 0 modeling method to capture information about a business
process and support BPR project activhies. The validation was enhanced through
comparisons with other modeling methods.
The validation procedure involved two phases: (a) modeling method validation and
(b) conceptual model validation. The validation process was accomplished by assuring
that each of the nine steps in the unified research methodology had been derived logically
and consistently from the previous step. Modeling method validation was concemed with
whether the symbol-level theories and proposhions were consistently and properly
implemented in a modeling framework and the steps of the modeling method. The
validation of a modeling framework and the steps of the modeling method through the
evaluation of the test results indirectly established the correctness of symbol-level
concepts and principles. As shown in Figure 3.1, modeling method validation was
45
achieved through the following steps: result verification, fiinctionality verification and
symbol-level verification.
Conceptual model validation was accomplished by assuring that symbol-level
concepts and principles had been derived consistently and logically from knowledge-level
concepts and principles. As shown Figure 3.1, conceptual model validation was achieved
through the following steps: knowledge-level verification and functionality requirement
verification.
Shortcomings in Existing Modeling Methods for BPR ^ y
Problem Verification
A Conceptual Model Validation
Behavior of a Modeling Method for BPR
Wot
Functional Requirement Verification
Formation of Knowledge-Level Concepts & Proposition
Formation of Symbol-Level Theories & Principles
Implementation of Modeling Method
A Modeling Method Validation
Test of Modeling Methods
t"unc
Knowledge-Level Verification
Symbol-Level Verification
Functionality Verification
^
Results Verification
Analysis & Evaluation of Test Results
Figure 3.1. Verification and Validation Process
Testing the Modeling Method and Evaluating Test Resuhs
In the unified research methodology, the functionality of the proposed modeling
method is measured and evaluated to test whether the functionality has been observed
during the test. The analysis of the data collected and testing hypotheses contributes to
the validation of the knowledge-level and symbol-level theories and principles. The
hypotheses are tested by analyzing and evaluating test resuhs.
46
In this research, as mentioned before, the validation effort focused on
demonstrating the comprehensiveness of the proposed modeling method to support a BPR
project. The validation concentrated especially on:
1. Ability to capture the information necessary to support BPR activhies.
2. Coverage of phases or activhies throughout a BPR project.
To achieve the validation, four testable questions were derived. An evaluation
framework to measure the above two aspects was also established to minimize the
subjectivhy and biases in the evaluation. The framework had two parts: (a) a framework
for evaluating the ability to capture the information necessary to support BPR activities,
and (b) a framework for evaluating the coverage of phases or activities throughout a BPR
project.
Each of three viable existing modeling methods for BPR and the proposed method
was evaluated using the framework. Three modeling methods were used as benchmark in
order to determine the comprehensiveness of the proposed method. Data about the
modeling methods was collected from the published materials of the benchmark methods
and the written document of the proposed method. This reduced the bias in the evaluation
process because anyone could go back to the materials to investigate the accuracy of the
evaluation.
The primary researcher of this study evaluated each of the methods first. Three
experts evaluated the correctness and completeness of the evaluation. The Delphi method
was applied to achieve the more objective and unbiased evaluation. After the consensus
was made, the evaluation was forwarded to the original developers of the benchmark
methods to obtain feedback about the evaluation. The feedback, if obtained, would be
evaluated by the experts using the Delphi method; however, the feedback could not be
obtained. Then, the evaluation of the methods was finalized. Finally, the methods were
compared to determine the comprehensiveness of the proposed method. If the proposed
modeling method were not evaluated as a more comprehensive method than the
benchmark methods, the proposhions at symbol-level would be considered as invalid.
Chapter V presents the details of the validation procedure. Chapter VI presents the
resuhs of the evaluation and comparison.
47
Refinement of the Problem. Theories, Principles and Hypotheses
The validation process may reveal mistakes made during the course of action.
When this happens, h is necessary to refine the problem, theories, principles and
hypotheses by repeating step I through step 8. Any unexpected test results may also
initiate this loop. In this research, changes to the conceptual model and the future
validation of the changes were suggested as an area of future research.
48
CHAPTER IV
DEVELOPMENT OF AN EXTENDED 0 0 MODELING METHOD FOR BPR
Introduction
This chapter discusses the development of an extended 0 0 modeling method for a
BPR. The method has been developed based on the previous work done by Nakatani and
Yadav (1996). As mentioned in Chapter III, this research has treated the modeling
method as a system. According to the systems concept, a system has:
1. Boundaries: boundaries separate a system from its environment.
2. Objectives: a system has objectives to achieve.
3. Functions: a system carries out functions to achieve the objectives.
4. Components: a system consists of components.
5. Stmcture: components are arranged to perform functions.
The research has treated a BPR modeling method as a manual system. Therefore, the
users of a modeling method, BPR analysts, have been considered as an integral part of the
modehng method. A BPR modeling method has the primary objective of supporting BPR
activities throughout a BPR project. A BPR analyst carries out the functions of a BPR
modehng method to achieve this objective. When these functions are carried out, a
modeling method shows hs behavior. The chapter discusses a conceptual model of a BPR
modeling method as a conceptual model of a system. A conceptual model of a BPR
modeling method has been developed by identifying:
Desired behavior,
Required components, and
Stmcture of components.
In this way, a conceptual model of a modeling method, which includes required
components and their stmcture, has been clearly defined.
First, the chapter describes the desired behavior of a BPR modeling method
following the unified research methodology. The chapter examines hs desired behavior
under a BPR methodology because a BPR modeling method is an integral part of BPR
49
methodology. Therefore, the previous BPR methodology research has been synthesized
to identify what a BPR modeling method should do as hs desired behavior.
The chapter discusses components of a BPR modeling method as various forms of
knowledge that have been identified and proposed based on the identified behavior. Then,
the chapter presents knowledge-level proposhions to clearly describe the relationship
between knowledge-level concepts and the desired behavior. Then, a conceptual model
that represents the arrangement of these knowledge concepts is shown in a diagram
format.
The first part of the last section of the chapter discusses symbol-level concepts and
principles. Next, symbol-level propositions are presented to clearly describe the
relationship between symbol-level concepts and the desired behavior. Finally, symbol-
level representation of a conceptual model for a BPR modeling method is presented.
Behavior of the BPR Modeling Method
As discussed in the literature review, a variety of BPR activities must be completed
in order to successfully accomplish BPR. Some of those activhies are carried out more
efficiently by constmcting and analyzing models. The primary purpose of a BPR modeling
method is to support all of those activhies efficiently as part of BPR methodology. The
research identified such activhies by synthesizing the past BPR methodology research.
Several BPR methodologies suggest the use of a model to select a target process
for a BPR project (Davenport & Short, 1990; Elzinga et al., 1995; Kettinger et al., 1995).
This first requires the identification of business processes accomplished by an
organization. BPR is a strategic-oriented change initiative using a process view (Hammer
& Champy, 1993; Kettinger et al., 1995). Therefore, a model should represent an
organization as a collection of business processes rather than as a cohection of functions.
The selection also requires the preliminary analysis and evaluation of business processes.
A model should show only the overview-level characteristics of business processes, hiding
unnecessary details. On the other hand, a model developed for this purpose should
contain information about a business process sufficient enough for BPR analysts to be able
50
to discover a reengineering opportunity. Therefore, the information captured in a model
should contain the strategic importance and level of heahh of a business process (Elzinga
et al, 1995; and Kettinger et al., 1995).
Most BPR methodologies suggest the use of process modeling to diagnose the
existing process although there is some disagreement on the level of detail in
documentation and analysis (Davenport, 1993a; Davenport & Short, 1990; Elzinga et al.,
1995; Kettinger et al., 1995; Hahm & Lee, 1994; Harrison & Pratt, 1993; Q'Sullivan &
Geringer, 1993; Mual et al., 1995). Davenport (1993a) and Elzinga et al. (1995)
emphasized the documentation of the existing process. The documentation should help
BPR analysts clearly identify its problems so that they can make sure that the same
problems will not occur in a reengineered process. In addition. Hammer (1990) and
Elzinga et al. (1995) mentioned that the documentation and analysis should be done to
identify fundamental activhies and resources.
Similarly, most BPR methodologies suggest the use of process modeling to define
specifications of a reengineered process (Davenport, 1993 a; Davenport & Short, 1990;
Elzinga et al, 1995; Kettinger et al, 1995; Hahm & Lee, 1994; Harrison & Pratt, 1993;
Q'Sullivan & Geringer, 1993; Mual et al, 1995). Designing a reengineered process
requires the exploration of hs desired stmcture in achieving BPR goals. Therefore, a
model developed for this purpose should be easy to manipulate. Also, a model should be
used to evaluate the expected performance of a reengineering process (Davenport, 1993 a;
Kettinger et al, 1995). This is necessary to make sure that sufficient reengineering effort
has been made to achieve BPR goals.
A model can also be used to support the implementation of a reengineered process
(Davenport, 1993a; Elzinga et al, 1995; Kettinger et al, 1995). As mentioned eariier,
most organizations implement a reengineered process in an incremental fashion.
Therefore, a model is used to produce an implementation plan. Also, the implementation
of a reengineered process involves a redefinition of job responsibilhies, as well as the
development of information systems that support a reengineered process. BPR analysts
use a model to find the desired task assignments to a specific job titie or department.
51
Models are also used to specify requirements for information systems development.
However, a lot of research concerning models for information systems development has
been done. Therefore, the proposed modeling method concerns only capturing sufficient
information to develop such models but not information systems development activities.
Information systems analysts should be able to constmct models for information systems
development easily from a model of a business process.
After a reengineered process is implemented, it needs to be monitored.
Monitoring should be done through the collection of actual data and benchmarks.
Therefore, the performance measurement information collected in the model during the
reengineering process should be updated and used for this purpose. This information can
also be used to select an appropriate change approach (Davenport, 1993a; Elzinga et al,
1995). An opportunity to use an incremental approach may be identified in a timely
fashion by continuously updating data and a model into the current state. An opportunity
to use a more radical approach may also be identified when a radical change in the
competitive environment and in customer needs is recognized.
BPR analysts need to carry out other activhies such as securing management
commitment. However, some activities may receive few benefits from the use of process
models. BPR analysts can enjoy significant benefits in using process models when they
carry out those activities discussed above.
Based on the above discussion, the desired behaviors of a BPR modeling method
have been identified as BPR activhies that h supports. However, there are so many
detailed activhies carried out by a BPR modeling method. Therefore, the detailed
activhies have been aggregated into high-level ones. The aggregation has been done
according to the major outputs produced while BPR analysts are carrying out those BPR
activities. Those outputs are:
A selected business process for a BPR project,
Documentation of the selected business process,
Resuhs from analyses of the selected business process,
Specifications of a reengineered process,
52
Implementation plan of the reengineered process, and
Identified problems of the reengineered process that have been caused by change in
compethive environment and customers' needs.
All detailed activities carried out to produce those outputs are discussed later as the
functionality of a modeling method.
In sum, the desired behaviors of a BPR modeling method can be summarized as
follows:
1. A BPR modeling method selects a target business process for a particular BPR
project. After several business processes are identified, the selection should be
made considering the strategic importance to an organization and its customers as
well as the health.
2. A BPR modeling method documents a business process. A BPR modeling method
should document a business process using multiple modeling perspectives. This is
essential in providing sufficient information for its subsequent activities.
3. A BPR modeling method analyzes a business process. A BPR modeling method
should analyze a business process quantitatively and qualhatively using the
information captured in a model. Qualhative analysis is a primary approach in
deriving the stmcture of a reengineered process. However, quantitative analysis of
a business process is essential in identifying a problem and reengineering a business
process in a more systematic manner. A BPR modeling method should also
analyze the worth of a business process and hs elements. The analysis should be
done according to its importance to an organization and hs customers.
4. A BPR modeling method designs a reengineered process. A BPR modeling
method should find the stmcture of a reengineered business process by
manipulating a model. It should also explore opportunities for radical
improvement using a cross-functional view. A wider view of a business process
frequently results in greater improvement (Drew, 1994; Venkatraman, 1994).
5 A BPR modeling method supports the implementation of a reengineered process.
It should find a desired organization stmcture to implement a reengineered
53
process. It should also support the development of an implementation plan since
most organizations implement a reengineered process in an incremental fashion.
6. A BPR modeling method monitors a business process. A BPR modeling method
should provide information about the most current state of a business process.
Information captured during a BPR project must be maintained and continuously
updated. Problem symptoms of a business process can be identified in a timely
fashion by means of this behavior.
These behaviors are realized when components of a modeling method work together to
perform actions in order to achieve these goals.
Knowledge-Level Concepts and Propositions
This section discusses knowledge-level concepts and propositions that are required
to produce the desired behavior of a BPR modeling method. Three types of knowledge
have been identified as required knowledge concepts to produce the desired behavior.
Then, knowledge-level proposhions have been developed to clearly specify relationships
between the knowledge concepts and the desired behavior of a BPR modeling method.
Finally, this section presents a conceptual model of a BPR modehng method to show these
relationships among the knowledge concepts in a diagram format.
Knowledge Concepts
To make a BPR modeling method behave as desired, three types of knowledge
concepts are required. Those three types of knowledge are:
1. Business process knowledge,
2. BPR activity knowledge,
3. Relevance knowledge.
Business process knowledge is necessary to maintain information about a business
process. BPR activity knowledge is necessary for a BPR analyst to carry out enough BPR
activities whh minimum redundancy. Relevance knowledge is necessary to provide only
relevant information with an appropriate level of detail in an appropriate format for each
54
BPR activhy. This knowledge is a relationship knowledge, which interconnects the
business process knowledge and the BPR activity knowledge.
Business Process Knowledge
Business process knowledge refers to knowledge which describes the
characteristics of a business process. The past BPR research shows that a variety of
information about a business process is used to pursue a BPR project. By synthesizing
those previous studies, nineteen kinds of knowledge about a business process have been
identified. They are:
1. The objective of a business process.
2. The importance of a business process (strategic importance and value to
customers).
3. Work products used to achieve the objective. A work product is an outcome of a
business process.
4. Relationships between the work products and the objective of the business
process.
5. Customer satisfaction level of the process.
6. Resources used to produce the work products.
7. Relationship between work products and resources.
8. Activities performed on resources. An activity is the smallest unit of task that is
carried out on a single resource.
9. Relationship between activities and resources.
10. Relationship between activhies and process steps (Which activhies constitute a
process step).
11. Relationship between process steps and resources (Inputs and outputs of process
steps).
12. Relationship between a business process and process steps (Which process steps
constitute a business process).
13. Sequential relationship among process steps.
55
14. Critical events for the business process and process steps.
15. Cycle time of a process step and the business process.
16. Quality measurement of the process step and the business process.
17. Costs of the process steps and the business process.
18. Process operators (Who performs process steps and the functional department to
which the operators belong).
19. Resource owners and process owners (Who is responsible for the resources and
the process).
These nineteen kinds of knowledge about a business process capture the strategic,
functional, behavioral, informational, and organizational aspects of a business process.
Thus, based on our analysis and synthesis of the existing BPR studies, we believe that this
list is sufficient to produce the desired behavior of a BPR modeling method. The
completeness of this list has been tested and the resuhs are discussed in Chapter VI.
BPR Activity Knowledge
BPR activity knowledge is knowledge describing the characteristics of BPR
activhies. This knowledge is necessary for a BPR analyst to carry out BPR activhies and
actions sufficiently but with minimum redundancy. This knowledge contains the
followings:
1. Description of BPR activities.
2. Description of BPR actions that comprise each of BPR activhies.
3. Sequence of BPR activities and actions.
4. Necessary heration of BPR activhies and actions.
For BPR analysts to pursue a BPR project, they must know what BPR activities they
should accomplish. They also need to know what detailed actions must be carried out for
each of the particular BPR activhies. In addition, to pursue a BPR project efficiently,
BPR activhies and actions must be carried out in a certain sequence. This is required to
provide information that has been produced from previous actions to their subsequent
actions. Whhout this knowledge, BPR analysts may have to conduct the same action
56
redundantly. On the other hand, some BPR activities and actions may need to be carried
out heratively. The heration is especially necessary for BPR analysts to find a desired
solution through conceptual model manipulation.
When we identified the desired behavior of a BPR modeling method, we
aggregated several BPR activities into six activhies. Those are:
1 Selection of a target business process.
2. Documentation of a selected business process.
3. Analysis of the selected business process.
4. Design of a reengineered process.
5. Implementation of the reengineered process.
6. Monitor and control of the reengineered process.
More detailed BPR activities that have been identified from the review of the past
BPR methodology research are included as BPR actions under these six BPR activhies. In
addition to those BPR actions, additional BPR actions have been identified by logically
examining the purposes of the six BPR activhies. This has allowed us to make a more
comprehensive list of BPR actions that need to be carried out for those six BPR activities.
Table 4.1 shows the detailed BPR actions.
The purpose of selecting a target business process for a BPR project is to select a
process that is considered strategically important but recognized as unhealthy. The
selection must start with the identification of business processes accomplished by an
organization. This requires setting the boundaries among business processes.
Documentation of hs starting point, end point, inputs and outputs can set such boundaries.
The selection also requires prioritization of business processes. This prioritization needs
to consider several characteristics of a business process. Those characteristics include:
The importance of a business process in achieving an organization's strategic
goals.
The importance of a business process to customers.
The health of a business process.
57
Table 4.1. BPR Activhies and Actions.
Activities
Select a target
process for a
particular BPR
project.
Document a
selected
business
process.
Analyze the
process.
Actions
Represent an organization as a set of business processes.
Specify the starting point and the end point of each business process.
Specify inputs and outputs of each business process.
Set boundaries of business processes using the above information.
Document importance of business processes in achieving strategic goals.
Document importance of business processes to customers.
Determine the overall importance of business processes.
Select variables to measure the health of business processes from
customer's point of view.
Collect the data for the variables.
Determine overall health of the business processes.
Determine needs for change for business processes based on their
importance and health.
Rank business processes.
Select a business process for a particular BPR project.
Set goals of a project in terms of measurement variables.
Document what process steps comprise a business process.
Document what the objectives of process steps are.
Document what inputs are used by process steps.
Document what outputs are produced by process steps.
Document what comprises outputs.
Document what the sequence of process steps is.
Document when process steps are performed.
Document who performs process steps.
Document where process steps are performed.
Document the performance of process steps.
Analyze the measurement data to identify bottleneck process steps.
Analyze the measurement data to identify possible causes of the problems.
Evaluate the importance of process elements in achieving the objectives of
the business process.
Evaluate whether process elements are value-adding.
Determine which process elements are fundamental.
Evaluate whether process elements are required by fundamental process
elements.
Evaluate whether process elements are redundant.
Determine which process elements are nonfiindamental.
Initiate a quick incremental improvement project if it is viable.
58
Table 4.1. Continued.
Activities
Design a
reengineered
process.
Implement the
reengineered
process.
Monitor and
control the
reengineered
process.
Actions
Attempt to eliminate the nonfiindamental elements.
Identify new process elements required to achieve the objectives of a
business process using a cross-functional perspective.
Determine the sequence of the process steps.
Convert unnecessary sequential processing to parallel processing.
Redesign bottleneck process steps using BPR enablers.
Select variables to assess the impact of the reengineering from strategic
point of view.
Estimate expected values for those variables.
Compare the estimated values with the data for the existing process.
Evaluate the comparison results.
Initiate further analysis and design if the BPR goals are not achieved.
Re-specify who performs process steps.
Re-specify where the activities are performed.
Estimate the expecting performance of a business process.
Initiate further improvement if possible.
Redefine job responsibilities.
Redefine departmental responsibilities.
Select portion of a business process if incremental approach is used for the
implementation.
Prioritize the portions to develop an implementation plan.
Update importance of a business process periodically.
Update benchmark periodically.
Collect the operation data periodically.
Evaluate the data against the benchmark.
Evaluate the degree of the health of a business process.
Select a change approach based on the importance and health of a business
process.
Initiate analysis activity if necessary.
59
The assessment of health requires the selection of appropriate measurement variables and
the determination of their relative importance among them. From these, h is necessary to
determine its urgency for change. Then, an organization should select a business process
for a project, considering the constraints h has. Finally, the goals of a project should be
specified in terms of measurement variables. The most common goals of BPR are
described in terms of reduction of cycle time and cost, and improvement in product quality
and customer satisfaction (Davenport & Short, 1990).
The primary purpose of documenting a selected business process is to collect all
necessary information about h so that BPR analysts can conduct subsequent analytical and
redesign activities successfully. Information about a business process and its elements
should be collected from the following modehng perspectives:
Functional,
Strategic,
Behavioral,
Informational, and
Organizational.
In addition, the performance measurement at the process-step level should be documented
using appropriate measurement variables.
The primary purposes of analyzing the existing process include (a) the
identification of possible causes of problem symptoms, and (b) the classification of process
elements (process steps and resources) into fundamental or nonflmdamental. The
identification of possible causes of problems requires the identification of bottieneck
process steps in the business process. Next, the BPR analysts should classify which
process elements are fundamental. A fundamental process step is one that contributes to
achieving the objective of a business process. A value-adding process step is highly likely
to be fiindamental. Similarly, the BPR analysts should classify which resources are
fiindamental. Resources used by a value-adding process are likely to be fiindamental.
Nonfiindamental process elements should also be identified. Nonfiindamental process
steps and resources are those that do not contribute to the achievement of the objective of
60
a business process. Redundant process steps and resources are nonfiindamental. This
classification of process elements is essential because one of the main purposes of BPR is
the ehmination of nonfiindamental process elements (Hammer, 1990). At this point, if
quick incremental improvement is considered as a viable solution, BPR analysts should
initiate such a project.
The purpose of designing a reengineered process is to find a new structure of
process steps to meet specified BPR goals. Nonfiindamental process elements should be
eliminated. Bottleneck process steps should be redesigned using BPR enablers such as
information technology. Moreover, a cross-functional or cross-organizational perspective
should be used to identify new process steps that need to be included in a business
process. This is important because the use of a wider perspective frequently results in the
greater improvement (Drew, 1994; Venkatraman, 1994). It is also necessary for BPR
analysts to make sure that the problems are not repeated in a reengineered process. This
requires the evaluation of a reengineered process. The evaluation also includes the
estimation of the impact of the reengineering. This estimation must be done using
appropriate measurement because it is critical to assure that a business process has been
reengineered enough to achieve BPR goals. In the case where specified goals have not
been achieved, addhional effort must be made to eliminate and redesign process elements.
There are two primary purposes of the implementation activity. Those are: (a) to
redefine job responsibilhies for individual employees and functional departments, and (b)
to develop an implementation plan. Redefinhion of job responsibilities is critical because
human resource archhecture is a BPR enabler (Davenport, 1993a; Kettinger et al., 1995).
To redefine job responsibilhies, an organizational aspect of information must be
manipulated in order to research desired duty assignments. The expected performance of
a business process should be estimated. Several alternatives should be considered to find
out the desired human resource architecture. Also, a reengineered process is frequently
implemented in an incremental fashion. Therefore, the development of a plan is critical. A
model of a reengineered process may be divided into parts in order to determine the
sequence of implementing those parts.
61
To link a BPR project to continuous improvement projects, monitoring a
reengineered process is essential. The primary purpose of this activity is for the
reengineered process to keep up whh the changing environment. Therefore, actual and
benchmark data collected for measurement variables must be updated continuously. In
addition, the reengineered process' importance to the organization and hs customers must
be updated when the compethive environment and customers' needs change. By
examining the data, BPR analysts evaluate the importance and heahh of a business
process. Then, BPR analysts must select an appropriate change approach. BPR analysts
need to initiate the BPR analysis activity if necessary.
Relevance Knowledge
Relevance knowledge is the knowledge about the use of the business process
knowledge and BPR activity knowledge. There are six types of knowledge. Those are:
Selection knowledge,
Documentation knowledge,
Analysis knowledge,
Design knowledge,
Implementation knowledge,
Monitoring knowledge.
Selection Knowledge. This knowledge is necessary to carry out the business
process selection activity efficiently. It contains:
1. Relevance of information about a business process for the selection activity.
2. Level of detail relevant for the selection activity.
3. Type of data collection format desired for the selection activity.
4. Relevant sources of information for the selection activity.
5. Logic of manipulating information for the selection activity.
6. Type of information presentation formats desired for the selection activity.
7. Constraints imposed on a BPR project.
62
The first knowledge concept above is necessary because BPR analysts need only
information used to set boundaries between business processes and prioritize them. The
second knowledge concept is essential to hide unnecessary details from BPR analysts so
that they can make the selection efficiently. The third and fourth knowledge concepts are
necessary for BPR analysts to collect the necessary information efficiently. The fifth
knowledge concept is needed to produce summarized and integrated information
necessary for the selection. The sixth knowledge concept is required to present the
information in an appropriate format so that BPR analysts can make the comparison of
business processes efficiently. The last knowledge concept is necessary to make an
appropriate selection under the constraints an organization may have.
Documentation Knowledge. This knowledge is necessary to carry out the business
process documentation activity efficiently. It contains:
1. Relevance of information about a business process for the documentation activity.
2. Level of detail relevant for the documentation activity.
3. Type of data collection format desired for the documentation activity.
4. Relevant sources of information for the documentation activity.
5. Type of information presentation formats desired for the documentation activity.
The first knowledge concept is necessary because BPR analysts need to carry out several
actions to collect a variety of information about a business process. Therefore, for each
action, they need to know what information should be collected. The second knowledge
concept is necessary to accumulate information necessary and sufficient to carry out
subsequent BPR activities. The third and fourth knowledge concepts are important so
that BPR analysts are able to collect information efficiently. Without these two
knowledge concepts, the documentation and accumulation of information may become
complicated. The fifth knowledge concept is necessary to show the information cohected
in a diagram format.
Analysis Knowledge. This knowledge is required to carry out the analysis activity.
It contains:
I Relevance of information about a business process for the analysis activity.
63
2. Level of detail relevant for the analysis activity.
3. Logic of manipulating information for the analysis activity.
4. Type of information presentation format desired for the analysis activity.
The first knowledge concept is necessary because BPR analysts need only certain type of
information for a specific analytical action. All irrelevant information should be hidden
from BPR analysts. Also, the second knowledge concept is necessary in order to hide
unnecessary details from BPR analysts but present sufficient details to them. The third
knowledge concept is necessary to produce summarized and integrated information for a
specific analytical action. The fourth knowledge concept is necessary to present the
information in an appropriate format so that BPR analysts can analyze the information
efficiently.
Design Knowledge. This knowledge is necessary to carry out the business process
design activity efficiently. It contains:
1. Relevance of information about a business process for the design activity.
2. Level of detail relevant for the design activity.
3. Type of data collection format desired for the design activity.
4. Relevant sources of information for the design activity.
5. Type of information presentation format desired for the design activity.
6. Logic of manipulating model for the design activity.
7. Logic of manipulating information for the design activity.
8. Model version knowledge.
The design of a business process requires the documentation of new process elements.
Therefore, the first four knowledge concepts are necessary. The fifth and sixth knowledge
concepts are necessary for BPR analysts to look for the desired structure of process
elements using an appropriate format Through the manipulation of models in an
appropriate format, BPR analysts can find a solution efficiently. The seventh knowledge
concept is necessary to evaluate the impact of change using summarized and integrated
information. The eighth knowledge concept is necessary to maintain several versions of
64
the model and information. This knowledge allows BPR analysts to compare several
alternatives.
Implementation Knowledge. This knowledge is necessary to carry out the business
process implementation activity efficiently. It contains:
1. Relevance of information about a business process for the implementation activity.
2. Level of detail relevant for the implementation activity.
3. Type of information presentation format desired for the implementation activity.
4. Logic of manipulating model for the implementation activity.
5. Model version knowledge.
6. Logic of manipulating the information for the implementation activity.
7. Constraints knowledge.
The first four knowledge concepts are necessary to find the desired human resource
architecture. BPR analysts should be able to look for the desired human resource
architecture through the manipulation of models in an appropriate format. The fifth
knowledge concept is required to maintain several versions of the model and information
to compare several ahernatives. The sixth knowledge concept is necessary to estimate the
expecting performance of a business process. The seventh knowledge is necessary to
develop an implementation plan under constraints.
Monhoring Knowledge. This knowledge is necessary to carry out the business
process monhoring activhy efficiently. It contains:
1. Relevance of information about a business process for the monitoring activity.
2. Level of detail relevant for the monhoring activity.
3. Type of data collection format desired for the monhoring activity.
4. Relevant sources of information for the monitoring activity.
5. Logic of manipulating the information for the monitoring activity.
6. Type of information presentation format desired for the monhoring activity.
The monitoring of a business process requires updating operational data and benchmark.
Therefore the first four knowledge concepts are necessary. The fifth knowledge concept
is necessary to monitor a business process using summarized and integrated information.
65
The sixth knowledge concept is necessary to present the information in an appropriate
format so that BPR analysts can compare operational information and benchmark
efficiently.
Knowledge-Level Propositions
The next step of the conceptual development has been deriving a set of
knowledge-level propositions. The proposhions describe the relationship between the
behavior of the modeling method and knowledge-level concepts. For the research, the
following propositions have been developed:
1. If a BPR modeling method has the business process knowledge, BPR activity
knowledge, and selection knowledge, then it can select a target business process for a
particular BPR project.
2. If a BPR modehng method has the business process knowledge, BPR activity
knowledge, and documentation knowledge, then it can document a business process.
3. If a BPR modeling method has the business process knowledge, BPR activity
knowledge, and analysis knowledge, then it can analyze a business process.
4. If a BPR modeling method has the business process knowledge, BPR activity
knowledge, and design knowledge, then h can design a reengineered process.
5. If a BPR modeling method has the business process knowledge, BPR activity
knowledge, and implementation knowledge, then it can support the implementation of
a reengineered process.
6. If a BPR modeling method has the business process knowledge, BPR activity
knowledge, and monitoring knowledge, then h can monitor a business process.
Conceptual Model for a BPR Modeling Method
Three types of knowledge concepts discussed above must interact whh each other
to produce the six desired behaviors of a BPR modeling method. The relationships among
them are presented as a conceptual model of a BPR modeling method in Figure 4.1. The
BPR analysis performer finds what action it should carry out by accessing the BPR activity
66
knowledge. Then, the BPR analysis performer accesses the relevance knowledge to find
out what and how information should be collected, and manipulated for the action.
Moreover, from the relevance knowledge, the BPR analysis performer finds what models
should be used and how to manipulate those models for the action. The business process
knowledge is used to maintain the information about a business process. When the BPR
analysis performer completes one action, it accesses BPR activity knowledge again to find
what the next action should be. The BPR analysis performer repeats this procedure while
h pursues a BPR project.
Business
Process
Knowledge
BPR Analysis
Performer
BPR
Activities
Knowledge
Relevance Knowledge
Selection knowledge
Documentation knowledge
Analysis knowledge
Design knowledge
Implementation knowledge
Monitoring knowledge
Figure 4.1. A Conceptual Model of a BPR Modeling Method
Symbol-Level Concepts and Propositions
This section describes symbol-level concepts first. The symbol-level concepts
represent the internal architecture that materializes the knowledge-level concepts of a BPR
modeling method. Then, symbol-level propositions are presented.
67
Symbol-Level Concepts
There are several ways to represent knowledge-level concepts. This section
focuses on describing the internal archhecture of the business process knowledge, BPR
activity knowledge, and six types of relevance knowledge.
An Extended 0 0 Modeling Framework
There are many ways to capture the nineteen kinds of business process knowledge.
The process-oriented modeling concept, data-oriented modeling concept, dynamic
modeling concept, and object-oriented modeling concept are currently available. As
mentioned earlier, none of them by themselves have the ability to capture all the nineteen
kinds identified in the previous section. Therefore, this section presents a modeling
framework developed in this research. The framework has been extended from the 0 0
modeling concept.
There were several reasons why the 0 0 modeling concept was used as a basis of a
modeling framework for the proposed modeling method. They were:
1. The 0 0 modeling concept can represent tangible and intangible entities. This allows
resources and work products to be represented as tangible or intangible objects. More
importantly, it allows a business process and process steps to be represented as
conceptual entities.
2. The 0 0 modeling concept supports a whole-to-part relationship explichly. Using this
capability, process steps can be aggregated into a business process. Also, a set of
business processes can be aggregated into an organization.
3. The 0 0 modeling concept can specify the relationships among objects. Using this
feature, various relationships between resources, between process steps, and between
process steps and resources can be specified. Through these relationships, BPR
analysts can have information with an appropriate integration and abstraction level for
each BPR activity.
4. Encapsulation property can make a process step independent from other process steps.
This allows the elimination of nonfiindamental process steps whhout affecting
68
fiindamental process steps if the same inputs and prerequishe events can be provided
to the fundamental process steps from other process steps. In the same way, this
feature allows adding new process steps without affecting fundamental process steps.
Therefore, this feature makes the manipulation of a model easier, especially if the
modeling method is implemented in a computerized tool. Consequently, designing the
structure of a reengineered process and human resource architecture becomes easier.
5. Attributes of an object can be used to capture a variety of properties of a business
process. This also adds the flexibility in customizing the object structure for a specific
BPR project. As argued by the researchers who support an intuhive approach, BPR
can be very organization-specific. Therefore, information about a business process
necessary to carry out BPR activities may need to be customized to a specific
organization. For example, measurement variables may need to be added to the four
measurement variables suggested in the research. Using attributes of an object,
another measurement variable can be easily added.
6. Methods can be used to specify user-defined control logic performed on the
information captured as attributes of an object. This feature makes the object-level
evaluation and monhoring easier.
The proposed extended 0 0 modeling framework uses two types of objects to
capture all nineteen kinds of information about a business process. They are a process
object and a resource object. These two types of objects have been extended from the
tradhional objects by adding new components into their structure.
Process Objects. A process object is used to describe a business process and
process steps. The structure of the process object is shown in Figure 4.2. The process
object has six components. The six components are name, owner, operator, attribute,
interface, and operation. The name represents the overah characteristic of the process
object. The owner defines a person who is responsible for the process. By identifying the
process owner independent of the existing business department, a cross-functional
69
Parent Interface
Process Object Name
Input
Interface:
1. Process Objects
2. Resource Objects
Operation
Owner
Operator:
1. Department
2. Processor
Attribute
1. Objective
2. Worth
a. Strategic Importance
b. Value to Customer
c. Classfication
3. Customer Satisfaction Level (weight)
a. Target Level
b. Current Level
c. Expected
4.Cycle Time (weight)
a. Optimum
b. Average
c. Worst-case
d. Expected
5. QuaUty Measurement (weight)
a. Target
b. Status-quo
c. Expected
6. Cost (weight)
a. Target
b. Status-quo
c. Expected
7. Event
a Prerequisite Event
b. Consequent Event
c. Triggering Event
Output
Interface:
1. Process Objects
2. Resource Objects
Child Interface
Figure 4.2. A Structure of the Process Object
70
perspective is facilhated. The operator defines who is to perform the process step and the
functional department to which the operator belongs. The operator can be a human or
programmable machine.
The attribute component has seven parts. They are objective, worth, customer
satisfaction level, cycle time, quality measurement, cost, and event. The objective is used
to evaluate whether or not the process object is fundamental and value-adding. In the
future system, the objectives of all process steps should be consistent with the objective of
a business process. The worth is used to store the importance of the process object. The
worth has three parts: the strategic importance to the organization, the value to customers,
and the classification. Classification is used to store classification made by a BPR analyst
according to the resuhs from analytical actions. Classification can be fundamental or
nonfiindamental. The customer satisfaction level is used to evaluate the health of the
process object. This is usually specified at a business process level but not at the process
step level because customers recognize the process through the work products. However,
this attribute is sometimes specified at the process-step level because the customer
satisfaction can be measured for the process steps that require the interaction with
customers. Target, current and expected levels are specified in this part. The expected
customer satisfaction level is used to store assessed or simulated value for a reengineered
process. The cycle time is used to determine whether or not the process object needs to
be redesigned. The optimum cycle time, average cycle time, worst-case cycle time, and
expected cycle time are specified. Expected cycle time is derived by summing up hs
children's average cycle times. Thus, this represents a cycle time without problems
between those children process steps. The quality measurement part is used to specify
how the quality of the process is measured and to identify which process step is the
bottleneck in a business process. Target, status quo and expected qualities are specified in
this part. The expected quality is used to store assessed or simulated value for a
reengineered process. The cost part is used to specify the cost incurred in carrying out the
process object. Target, status quo and expected costs are specified in this part. The
expected cost is used to store assessed or simulated value for a reengineered process. The
71
attributes mentioned are also used to assess the impact of the change, as well as the
urgency for the change. Each of these performance measurements has weight. Assigning
weight to each of these, BPR analysts can select the measurement variables they want to
use. The event part is divided into the prerequishe event, consequent event and triggering
event. The prerequishe event must have occurred before the process starts. The
consequent event is created at the completion of the process step. The consequent event
of a process object corresponds to the prerequishe event of the next process object in the
process sequence. The process sequence is specified by tracing the consequent and
prerequishe events of the process objects. The triggering event is used to specify a special
event that triggers the process step.
The interface has four parts. They are input, output, parent, and children. The
input specifies the input resource objects. In the most detailed level of the process objects,
the operations performed on the resource objects for the process objects are specified.
Thus, atomic activities are aggregated into a process step. The input also specifies the
inputs from the previous process object in the process sequence. The output specifies the
resource objects that the process object passes to the next process objects in the sequence.
The parent and children interfaces are used to specify a whole-to-part relationship among
process objects. The parent part specifies the next higher level of a process object and the
children part specifies the next lower process objects. A whole-to-part relationship among
process objects is represented as shown in Figure 4.3. In short, the parent and children
interfaces work as interface pointers. The children interface of a parent process object
contains information about which process objects are hs children. The parent interface of
a child process object contains information about which process object is hs parent.
Therefore, parent-children interfaces are replaced by "parent-children" when they are
connected as shown in Figure 4.3.
72
Whole
Process Object
Children
Part
P
Parent
rocess Obje( :t
Parent
Part
Process Object
Figure 4.3 A Whole-to-Part Relationship of the Process Objects
The operation component defines the operations performed on the attributes of the
process objects. Therefore, this represents the internal architecture of information
manipulation logic in the relevance knowledge. The following operations can be specified:
(a) logical steps to determine the overall importance of the process object using weight;
(b) logical steps to determine the overall heahh of the process object using the customer
satisfaction level, cycle time, quality measurement, and cost; (c) logical steps to determine
the level of needs for a change in the process objects; (d) logical steps for simulation; (e)
logical steps for assessing the impact of change; (f) logical steps to monitor the
performance of process objects and condhions when a warning message for improvement
request is produced; and (g) logical steps to select a change approach.
Resource Objects. A resource object describes work products and resources. The
structure of a resource object is shown in Figure 4.4. The resource object has five
components. They are the object name, owner, attribute, operation, and interface. The
name component defines the general characteristic of resource object. The owner
73
component is used to specify the person who is responsible for managing and allocating
the resource object.
Resource Interface
1. General
2. Parent (is_a_part_of)
3. Functional
Resource Object Name Owner
Attnbute
I.Worth
a. Strategic Importance
b. Value to Customer
c. Calssification
2. Cost
3. Informational Characteristics
Operation
Resource Interface
1. Specific
2. Children (consist_of)
Process
Interface
Figure 4.4. A Structure of a Resource Object.
The attribute defines the detailed characteristics of the resource objects. The
attribute component has three parts. They are worth, cost, and informational
characteristics. The worth part is used to capture the strategic importance of the resource
object, its value to the customers, and its classification. Classification can be fundamental
or nonfiindamental. The cost part is used to capture the costs of obtaining or producing
the resource object. Those hems captured in the information characteristics part are
apphcation-dependent.
The operation defines the atomic activhies performed on the resource object. A
set of operations of various objects constitutes a process step when they are accessed by
the same process object.
The interface has two parts; process interface and resource interface. The process
interface specifies the relationship with the process objects that use the resource object.
The resource interface specifies the relationship whh other resource objects. There are
three types of relationships defined in the resource interface; a whole-to-part, general-to-
74
specific and functional. The cardinality of a functional relationship is also specified here.
By specifying the resource interface, h is possible to know what resource objects are
necessary to produce other resource objects. Figure 4.5 shows a whole-to-part, a general-
to-specific, and functional relationships among resource objects. In short, the parent and
children interfaces, as well as the general and specific interfaces, work as interface
pointers. The children interface of a parent resource object contains information about
which resource objects are hs children. The parent interface of a child resource object
contains information about which resource object is its parent. Therefore, parent-children
interfaces are replaced by "parent-children" when they are connected as shown in Figure
4.5. Similarly, the specific interface of a general resource object contains information
about which resource objects are its specific objects. The general interface of a specific
resource object contains information about which resource object is its generic object.
Therefore, general-specific interfaces are replaced by "general-specific" when they are
connected as shown in Figure 4.5.
Whole General Functional
Resource Object
Children
Resource Object
X
Specific
Resource Object
Part
lei
Parent
>ource Obje ct
Part Specific
He
Parent
source Obje ct [Resource Object
General
Specific
Re
General
source Obje ct
m 1
Resource Object
\ m
Resource Object
Figure 4.5. Whole-to-Part, General-to-Specific, and Functional Relationships of Resource
Objects
In sum, an extended 0 0 modeling framework uses two types of extended objects:
process objects and resource objects. These two types of extended objects and their inter-
relationships are adequate to define all nineteen types of information about a business
process. Therefore, the modeling framework represents the business process knowledge.
75
Also, operations of the process objects are used to represent the logical steps of
manipulating information for each BPR activity
Information Collection Formats and Information Presentation Formats
The internal archhecture of the six types of relevance knowledge is primarily
represented in the form of
Information collection formats.
Information presentation formats.
To carry out BPR activities efficiently, consistent but customized information collection
formats and information presentation formats are necessary. Therefore, one basic
information collection format and three basic information presentation formats are used.
These basic formats are customized for each BPR activity. These customized formats
contain only relevant information for each of the BPR activities they support.
Information Collection Format. A template format is used for the basic
information collection format. This basic template is customized for different BPR
activities. Therefore, relevance of information and level of details are specified for each
BPR activity. The use of consistent format makes information collection actions
performed at different stages of a BPR project easier. Figures 4.6 and 4.7 show the two
basic templates used to collect information. They are called the process object template
(Figure 4.6) and resource object template (Figure 4.7).
For the process selection, templates whh selected hems are used (Figure 4.8). For
measurement attributes of a process object template, current or status-quo part is filled in
to describe a business process. After goals are set, their target part is filled in. A resource
object template used for the selection does not contain informational characteristics and
operations. For the documentation activity, two types of templates with ah items are used
except for the expected part of measurement attributes. For the design activity, two types
of templates with all fields are used to document new objects. For the monhoring activity,
a process object template with measurement attributes is used (Figure 4.9).
76
OBJECT NAME:
OWNER :
OPERATOR:
ATTRIBUTE:
OBJECTIVE :
WORTH:
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION LEVEL:
CYCLE TIME:
QUALITY MEASUREMENT:
COST:
EVENT:
OPERATION:
INTERFACE:
INPUT:
OUTPUT:
PARENT:
CHILDREN:
Information
object name (verb + object)
process owner name (proper noun)
processor name (proper noun)
functional department (proper noun)
objective of the process (infinitive + object)
strategic importance (likert-scale/numeric)
value to customer (likert-scale/numeric)
classification (fundamental/nonfundamental)
target level (likert-scale/numeric)
current level (likert-scale/numeric)
expected level (likert-scale/numeric)
optimum cycle time (numeric)
average cycle time (numeric)
worst-case cycle time (numeric)
expected cycle time (numeric)
target (numeric)
status-quo (numeric)
expected (numeric)
target (numeric)
status-quo (numeric)
expected (numeric)
prerequisite event 1, 2, 3 ,.... (noun clause)
consequent event 1, 2, 3, . . . . (noun clause)
triggering event 1, 2, 3, . . . . (noun clause)
operation logic 1, 2, 3, . . .
previous process object name, resource 1, 2, 3, . . . .
resource object name, (optional: attributes 1, 2, 3,....)
next process object name, resource 1, 2, 3,....
resource object name, (optional: attributes 1, 2, 3,....)
parent process object name 1, 2, 3,....
child process object name 1, 2, 3,....
Sources
Figure 4.6. A Template of a Process Object
77
OBJECT NAME:
OWNER:
ATTRIBUTE:
WORTH:
COSTS:
INFORMATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS:
OPERATION:
INTERFACE:
RESOURCE INTERFACE:
GENERAL:
SPECIFIC:
PARENT:
CHILDREN:
FUNCTIONAL:
PROCESS INTERFACE:
Information
object name (noun)
resource owner name (proper noun)
strategic importance (likert scale/numeric)
value to customer (likert scale/numeric)
classification (fundamental/nonfundamental)
target (numeric)
current (numeric)
attribute 1, 2, 3,....
operation logic 1, 2, 3,...
resource object name
resource object name 1, 2, 3,....
resource object name 1, 2, 3,....
resource object name 1, 2, 3,....
resource object name I, cardinality
resource object name I, cardinality
process object name 1, 2, 3,....
Source
Figure 4.7. A Template of a Resource Object
OBJECT NAME:
OWNER :
ATTRIBUTE:
OBJECTIVE :
WORTH:
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION LEVEL:
CYCLE TIME:
QUALITY MEASUREMENT:
COST:
EVENT:
OPERATION:
INTERFACE:
INPUT:
OUTPUT:
PARENT:
CHILDREN:
Information
object name
process owner name
objective of the process
strategic importance
value to customer
target level for goal setting
current level
optimum cycle time for goal setting
average cycle time
worst-case cycle time
measurement 1 .target for goal setting, status-quo, expected
measurement 2.target for goal setting, status-quo, expected
target for goal setting
status-quo
prerequisite event 1, 2, 3 ,....
consequent event 1, 2, 3,....
triggering event 1, 2, 3
operation logic 1, 2, 3,...
resource object name
resource object name
parent process object name 1, 2, 3,....
child process object name 1, 2, 3,....
Sources
Figure 4.8. A Template of a Process Object for Process Selection Activity
78
OBJECT NAME:
ATTRIBUTE:
WORTH:
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION LEVEL:
CYCLE TIME:
QUALITY MEASUREMENT:
COST:
Information
object name
strategic importance
value to customer
current level
average cycle time
worst-case cycle time
measurement 1 .target, status-quo, expected
measurement 2.target, status-quo, expected
target
status-quo
Sources
Figure 4.9. A Template of a Process Object for Process Monitoring Activity
79
Information Presentation Formats. Several information presentation formats are
used to support all BPR activities. They include the network of two objects (diagrams)
and other supportive information presentation format such as tables. For the process
selection, three types of information presentation formats are used. The process diagram
developed for this activhy shows an overview of an organization as a set of business
processes. The first one is called the process object diagram (Figure 4.10). The second
one is called the resource object diagram (Figure 4.11). The resource object diagram
shows the relationship among major input resources and work products. The third one is
called the process selection table (Figure 4.12). The table format is usefijl to rank business
processes, compare them, and select one for a particular BPR project.
For the process documentation, a more detailed process object diagram with the
process sequence is constructed (Figure 4.13). A more detailed resource object diagram is
also constructed (Figure 4.14).
Diagrams developed during the documentation activity are used as a basis for the
process analysis. Information relevant to each analytical action should be displayed in
each of the process or resource objects. The following eight types of a process object
diagrams need to be constructed.
Process object diagram whh cycle time information (Figure 4.15).
Process object diagram whh quality measurement information.
Process object diagram with cost information.
Process object diagram whh objective information (Figure 4.17 on page 85).
Process object diagram with classification.
Process object diagram with inputs, outputs, and classification information.
Process object diagram whh classification and event information.
Resource object diagram with relating process objects and their classification
(Figure 4.18 on page 85).
80
Organization
Process 1
?
Process 2 Process n
Figure 4.10. A Process Object Diagram for Process Selection
Work Product
[Resource 1 Resource ^
I
Figure 4.11. A Resource Object Diagram for Process Selection.
Business Process 1
Business Process 2
Business Process 3
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Figure 4.12. Process Selection Table.
81
Business Process
X
Process step 1
1 ^ 1
Process step
1-1
Process step
1-2
[>u
Process step
1-3
Process step 2
Process step 1
Process step
1-4
Higher level sequence
Detailed level sequence
Figure 4.13. A Process Object Diagram for Process Analysis and Design
Work Product 1
Resource 4
Resource 1
m
Resource 2 Resource 3
Figure 4.14. A Resource Object Diagram for Process Analysis and Design
82
Process 1-1
Optimum; 1 day
Average: 2 days
Worst-case: 7 days
Expected: 1.5 days
Process 1
Optimum: 3 day
Average: 7 days
Worst-case: 16 days
Expected: 3.5 days
i
Process 1-2
Optimum: 1.5 day
Average: 2.5 days
Worst-case: 4 days
Expected: 1.5 days
Process 1-3
Optimum: 0.5 day
Average: 2 days
Worst-case: 3 days
Expected: 0.5 days
Figure 4.15. A Process Object Diagram with Cycle Time Informafion.
83
The first three diagrams above are used to identify bottleneck process steps.
Figure 4.15 shows a process object diagram whh cycle time information as an example.
Other diagrams show the information in a similar way. In addhion to these process object
diagrams, a performance comparison table is used to make the comparison of process
steps easier (Figure 4.16). The last five diagrams are used to classify objects into
fundamental and nonflmdamental. The objective hierarchy diagram (Figure 4.17) is
developed to show the objective of a business process and hs subobjectives. Each of the
subobjectives specified in this diagram is compared whh the process object diagram whh
objective information to identify which process objects are fundamental (Figure 4.17).
Then, a process object diagram whh the classification is constructed. When this process
object diagram shows inputs and outputs, the necessity of those resources objects in
achieving the objectives can be evaluated. Also, this diagram is used to identify
nonflmdamental process objects by looking for those that do not provide inputs to
fundamental process objects. In addhion, the process object diagram with event
information is used to identify process objects that do not provide prerequishe events to
fundamental process objects. This also helps to identify nonflmdamental process objects.
After nonflmdamental process objects are identified, a resource object diagram with
relating process objects is used to classify resource objects into fundamental and
nonflmdamental (Figure 4.18). The classification made by BPR analysts is recorded in the
classification field of their information collection templates.
Business Process 1
Process step 1
Process step 1 -1
Process step 1-2
Process step 2
Process step 2-1
Process step 2-2
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Figure 4.16. A Performance Comparison Table for Process Analysis and Design
84
Process 1-1
Objective 1-1
Process 1
Objective 1
X
Process 1-2
Objective 1-1
Process 1-3
Objective 1-3
Process Diagram with Objective Information
Objective Hierarchy Diagram
Objective
" Subobjective 1
t
Subobjective 1-1
Subobjective 1-2
Subobjective 2
Subobjective 2-1
Subobjective 2-2
Subobjective 3
Subobjective 3-1
Subobjective 3-2
Subobjective 3-3
Figure 4.17. Objective Hierarchy Diagram and a Process Object Diagram whh Objective
Information
Work Product 1
Process 1-2: F
Resource 1
Process 1-2-1: F
Work Product 2
Process 1-3: N
Resource 2
Process 1-2-2: F
Process 1-3-1: N
Resource 3
Process 1-2-3: N
Process 1-3-2: N
Figure 4.18. A Resource Object Diagram with Related Process Objects and their
Classification
85
For the process design, a detailed process object diagram with process owner
information and objective hierarchy diagram are used to identify new process objects that
provide inputs and prerequisite events to fundamental process objects. After all the details
of such new objects are specified using templates, a process object diagram with the
inputs, outputs and event information is used to convert unnecessary sequential processing
into parallel processing. A process object diagram whh cycle time information, one vsdth
quality measurement information, one whh cost information, and the performance
comparison table help to evaluate the impact of change.
For the process implementation activity, a process object diagram whh the
operator helps to design the desired human resource architecture. Clustering process
objects for the same operator or department should be done (Figure 4.19). The
performance comparison table helps to evaluate the impact of change. Process diagrams
with performance measurement information are also useful.
For the monitoring activity, the process selection table and the performance
comparison table are used. Process object diagram with cycle time information, one with
quality measurement information, one whh cost information, and the performance
comparison table help to evaluate the impact of change.
The Steps of the Extended 0 0 Modeling Method
This section presents the steps of the extended 0 0 modeling method as a symbol-
level representation of the BPR activity knowledge. These steps represent information
manipulation logic and model manipulation logic of relevant knowledge. The steps of the
proposed extended 0 0 modeling method include six major phases:
1. Selection of a business process for a BPR project.
2. Development of a model of the existing business process.
3. Analysis of a model of the existing business process.
4. Development of a model for the reengineered process.
5. Implementation of the reengineered process.
6. Monhoring of the reengineered process.
86
Higher level sequence
Detailed level sequence
Figure 4.19. A Process Object Diagram for Process Implementation
87
These phases correspond to the six BPR activities identified as knowledge concepts.
Symbol-level representation of BPR actions has been achieved by describing actions in
terms of the extended 0 0 modeling framework, information collection formats, and
information presentation formats. Sequence and necessary heration of the BPR activities
and actions have also been specified. Figure 4.20 shows this sequence and necessary
iteration.
Selection of a Business Process for a BPR Project. The selection of a business
process requires the construction of a process-level model. Each business process is
represented by a process object. All required information is collected by using a process
object template for the selection phase. The objective should be defined as to what is
currently being done. At this point, a process object diagram is constructed. Next, work
products produced from process objects are identified as resource objects. Then,
resources used to produce those work products are identified as resource objects. A
resource object template for the selection phase is used to define those resource objects.
At this point, a resource object diagram is drawn. By performing these actions, the
boundaries of business processes are established.
Then, a process selection table is constructed using the data for weight, customer
satisfaction level, cycle time, quality measurement, and cost. From the strategic
importance and value to customers, the overall importance of a business process is
determined. The simplest way to determine the overall importance is averaging those two.
BPR analysts can use a more complicated formula. Those formulas are specified as
operations in the process objects. Then, the processes are ranked using the overall
importance. Next, the health of the business processes is assessed using the customer
satisfaction level, cycle time, quality measurement, and cost. A five-point Likert scale is
probably the simplest way to specify the overall heahh. Then, using their heahh, the
processes whh the same importance are sorted within the business processes. Then, the
level of the urgency for change is determined using the overall importance and heahh of
the business processes. Again, a five-point Likert scale is probably the easiest way to
specify h.
88
1. Selection of a business prpcess for a BPR project
Identify process objects for major business processes
Fill in process object template for all process objects
Draw process object diagram
Identic' resource objects for work products for each of the business processes
Identify resource objects for resources used in each of the business processes
Fill in resource object template for all resource objects
Draw resource object diagram
Construct process selection table
Rank busjness processes using their overall importance
Rank business processes usjng their overall health
Rank business processes using their urgency for change
Select a business process for a BPR project
Set goals
>
r
2. Development of a model of the existing business process
^ ^ Identity detailed resource objects tor resources used in the business process
Fill in resource object template for all resource objects
Update resource oqject diagram
Decompose the business process & specify them as process objects
Fill in process object template for all process objects
Construct process object diagram for a business process
Relate process objects & resource objects and fill in templates
Add uiocess sequence to uiocess obj
^
eci aiagram
r
3. Analysis of a model of the existing business process
Redefine process and resource owners
Conduct cycle time analysis: Construct a process object diagram & performance comparison table
Conduct quality measurement analysis: Construct a process object diagram & performance comparison table
Conduct cost analysis: Construct a process object diagram & performance comparison table
Identify bottleneck process objects & resources objects
Initiate an incremental improvement if viable
Conduct objective analysis: Construct a process object diagram
Classify process objects into fundamental
Conduct input-output analysis: Construct a process object diagram
Conduct event analysis: Construct a process object diagram
Classify process objectts into nonfundamental
Conduct resource analysis: Construct a resource object diagram
Classify resource objects into fundamental or nonfundamental
>
<
4. Development of a model for the reengineere
w Add new fundamental and valiie-addir
Fill in template for all of those newly
Conduct input-output analysis and eve
Attempt to eliminate nonfundamental
Redraw process object diagram & resc
Conduct sequence analysis
Update information on a template & r<
Check consistency
Construct performance comparison ta
>
5. Implementation of the reengineered business
. ^ Cliistprproce'!": nhjer.ts fnrajob title
Define new job responsibilitfes for a p
Cluster process objects for a departme
Define new job responsibilities for a f
Implement prototype of a business pre
Construct a performance comparison 1
Partition a model and prioritize parts
Develop an implementation plan
>
6 Monitoring of the reengineered business pro
^ Update the information on templates
Construct performance comparison ta
^ Evaluate whether change is necessary
Splert rhanre approach
'
d business process
ig process objects and resource objects
dentified objects
nt analysis if necessary
and nonvalue-adding process objects & resource objects
)urce object diagram
jdraw process object diagram
ale
r
process
rocess operator
nt
unctional department
)cess or simulate it
table and evaluate the results
'
cess
ble using updated information
Figure 4.20. Steps of an Extended 0 0 Modeling Method
89
Next, a business process is selected for a particular project, considering hs
constraints. At this point, BPR analysts should not consider many constraints. Time
constraints should be considered because BPR needs to produce a significant improvement
in a relatively short period of time. Resource constraints should not be considered
seriously because h limits innovative ideas of redesign. Finally, the goals of a BPR project
are set in terms of measurement variables. This first phase may be skipped when a target
process is easily selected without analysis.
Development of a Model of the Existing Business Process. The process object
that represents a target business process is identified if the first phase has been skipped.
All resources used to produce work products are identified if not ah of them have been
identified in the first phase. A resource object template is used to collect information
about those resources. The resource object diagram is updated. While doing this, the
business process is decomposed into process steps and the process steps are defined as
process objects. The decomposition process is terminated when a process step cannot
produce any recognizable outcome. A process object template is used to collect
information about those process steps. Target value of measurement variables is specified,
considering the goals of the project set in the selection phase. At this point, a process
object diagram is developed for the business process. While filling out the process object
templates, cycle time is specified for each process object independently of other process
objects. This is important to identify whether there is a problem between process steps
but not in each process step. Then, the process objects and resource objects are related
and their relationships are specified in the interface of the process objects and the resource
objects. Finally, a process sequence is added to the process object diagram. This is
achieved by connecting the process objects according to their prerequishe events and
consequent events.
The step sequence shown in Figure 4.20 (p. 89) is general. To refine the model,
steps are performed iteratively. The existing business process can be thoroughly
understood by continually refining the object definitions, object relationships, and the
90
diagrams. Also, the decomposition of processes and the identification of resources can be
done together in a spiral way rather than independently.
Analysis of a Model of the Existing Business Process. This phase starts with
redefining the owner of process objects and resource objects. This facilhates a cross-
functional perspective to analyze and redesign a business process. The broadest possible
view should be created. All the information specified in the model of the existing process
is evaluated based on this redefined owner's perspective.
The next step is the cycle time analysis, where cycle time of each process object is
investigated. A process object diagram with cycle time information is constructed. A
process object whh a long cycle time is a candidate for redesign. Target cycle time is used
as a benchmark. A worst-case cycle time is compared with hs average and target cycle
times. If the worst-case cycle time is seriously longer than the average or target cycle
time, the process object needs to be redesigned. Standardizing, simplifying, or automating
the process step should be considered. In addhion, the expected cycle time of a parent
process object is calculated by adding hs children's average cycle times. Where hs
average cycle is longer than hs expected cycle time, there is a problem, such as a
communication problem between process steps, backlog, delay or redundancy. The cycle
time part of a performance comparison table is constructed to make the comparison
among process objects easier.
The third step is the quality measurement analysis, where the quality of process
objects is examined. A process object diagram whh the quality information is constructed.
Target quality and status quo are compared. If there is substantial difference between
them, the process step needs redesigning. Simplifying, standardizing or error proofing the
process step must be considered. The quality measurement part of a performance
comparison table is constructed to make the comparison among process objects easier.
The fourth step is the cost analysis. A process object diagram with the cost
information is constructed. Allocation of costs to each process step requires the
implementation of activity-based costing. Whh this data, high cost process steps can be
identified. If those process steps are neither fiindamental nor value-adding, eliminating
91
them must be attempted in the next phase. If they are fiindamental or value-adding, the
reduction of cost should be attempted in the next phase. The cost part of a performance
comparison table is constructed to make the comparison among process objects easier.
Through the cycle time, quality measurement, and cost analyses, BPR analysts
identify where bottlenecks are. At this point, they should inhiate an incremental
improvement if it is viable.
The next step is the objective analysis. The objective of the business process is
redefined regarding what should be achieved from the newly defined process owner's
perspective. Then, the objective is decomposed into subobjectives, and the objective
hierarchy diagram is constructed. Consistency of each subobjective with hs superordinate
objective is ensured. In addition, a BPR analyst evaluates how much each subobjective
contributes to its superordinate objective. These newly defined objectives are compared
with the objectives of the process objects of the existing business process. A process
object diagram whh the objective information and the objective hierarchy diagram are
compared. By doing this, the necessity of each process object in achieving a particular
objective is evaluated. The process object is likely to be nonfundamental, where the
current objective of a process step does not match with any of redefined subobjectives.
The next step is the input-output analysis. The purpose of this analysis is to
identify which process objects provide inputs into fundamental process objects. A process
object diagram whh the input, output, and classification information is constructed. The
next step is the event analysis. The purpose of this analysis is to identify which process
objects produce prerequishe events of fundamental process objects. A process object
diagram with the event and classification information is constructed. These two analyses
are critical in identifying redundant process objects and resource objects. Process objects
that produce redundant inputs or redundant prerequishe events for a fundamental process
object are classified as nonfundamental. Also, process objects that produce outputs or
events only for nonfiindamental process objects are classified as nonfundamental.
92
Finally, the necessity of resource objects is evaluated. This is done by examining
the resource object diagram whh the related process objects and their classification.
Resource objects are classified into fundamental or nonfundamental.
Development of a model for the reengineered process. In the first step of this
phase, the analyst considers adding new fundamental process objects and resource objects.
Using a newly defined process owner's and resource owner's view, it is necessary to
identify where the inputs to the fundamental process objects were produced originally. By
providing the inputs to the fundamental process objects fi-om the original sources, h is
possible to reduce the cycle time, errors, and cost. Frequently, those source process steps
are out of the scope of the project. Therefore, it is critical to broadly identify the process
owner and resource owner in the third phase. If those source process steps are out of the
current scope, BPR analysts need to include them in the scope of the project. In addition,
BPR analysts also consider adding new fundamental process objects and resource objects
in achieving the redefined objectives of the business process. All the components of those
objects are specified using templates. Addition of new process objects and resource
objects may make some existing process objects and resource objects nonfundamental. In
that case, the input-output and event analyses need to be conducted again.
In the next step of this phase, nonfundamental process objects, which provide
neither inputs nor prerequishe events to a fiindamental process object, are eliminated.
Related resource objects are likely to be nonfundamental resource objects; therefore, the
elimination of them is attempted. This may require adding a new process object or
resource object. Therefore, the addition of new objects and elimination of objects are
carried out in a spiral way.
At this point, a process object diagram is redrawn. Similarly, a resource object
diagram is redrawn.
The next step is the sequence analysis. A sequence is added to the process object
diagram. The sequence analysis investigates the prerequishe events and consequent
events. Unnecessary sequential processing is converted into parallel processing. Based on
a broadly defined process owner's perspective, process steps are performed as paraUel as
93
possible by assigning cross-fianctional project team as operators. Intercommunication
between relatively independent but related process steps is facilhated to achieve parallel
processing.
Again, the process object diagram is updated. All information on process object
templates is updated if necessary. Similariy, the resource object diagram is updated and all
information on the resource object templates is updated. It is also necessary to make sure
there is consistency. All relationships among process objects and resource objects need to
be checked.
The next step is to estimate the impact of the reengineering. A performance
comparison table is constructed using updated information. The expected values are
recalculated or assessed. Then they are compared whh the data for the existing process.
If the improvement does not achieve the BPR goals, analytical steps of the third phase and
the steps of the fourth phase should be performed until satisfactory outcomes can be
achieved.
Implementation of the Reengineered Business Process. The first step is to identify
all the process objects performed by the same operator. Such process objects are
clustered on the process object diagram. Then, the job responsibility is defined for that
operator. The second step is to identify all the process objects performed by operators
that belong to the same functional department. Then, such process objects are clustered
on the process object diagram. Next, the responsibility for that department is defined. To
obtain the desired resuhs, it may be necessary to redefine the operator of the process
objects. Using this information, a prototype of the business process is implemented to
estimate the change impact. Simulation is another ahernative used for this purpose. The
expected data is collected for measurement variables. A performance comparison table is
constructed using the expected values. The expected data is compared with the data for
the existing process. The above steps are repeated until the desired organizational
structure is obtained.
94
Once the desired organizational structure is determined, the process object
diagram is parthioned and those parts are prioritized to develop an implementation plan.
Time and resource constraints are considered to develop an implementation plan.
Monhoring of the Reengineered Business Process. The first step is to periodically
collect data for strategic importance, value to customer, customer satisfaction level, cycle
time, quality measurement, and cost. Also, the objective may need to be updated. A
template is used to collect the data. Then, a performance comparison table is constructed
using the updated information. When a minor discrepancy is found between the collected
data and target value, an incremental approach should be suggested. When a major
discrepancy is found, a more radical approach should be suggested.
Symbol-Level Propositions
Symbol-level proposhions relate the symbol-level concepts (S) to knowledge-level
concepts (K), the system behavior (B), and the environment (E). For this research, the
following propositions have been developed:
1. If the business process knowledge is implemented as the extended 0 0 modeling
fi-amework, a modeling method can capture and provide sufficient information to carry
out BPR activhies efficiently.
2. If BPR activity knowledge is implemented as steps of an extended 0 0 modeling
method, a modeling method can guide a BPR analyst to carry out BPR activities
efficiently.
3. If the selection knowledge is implemented as the information collection templates and
information presentation formats for the selection, a modehng method can select a
business process for a particular project efficiently.
4. If the documentation knowledge is implemented in the form of the information
collection templates for the documentation, a modeling method can document a
business process efficiently.
95
5. If the BPR activity knowledge for analysis is implemented as cycle time analysis,
quality analysis, and cost analysis, a modeling method can identify a bottleneck in a
business process efficiently.
6. If a BPR activity knowledge for analysis is implemented as objective analysis, input-
output analysis, event analysis, and resource analysis, a modeling method can identify
fundamental and nonfundamental process elements of a business process efficiently.
7. If the analysis knowledge is implemented as the information presentation formats for
analysis, a modeling method can provide sufficient information to conduct all seven
types of analyses efficiently.
8. If the design knowledge is implemented as the information presentation formats, a
modeling method can identify new fundamental process elements efficiently.
9. If the BPR activity knowledge for design is implemented as design steps of an
extended 0 0 modeling method, a modeling method can determine the desired
structure of a business process efficiently.
10. If the design knowledge is implemented as the information presentation formats, a
modeling method can provide sufficient information to determine the desired structure
of a business process efficiently.
11. If the design knowledge is implemented as the information presentation formats, a
modeling method can evaluate the impact of the change in business process structure
efficiently.
12. If the implementation knowledge is implemented as the information presentation
formats, a modeling method can provide sufficient information to determine the
desired organizational structure efficiently.
13. If the implementation knowledge is implemented as the information presentation
formats, a modeling method can evaluate an impact of the change in organizational
structure efficiently.
14 If the monhoring knowledge is implemented in the form of the information collection
format and information presentation formats, a BPR modeling method can monitor a
business process efficiently.
96
A Symbol-Level Conceptual Model for a BPR Modeling Method
The knowledge-level concepts were implemented in the form of the extended 0 0
modehng framework, steps of the extended 0 0 modeling method, information collection
templates, and information presentation formats. The relationships among the symbol-
level concepts were presented as a symbol-level conceptual model of a BPR modeling
method in Figure 4.21. The BPR analysis performer finds what action h should carry out
by accessing the steps of the extended 0 0 BPR method. Then, the BPR analysis
performer uses templates to collect information. The BPR analysis performer also uses
information presentation formats to produce information for analytical and evaluation
actions. The extended 0 0 modeling framework is used to maintain the information about
a business process. When the BPR analysis performer completes the action, it accesses
the steps of the extended 0 0 BPR method again to find what the next action might be.
The BPR analysis performer repeats this procedure while h pursues a project.
Summary
This chapter described the development of an Extended 0 0 BPR modeling
method as a system. The chapter started whh the description of the desired behavior of a
BPR modeling method. Then, various kinds of knowledge that are required to produce
the behavior were identified. Knowledge-level proposhions were then developed to
clearly describe the relationship between the knowledge-level concepts and the behavior.
An extended 0 0 modeling framework, steps of the method, information collection
templates, and information presentation formats were developed as symbol-level concepts.
Finally, symbol-level proposhions were described to clearly describe the relationship
between the symbol-level concepts and the behavior.
97
Extended 0 0
Modeling
Framework
BPR Analysis
Performer
^ 'W
^ w
Steps of
Extended OO
Modeling
Method
Information Collection Templates
Process object templates
Resource object templates
Information Presentation Formats
Object Network (diagrams)
Tabular Forms
Figure 4.21. Symbol-Level Conceptual Model of a BPR Modeling Method
98
CHAPTER V
VALIDATION PROCEDURE
The primary focus of validation in this research was on the comprehensiveness of
the proposed modeling method. To evaluate the comprehensiveness, two main criteria
were used. These two were:
1. Abhity to capture the information necessary to support BPR activities.
2. Coverage of phases or activhies throughout a BPR project.
According to Lakin, Capon, and Botten (1996), the effectiveness of BPR tools can be
measured as the ability to capture all the attributes of a process that would be the basis for
pursuing reengineering successfully. Therefore, the evaluation of BPR modeling methods
based on the above two criteria could show their effectiveness.
Specifically, the validation in this research attempted to find the answer to the
fohowing four questions:
Ql: Does the proposed modeling method capture more information about a business
process than do benchmark modeling methods?
Q2: Does the proposed modeling method support more BPR activities than do
benchmark modeling methods?
Q3: Does the proposed modeling method support particular BPR activhies in more detail
than do benchmark modeling methods?
Q4: Does the proposed modehng method provide a model which contains more
information about a business process for a specific analytical action than do benchmark
modeling methods?
Evaluation Framework
The research used a comparative analysis to determine the comprehensiveness of
the proposed BPR modeling method. A comparative analysis required a fi-amework. The
Enterprise Integration Laboratory at the Department of Industrial Engineering, University
of Toronto (1995) identified a set of questions which evaluate BPR tools with respect to
99
the BPR framework. Their questions are categorized into three main BPR tool features.
Those features are:
1. Enterprise Models.
2. Analysis.
3. Visualization.
Since the validation of this research focused on comparing the comprehensiveness
of modeling methods at the conceptual level, those questions relating to the usability were
not used. Although the usability of the modeling methods could be evaluated whhout
automated tools, the way they were implemented as an automated tool could significantly
affect the user's perception about hs usability. Therefore, the usability was not evaluated.
In sum, the evaluation framework that compared BPR modeling methods was developed
by selecting applicable questions and rephrasing them.
For the Enterprise feature, the following two adapted questions were developed:
What information about a business process does a modeling method capture?
What mechanisms does a modeling method use to capture each information item?
Then, to make the comparisons easier, these two questions were transformed into
a framework as a table format. The framework contained the smallest common
denominator by taking an intersection of all methods. This was a primary approach used
by Brinkkemper, Hong, Buhhuis, and Goor (1995) to create a fi-amework to compare
concepts used by different object-oriented design methodologies.
Table 5.1 shows the relationship among the original questions, adapted questions,
and corresponding columns in the framework. Figure 5.1 shows the framework used to
compare the Enterprise Model feature of modeling methods. 'Explich' in the second
column of the Figure 5.1 means that an information hem is documented and presented
cleariy in a model, and a BPR analyst does not need to make an extra effort to find h in
the model. Tmplich' in the second column means that an information hem is documented
and presented in a model, but a BPR analyst needs to make an extra effort to find h.
Similarly, two adapted questions were developed to evaluate the Analysis feature:
What kind of analysis is specified by a method for a particular stage of BPR?
100
What models are produced by a method to support the analysis?
In addhion, the Visuahzation features were evaluated using the following two
criteria:
What information is presented in a visualized format?
What format is used to present the information?
These four questions were used to evaluate the comprehensiveness and step details
specified by each method. To make the comparisons easier, these four questions were
transformed into a framework in a table format. To fairly compare the ability of BPR
modeling methods to support BPR activities, a framework contained a comprehensive list
of BPR activities. Activhies specified in the BPR methodology proposed by Kettinger et
al. (1995) was used as a basis because their methodology seemed the most comprehensive.
Table 5.2 shows the relationship among the original questions, adapted questions, and
corresponding columns in the framework. Figure 5.2 shows the fi-amework used to
compare the Analysis and Visualization features.
Table 5.1. Relationship among the Original Questions, Adapted Questions and Columns
in the Framework for the Enterprise Model Feature.
Original Questions Adapted Questions
Corresponding Columns
in the Framework
What requirements must the enterprise
modelmg language satisfy in order to
support BPR at some stage?
Specify terminology required to specify
for a particular stage of BPR.
What information about a
business process does a
modelmg method capture?
Identify the enterprise modelmg language
required to support the analysis tasks
idenfified for a particular stage of BPR
How is a particular enterprise modelmg
language useful for supporting BPR at a
particular stage in the framework?
What mechanisms does a
modeling method use to
capture an information
item of a business
process?
Not applicable.
Captures?
Constructs used
101
Information about a Business Process
The objective of a business process
The unportance of a business process (strategic importance and
value to customers).
Work products/outcomes of a business process.
Relationships between work products and objective of business
process.
Customer satisfaction level of the process.
Resources used to produce the work products
Relationship between work products and resources.
Activities performed on resources (the smallest unh of task
carried out on a single resource.)
Relationship between activities and resources.
Relationship between activities and process steps (Which
activities constitute a process step).
Relationship between process steps and resources (Inputs and
outputs of process steps).
Relationship between a business process and process steps
(Which process steps constitute a business process).
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events for the business process and process steps.
Cycle time of a process step and the business process.
Quality measurement of process step and business process.
Costs of the process steps and the business process.
Process operators and functional department.
Resource owners and process owners.
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers, Customers)
Interaction between stakeholders and a business process
Captures?
(Explicit/
Implicit/No)
Mechanism
(Constructs
used)
Figure 5.1. A Framework for the Enterprise Model Feature.
102
Table 5.2. Relationship among the Original Questions, Adapted Questions and Columns
in the Framework for the Analysis and Visualization Features.
Analysis
Origmal Questions
What kind of analysis is applicable at a
particular stage of BPR, if any?
What kind of analysis is being
performed by the particular tool that we
are evaluatmg?
What enterprise models are required to
support the analysis?
How do the analysis tasks change with
the intended users?
Adapted Questions
What kind of analysis is
specified
by a method for a particular
stage of BPR?
What models are produced
by a method to support the
analysis?
Not applicable
Corresponding
Columns m the
Framework
Analytical steps
Specified.
How specified.
Model produced.
Visualization
Original Questions
What needs to be visualized?
How is the necessary information being
visualized?
How is the visualization related to the
kind of analysis task?
Adapted Questions
What information is
presented in a visualized
format?
What format is used to
present the information?
Not applicable.
Corresponding
Columns in the
Framework
Information included in
a model.
Type of models.
Notation used to show
information.
BPR
Activities
by Kettmger
etal.
Envision
Inaugurate
Diagnose
Redesign
Reconstruct
Evaluate
Analytical
steps
specified
How
specified
(list/textual)
Models
produced
Type of
models
(graphic/ta
bular/text/
etc.)
Information
included in
models
Notation
used to
show
information
Figure 5.2. A Framework for the Analysis and Visualization Features
103
Using the Enterprise Model, Analysis, and Visualization feature criteria, the
comprehensiveness of modeling methods was evaluated. The abilhies to support
constructs and cover activhies specified for the development life cycle are the two most
frequently used criteria in the research that compares information systems design methods
(Olle, Sol & Tully, 1983). This research used similar concepts in evaluating the
comprehensiveness of BPR modeling methods. Therefore, h was reasonable to consider
that the two evaluation frameworks used in the research could evaluate the two main key
features of BPR modeling methods.
Modeling Methods Compared
To evaluate the comprehensiveness using the above two criteria, the proposed
method was compared whh the foUowing three methods:
OO modeling method by Jacobson et al. (1995).
Process Flow Diagram by Rummler and Brache (1995).
Role Activity Diagram by Quid (1995).
All of these three methods were empirically tested by their authors and practitioners as a
viable modeling method to support BPR activhies. The 0 0 modeling method by
Jacobson et al. (1995) is one of the best-known 0 0 modeling methods (Brinkkemper,
Hong, Buhhuis, & van den Goor; 1995) and it is documented as a modeling method for
BPR while other popular 0 0 modeling methods are not as well documented as a BPR
modeling tool. The Process Flow Diagram proposed by Rummler and Brache (1995) has
been selected for the comparative analysis because it is an extension of Flowchart, which
is one of the most popular BPR modeling techniques (Lakin, et al., 1996). Process Flow
Chart captures more information about a business process than Flowchart does. In
addhion, h has been implemented by Sterling Software as a market-leading applications
development tool for BPR. The Role Activity Diagram by Quid (1995) is also one of the
most popular modeling techniques for BPR (Lakin et al., 1996). The Role Activity
Diagram is also implemented in automated BPR tools by several companies (Lakin et al.,
1996). Therefore, if the proposed modeling method was considered more comprehensive
104
than those three methods, h was reasonable to conclude that the proposed modeling
method had sufficient potential to be a basis for the development of a good BPR tool.
Another popular modeling method used for BPR was IDEF IDEF was not
included in the comparative analysis for practical reasons. While the other three methods
were well documented in the form of published books, the documentation of IDEF as a
BPR modeling method was scattered over several documents. In addhion, the main
documentation about IDEF as a BPR modeling method was written by the Department of
Defense. Therefore, h was considered difficuh to obtain feedback from the original
authors to ensure that the evaluation would be done fairly Therefore, IDEF was not
included in the comparative analysis.
Data Collection
Data was collected from the published materials and the written document of the
proposed extended 0 0 modeling method (see Appendix A). The use of published
materials as data sources is a common approach in the comparative analysis of systems
design methodologies (Olle, Sol, & Tully, 1983; Fichman & Kemerer, 1992). Therefore,
the same approach was used for the research. The use of published materials helps to
reduce the bias in the evaluation process because anyone can go back to the materials to
investigate the accuracy of the evaluation. The published materials used to collect data
about the three existing modeling methods were:
Jacobson, I., Ericsson, M., and Jacobson, A. (1995). The object advantage:
Business process reengineering whh object technology. Workingham, England:
ACM Press, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Quid, M. A. (1995) Business processes: Modelling and analysis for re-engineering
and improvement. Chichester, NY: Wiley; and
Huckvale, T., and Quid, M. (1995). Process modeling-Who, what and how: role
activity diagramming. In V Grover and W J. Kettinger (Ed), Business Process
Change: Concepts. Methods and Technologies, (p.p.330-349). Harrisburg, PA.
IDEA Group Publishing.
105
Rummler, G. A. and Brache, A. P (1995). Improving performance: How to
manage the whhe space on the organizational chart. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
/Vn issue we needed to consider was the fact that methods were usually evolving.
The comparisons must be done on a "snapshot" of methods which were not outdated. By
selecting the most updated published materials, the problems was reduced. In addition,
the research was planned to forward the evaluation to the original developers to obtain the
most updated information about the methods as their feedback. However, no feedback
was obtained from them.
Evaluation Process
There were several issues we also considered to achieve accurate and unbiased
comparisons. Those were:
1. Differences in terminology: Since different authors used different terminology to
represent the same or similar concepts, the correspondence of terminology among
different methods must have been made on the basis of the contents not of the names.
Lacking an agreement on terminology, it was unavoidable to use some working
terminology in the framework for a comparative analysis. The terminology used in the
framework for the Enterprise Model feature was by no means considered as a proposal
for some kind of a standard. Careful examination of the concepts and notations
advocated by each methodology was done to determine whether those were variants
on the same basic idea. The entire document of published materials was reviewed
manually whh care.
2. Replicability of evaluation: To increase the replicability of the comparative analysis,
several issues were considered. First, a framework used was described clearly. A
documentation that described an evaluation framework was sent to the evaluators (see
Appendix A). Second, the process of comparative analysis was described and sent to
the evaluator (see Appendix A). In the research, the Delphi method (Linstone &
TurnofF, 1975; Delbecq, Van de Ven, & Gustafson, 1986) was used as a core process
to reach the consensus among several evaluators. The use of a well-established
106
method helped increase the replicability of the analysis. The last issue was that many
previous comparative analyses done for systems design methods did not che page
reference. Citing page reference is essential to accurately replicate the evaluation.
The evaluation in this research ched page reference to increase the replicability.
3. Subjective evaluation: On some questions, the answers could be quite subjective. We
reduced this subjectivity by using the Delphi method. First, the methods were
evaluated by the author. Then, three expert committee members investigated the
evaluation resuhs. The criteria used for the committee selection were those who
possessed a doctoral degree in Management Information Systems (MIS) or Computer
Information Systems (CIS), or those who had a doctoral degree in MIS/CIS related
fields with significant MIS/CIS research and teaching experiences. The selected
members were faculty members at MIS/CIS departments or units at colleges of
business administration or equivalent at state universities (they were not the
dissertation committee members). When there were essential differences, the issues
were discussed until some measure of consensus was reached. The Delphi method
was used for this process. The evaluation was forwarded to the methods' original
developers to obtain feedback. Although no feedback was obtained from them, the
following steps were planned in the case that their feedback was obtained: The
evaluation would be modified accordingly if the feedback was supported by some
physical evidence. The feedback from the original author would be forwarded to the
expert committee members for the evaluation. The Delphi method would be used to
reach the consensus about the revision of the evaluation. In the case that no consensus
was achieved, the disagreement would be reported. This would help increase the
accuracy and reduce the bias.
Considering the above issues, the evaluation was conducted as follow:
1 The author evaluated the Enterprise Model feature of the methods by filling out the
framework for the Enterprise Model feature. The explanation of constructs of the
modeling methods was carefully reviewed. The order of evaluation was as follows:
a. Process Flow Diagram by Rummler and Brache.
107
b. Role Activity Diagram by Quid.
c. 0 0 modehng method by Jacobson et al.
d. An extended 0 0 modeling method by Nakatani.
2. The author evaluated the Analysis and Visualization features of the methods by filling
out the framework for these two features. The explanation of when and how to use
the models was investigated. A list of analytical activhies, as well as their detailed
descriptions, was carefully reviewed. Also, examples described in the materials, if
avahable, were carefully reviewed. The order of evaluation was as follow:
a. Process Flow Diagram by Rummler and Brache.
b. Role Activity Diagram by Quid.
c. 0 0 modeling method by Jacobson et al.
d. An extended 0 0 modeling method by Nakatani.
3. The expert committee investigated the evaluation results in order to ensure an accurate
evaluation.
a. Each committee member was asked to carefully review the materials and use page
reference to ensure the author's evaluation accuracy.
b. When essential differences were found, the Delphi method was used to reach
consensus. During the first round, each committee member was asked whether he
agreed or disagreed with the author's evaluation. Also, they were asked to vmte
reasons for disagreement. For the disagreed hems, the first-round responses from
the committee members were compiled and forwarded back to them and re-
evaluated. This process was repeated three times. In case no consensus was
achieved at the end of the third round, the disagreement was reported in the
evaluation.
4. The evaluation was forwarded to the original authors of the methods to obtain
feedback.
5. The feedback from the original authors could not be obtained after several attempts
were made.
108
6. The comparisons were done according to how many hems were covered by each
method.
7. The four questions mentioned earlier were answered according to the following pre-
determined rules:
Ql: Does the proposed modeling method capture more information about a business
process than do benchmark modeling methods?
If it were found that the proposed modeling method covers more information items in
the framework for the Enterprise Model feature, the answer to this question would be
"yes."
Q2: Does the proposed modeling method support more BPR activities than do
benchmark modeling methods?
If it were found that the proposed modeling method provides analytical actions for
more BPR activhies specified in the framework for the Analysis and Visualization
features, the answer to this question would be "yes." In this analysis, analytical actions
were considered specified and supported by the method only when the method was
assessed that it provides some information for those actions.
Q3: Does the proposed modeling method support particular BPR activhies in more
detail than do benchmark modeling methods?
If it were found that the proposed modeling method provides more analytical actions
for a particular BPR activity specified in the framework for the Analysis and
Visualization features, the answer to this question would be "yes." Again, in this
analysis, analytical actions were considered specified and supported by the method
only when the method was assessed that h provides some information for those
actions.
Q4: Does the proposed modeling method provide a model which contains more
information about a business process for a specific analytical action than do benchmark
modeling methods?
109
If h were found that the proposed modeling method provides more information for a
particular analytical action specified in the framework for the Analysis and
Visualization features, the answer to this question would be "yes."
The next chapter discusses the evaluation and comparative analysis in details.
Known Limhations of Validation Procedure
There were several known limhations in this validation procedure. First, the
proposed modeling method was not compared with all of the most published or used
modeling methods for BPR. Second, the expert committee members used were not
randomly selected. In addition, their size was smaU. This limited the generalization of the
evaluation resuhs. Third, the comparative analysis was done qualhatively. Statistical
analysis was not be conducted to numerically rank modeling methods. Finally, the
usability of modeling methods was not be compared. The usability is one of the critical
aspects in evaluating modeling methods. To achieve this, an automated tool must be
developed based on the proposed modeling method, applied to a specific problem domain,
and compared with the existing automated tools to evaluate its usability.
110
CHAPTER VI
DATA ANALYSIS
This chapter discusses each of the benchmark methods first. The next section
presents the evaluation resuhs of each method, including the proposed method. The third
section discusses the comparison of the methods. The final section summarizes the data
analysis.
Benchmark Methods
This section briefly describes three modeling methods used as a benchmark in this
study. The discussion in this section focuses on their constructs used to capture
information about a business process. The three methods are: Process Flow Diagrams by
Rummler and Brach; Role Activity Diagrams by Quid; and 0 0 modeling method by
Jacobson et al.
Process Flow Diagrams
The method proposed by Rummler and Brache (1995) uses two major diagrams.
Relationship Map and Process Map, and four tables. The Relationship Map is used to
show the relationship among (a) labor market, (b) research community, (c) caphal
market, (d) vendors, (e) market, (f) shareholders, (g) competitors, (h) intemal functional
departments and management, and (i) the flows among the above. Each of these enthies
is represented by a rectangle and a named arrow is used to represent a flow among the
enthies. This map shows the organizational level of performance.
The Process Map is used to show the process level of performance. This diagram
is extended from flowcharts by adding organizational responsibility for process steps and
performance constraints and goals. The organizational aspect is represented by a
horizontal axis. Flowcharts are mapped into this diagram. Each process step is
represented by a rectangle placed in a slot representing one of the functional departments.
The sequence of the process steps is represented by connecting the process steps by
arrows. Decision making is represented by a diamond. Sub-goals that should be
111
achieved in the course of the process are added to this diagram using circles attached to
points (such as at a process, a decision, etc.) of measurement.
A Functional Goal Summary in a tabular format is also created to support the
Process Map. The performance measures and goals are stated for total process and each
of the functional departments. At the job/performer level, a Role/Responsibility Matrix is
created. For each process step, accomplishments and goals that should be achieved by a
performer are presented in a tabular format. The Job Model and Functional Model are
also represented in a table format. Each shows the goals, accomplishments, operators,
and measurements.
Using the Relationship Map, Process Map, Functional Goal Summary,
Role/Responsibility Matrix, Job Model, and Functional Model, this method documents a
business process performance at three levels: organizational, process, and job/performer.
Figure 6.1 shows the constructs used in this method.
Labor
Market
Research
Community
Capital
Market
Vendors
Human
Resources
rz
Marketing
Product
Development
Management
Field
Operations
Finance
'' ^'
Production
TTT
Relationship Map
Competitors
Stakeholders
Market
Process Flow Diagram
Figure 6.1. Graphical Notations Used in Process Flow Diagrams
112
Role Activhy Diagrams
Quid (1995) suggested Role Activity Diagrams (RADs) as a modeling method for
BPR. RAD was proposed by Hoh, Ramsey, and Grims (1983) for modeling coordination
in the workplace. RAD uses the following eight constructs to model a business process:
role, state line, state description, activhy, external event, ahernative paths depending on
the condhion, concurrent paths, and interaction between roles. A process is represented
by a set of roles. A role consists of a set of activhies. Each role behaves independently
using hs own resources and interacts with other roles as necessary. Each role is usually
represented by a person's functional thle. Interactions are represented by the horizontal
lines joining roles. A state is used to specify where a goal in the process is achieved. An
activity shows what people do. An activhy has a state line above h (pre-state) and
another state line below it (post-state). A sequence of activities is specified by
connecting the post-state of one activhy whh the pre-state of another activity.
Interactions between roles are represented by a horizontal line connecting activities
performed by different roles. The interaction may be information or material pass, task
delegation, or agreement on action. The condition is represented by inverted triangles.
The concurrent paths are represented by a triangle. The condition and concurrent paths
are used to diverge a state line. An external event (an arrow) is used to represent a
prerequisite event that occurs outside the responsibility of a role. Annotation for each
activity is used to show performance measurement. Figure 6.2 shows constructs used by
RAD.
Jacobson's 0 0 Modeling Method
Jacobson et al. (1995) proposed an 0 0 approach to BPR. Their method uses two
types of models; the use-case model and the object model. The use-case model consists
of the narrative description of processes and simple drawings. The use-case model
describes what makes up business processes and their environment. It also shows how
the external environment interacts whh the business. The purpose of the use-case model
is to specify an external view of the business system. The use-case model provides an
113
Role Name
r ^
Goal Reached
A Role State State Description
r
Alternative Paths
Depending on
the Condition
Claimant
Manager
Activity Name ~ ^ Event Name
An Activity External Event Occurs
i
Interactic
An Interaction
Between Roles
Goal Reached
Figure 6.2. Graphical Notations Used in RAD
114
overall picture of what a business system performs. However, h does not provide any
details of the business system.
The object model is used to capture details of a business system, such as how the
business system is internally structured, how activities are linked into a process, or what
is produced or used in the business. Each object class has hs class name, operations
(methods), attributes, association, and stimuli (messages). An object can be an interface
object, a control object, or an enthy object. The interface objects and control objects
represent tasks in the business. They are realized by people who belong to a certain
resource category. Interface objects represent a set of operations. Each should be
performed by the same resource and has direct contact with actors in the environment
such as customers or suppliers. Control objects represent a set of operations but h does
not have direct contact with actors. Enthy objects represent things handled in the
business system.
An association between two objects represents three types of associations:
acquaintance, communication, and inherhance. The acquaintance association is used to
represent reference from one object instance to another. The acquaintance association is
also used to express a whole-to-part relationship. The communication association is used
to represent exchange of data between objects. The inherhance association is used to
specify a general-to-specific relationship among object classes. To handle a complex
business system, the dependsOn association is used. This association aggregates
subsystems into a higher-level system.
A state transition diagram is used to show the different states of an object.
Stimuli and condhions that cause the transhion are also specified in this diagram. In
addhion, the interaction diagram is used to show how the various objects collaborate to
execute a certain flow of events. The diagram shows how objects transmh stimuli to
other objects in order to complete a use case. Figure 6.3 shows the graphical notation
used in the method.
115
Use-Case Model Concepts
Actor Business System
Use Case
Use-Case Model Assocation
o

CD
Extends
Communication
OCZ) O)
Uses Extends
Object Model Concepts
K3 O O
Interface Object Control Object Entity Object
K) ^0 O -^O K)
Subsystem
K)
Communiction
Acquaintance
consistOf
patOF
Inhertance
Attribute Communication dependsOn
Figure 6.3. Graphical Notation Used in Jocobson et al.'s 0 0 Method.
Evaluation Resuhs
This section presents the evaluation results. Each of the benchmark method and
proposed method are discussed separately.
Process Flow Diagrams
The inhial evaluation showed that this method captures 12 kinds of information
about a business process explichly and 5 kinds of information implichly. As described in
Chapter V, in this evaluation, explichly captured information means an information item
that is documented and presented clearly in a model and that a BPR analyst does not need
to make an extra effort to find. Similarly, implichly captured information means an
information hem that is documented and presented in a model but that a BPR analyst
needs to make an extra effort to find. This method does not capture 4 kinds of
information (see Appendix A: Table Al ) . After the first-round evaluation, the three
evaluators disagreed whh 7 hems (see Appendix B: Table B. 1). During the first round,
116
all three evaluators agreed that the method captures customer satisfaction level only
implichly (the inhial evaluation was "explich"). After the second round, the evaluators
still disagreed with 2 hems (see Appendix D: Table D. 1). After the final round, one
committee member assessed that the method implichly captures the objective of a
business process but the other two assessed that the method does not capture it. This
evaluation was forwarded to the original developers of this method. However, feedback
from them could not be obtained.
As shown in Table H. 1 (Appendix H) in summary, this method captures 11 kinds
of information about a business process explichly and 6 kinds of information implichly.
The relationship between process steps and resources is captured explichly at the
functional department level but implichly at the process-step level. This counts as
implicitly captured information because the functional department level is not sufficient
for many BPR activities. One item may be captured implicitly or not captured at all. The
method does not capture 3 kinds of information.
The initial evaluation (see Appendix A: Table A.2) also showed that this method
specified at least one step for all six phases in a BPR project specified by Kettinger et al.
(1995). In the inhial evaluation, the method was assessed as follows: Eight sub-activhies
are specified in this method that support the envision phase ahhough the modeling
method does not provide information about a business process for three of those
activhies. Out of eight sub-activhies, 7 are presented in the form of a list and one is
specified as part of a textual description. Information about a business process is
provided in the form of a graphical diagram for all five sub-activhies. Three sub-
activhies are specified in this method to support the inaugural phase as a list. The
method does not provide information about a business process for one of those activhies
while h does in the form of a graphic diagram for the other two. Eleven sub-activhies are
specified in this method to support the diagnosis phase. Nine of them are listed and two
of these nine are also mentioned in paragraph form. Two are specified only in paragraph
form. The method provides information about a business process in a graphical diagram
form for six of the sub-activhies and in a tabular form for two of the sub-activhies. The
method does not provide information about a business process for three of the sub-
117
activhies. Nine sub-activhies are specified in the form of a list to support the redesign
phase. The method provides information about a business process in the form of a
diagram for five sub-activhies and in tabular form for two. It does not provide
information about a business process for two of those activhies. Two sub-activhies are
listed by this method to support the reconstruction phase; however, the modeling method
does not provide information about a business process for any of those activhies.
Therefore, the inhial evaluation has assessed that the method does not support the
reconstruction phase. Three sub-activhies are described in paragraphs by this method to
support the evaluation phase. The graphic diagram and tabular format are used to
provide information about a business process for all three sub-activities.
After the first-round evaluation, the three evaluators agreed whh all of the items
(see Appendix B: Table B.4). This evaluation was forwarded to the original developers
of this method; however, feedback from them could not be obtained.
The evaluation concluded that this method supports five of the six phases of a
BPR project specified by Kettinger et al. (1995). The method provides information about
a business process to support 5 envision activhies, 2 inaugural activities, 8 diagnosis
activities, 7 redesign activities, no reconstruction activities, and 3 evaluation activities.
Role Activity Diagram
The initial evaluation showed that this method captures 13 kinds of information
about a business process explichly and 3 kinds of information implichly. It does not
capture 5 kinds of information (see Appendix A: Table A.3). After the first-round
evaluation, three evaluators disagreed with 6 hems (see Appendix B: Table B.3). All of
the evaluators agreed that the method captures cycle time, quality measurement, and cost
of a process step and the business process only implichly (the inhial evaluation was
"explicit"). After the second round, the evaluators disagreed whh one item (see
Appendix D: Table D.2). All of the evaluators agreed that the method captures the
relationship between activhies and resources explichly (the initial evaluation was
"implicit"). Similariy, all of the evaluators agreed that the method captures the
relationship between process steps and resources (inputs and outputs of process steps)
118
exphchly (the inhial evaluation was "implich"). After the final round, discrepancies in
the evaluation were eliminated. This evaluation was forwarded to the original developer
of this method. However, feedback from them could not be obtained. As shown in Table
H.3 (Appendix H), this method captures 13 kinds of information about a business process
explichly and 4 kinds of informafion implichly. It does not capture 4 kinds of
information.
The inhial evaluation (see Appendix A: Table A.4) also showed that this method
supports four of the six phases in a BPR project specified by Ketfinger et al. (1995). In
the inhial evaluation, the method was assessed as follows: It does not support the
inaugural and reconstruction phases. Four sub-activhies are specified in this method to
support the envision phase. Out of four sub-acfivifies, 3 are presented as a list and one is
specified as part of a paragraph. Information about a business process is provided in the
form of graphical diagrams for all of those sub-activhies. Eight sub-activhies are
specified in this method to support the diagnosis phase. Seven of them are listed while
one is specified as part of textual descriptions. The method provides information about a
business process in the form of graphical models for all eight sub-activhies. Fifteen sub-
activities are specified to support the redesign phase; 14 as a list and 1 as part of a textual
description. The modeling method provides information about a business process as a
diagram for all of these sub-activhies. Three sub-activhies are listed by this method to
support the evaluation phase. A graphic diagram format is used to provide information
about a business process for all three sub-activities.
After the first-round evaluation, the three evaluators disagreed whh three hems,
two in the diagnosis phase and one in the evaluation phase (see Appendix B: Table B.4).
After the second-round evaluation, a consensus was not reached regarding the three items
(see Appendix D: Table D.3). After the third-round evaluation (Appendix F: Table F.3),
consensus was reached. All of the evaluators agreed that the three sub-activhies in
question are not supported because the information necessary to perform them is not
explichly presented to a BPR analyst. In short, all three evaluators agreed whh the inhial
evaluation. Ahhough this evaluation was forwarded to the original developer of this
method, no feedback could be obtained.
119
The evaluafion concluded that this method supports four of the six phases of a
BPR project specified by Kettinger et al. (1995). The method supports 4 envision
activhies, no inaugural activhies, 6 diagnosis activities, 15 redesign activities, no
reconstruction activhies, and 2 evaluation activities. Graphical diagrams are used to
provide information about a business process to support all of these activhies.
Jacobson's 0 0 Modeling Method
The inhial evaluation showed that this method captures 15 kinds of information
about a business process explichly and 2 kinds of information implicitly. It does not
capture 4 kinds of information (see Appendix A. Table A.5). After the first-round
evaluation, the three evaluators disagreed whh 5 hems (see Appendix B: Table B.5).
After the second round, the evaluators disagreed whh two hems (see Appendix D: Table
D.4). However, they agreed that the method captures the cycle time, quality
measurement, and costs of process steps and the business process only implicitly. After
the final round, they still disagreed with two hems. One committee member assessed the
method as capturing customer satisfaction level explicitly while two assessed it as doing
it only implicitly. This evaluation was forwarded to the original developers of this
method. However, feedback from them could not be obtained. As summarized in Table
H.5 (Appendix H), this method captures 11 kinds of information about a business process
explichly. It captures one hem at least implichly. Five kinds of information are captured
implichly. One hem may be captured implichly or not captured at all. The method does
not capture 3 kinds of information.
The inhial evaluation (Appendix A: Table A.6) also showed that this method
specified at least one step for all six phases in a BPR project specified by Ketfinger et al.
(1995). In the inhial evaluation, the method was assessed as follows: Ten sub-acfivhies
are specified in this method to support the envision phase ahhough the modeling method
does not provide information about a business process for six of those activhies. M\ of
the ten sub-activhies are presented in the form of a list. Among them, two are also
described in paragraph form. Information about a business process is provided in the
form of graphical diagrams for four sub-activhies. One sub-activity is listed by this
120
method to support the inaugural phase. However, the modeling method does not provide
information about a business process for this activity. Therefore, the inhial evaluation
has assessed that the method does not support the inaugural phase. Eight sub-activhies
are specified in this method to support the diagnosis phase. Six of them are listed while
two are specified as part of textual descriptions. The method provides information about
a business process in the form of graphical models for 3 sub-activities. One of these
three activities also receives textual descriptions as information about a business process.
The method provides information about a business process in the textual format for two
sub-activities. The method mentioned that the metrics provide the cost, time and qualhy
of a business process for two sub-activhies. However, h does not mention the details of
the metrics. The method does not provide information about a business process for one
of the sub-activhies. Twenty-four sub-activhies are specified by this method to support
the redesign phase. Out of twenty-four, twenty-one are listed and three appear as parts of
paragraphs. The modeling method provides information about a business process in the
form of a diagram for 16 sub-activities. Among them, 7 sub-activhies also receive the
information in the textual format. The method provides the information in the textual
format for 5 sub-acfivities. The method uses the metrics for two of them but details of
metrics are not specified. The method does not provide information about a business
process for one of those activhies. Two sub-acfivifies are listed by this method to support
the reconstruction phase. Graphic diagrams are used to provide information about a
business process for these two sub-activhies. One of the two sub-activhies also receives
the information in the text format. One sub-activity is listed by this method to support
the evaluation phase; however, information about a business process is not provided by
the method for this activhy. Therefore, the inhial evaluation has assessed that the method
does not support the evaluation phase.
After the first-round evaluation, the three evaluators disagreed whh three hems
(see Appendix B: Table B.6). One committee member assessed that the general use case
model does not help BPR analysts know business strategies during the envision phase,
while two assessed that h does. Also, one committee member assessed that the use case
model does not help BPR analysts determine computer support and idemify use case
121
during the redesign phase, while two assessed that h does. In addhion, one committee
member assessed that the object model does not help BPR analysts make a prototype to
show how computers support the process and measure the effectiveness of the new IT
during the redesign phase while two evaluated that it does. After the second-round
evaluation, the three agreed that the use case model helps BPR analysts determine
computer support and identify use case, and the object model helps BPR analysts make
prototype to show how the computer supports and measures the effectiveness of the new
IT. However, the three did not agree whh the other one (see Appendix D: Table D.5).
After the third-round evaluation (Appendix F: Table F.5), one evaluator sfill assessed that
the use-case model does not help BPR analysts know business strategies during the
envision phase. This evaluation was forwarded to the original developers of this method.
However, feedback from them could not be obtained.
The evaluation concluded that this method supports four of the six phases of a
BPR project specified by Kettinger et al. (1995). The method provides information about
a business process to support 4 envision activhies, no inaugural activhies, 7 diagnosis
activhies, 23 redesign activhies, 2 reconstruction activhies, and no evaluation activities.
Proposed Extended 0 0 Modeling Method
The initial evaluation showed that this method captures 19 kinds of information
about a business process explicitly. It does not capture 2 kinds of information (see
Appendix A: Table A.7). After the first-round evaluation, the three evaluators disagreed
with 10 hems (see Appendix B: Table B.7). After the second round, the evaluators still
disagreed with one hem (see Appendix D: Table D.6). After the final round (see
Appendix F: Table F.6), one committee member assessed that the method captures the
relationship between work products and the objective of a business process only
implichly while the other two assessed that the method captures h explichly.
As summarized in Table H.7 (Appendix H), this method captures 18 kinds of
information about a business process explichly. One hem is captured at least implichly.
It does not capture 2 kinds of information. The evaluation showed that the method
122
explichly captures all nineteen kinds of information about a business process, except one
kind, which it is supposed to capture.
The inhial evaluation (Appendix A: Table A.8) also showed that this method
supports all six phases in a BPR project specified by Ketfinger et al. (1995). The inhial
evaluation assessed the method as follow: Eight sub-acfivhies are specified in this
method to support the envision phase. Out of eight sub-activhies, 7 are presented in the
form of a list and one is specified in a textual format. Informafion about a business
process is provided in the form of graphical diagrams for three of those eight sub-
activities. The tabular format is used to provide information about a business process for
three of those eight sub-activhies. One sub-activity was listed by this method to support
the inaugural phase. The modeling method provides information about a business
process in a tabular format for this activity. Fourteen sub-activities are listed by this
method to support the diagnosis phase. The modeling method provides information
about a business process in the form of graphical diagrams for all these sub-activities.
Nine sub-activities are specified in the form of a list to support the redesign phase. The
modeling method provides information about a business process in the form of a diagram
for 7 sub-activities, and in tabular form for two of them. Two sub-activhies are listed by
this method to support the reconstruction phase and information about a business process
is provided in the diagram form. Two sub-activities are listed by this method to support
the evaluation phase. A tabular format is used to provide information about a business
process for these sub-activhies. After the first-round evaluation, the three evaluators
agreed with all hems (see Appendix B: Table B.8).
The evaluafion concluded that this method supports all six phases of a BPR
project specified by Kettinger et al. (1995). The method provides information about a
business process to support 8 of the envision activities, 1 of the inaugural acfivhies, 14 of
the diagnosis activhies, 9 of the redesign activhies, 2 of the reconstrucfion activhies, and
3 of the evaluation activhies.
123
Comparative Analysis
This section discusses the comparison between the proposed modeling method
and the three benchmark methods. First, their abilities to capture information about a
business process were compared. Then, their abilhies to support BPR acfivhies were
compared. The four questions for evaluating the comprehensiveness of the proposed
method were also answered.
Abilhies to Capture Information About a Business Process
As summarized in Tables 6.1 and 6.2, the comparison showed that the proposed
extended 0 0 method captures the highest number of information hems about a business
process (18 explichly, 1 at least implichly, 19 in total). As mentioned before, capturing
information items means collecting, storing and presenting information items in this
dissertation. This was followed by Jacobson's 0 0 method (11 explichly, 1 at least
implicitly, 5 implichly, 1 may be captured implicitly, 18 in total). The method proposed
by Rummler and Brache was the third (11 explichly, 6 implichly, I may be captured
implicitly, 18 in total). The comparison showed that RAD by Quid captures the least
information about a business process among the four methods evaluated (13 explichly, 4
implichly, 17 in total). The proposed method was assessed that h explichly captures the
eighteen kinds of information about a business process. This was at least five more than
the kinds of information the benchmark methods could capture. RAD captures 13 kinds
of information explichly while Jacobson's 0 0 and Rummler and Barche's methods
capture 11 kinds explichly. Based on this comparison, the first question was answered as
follows:
Ql: Does the proposed modeling method capture more information about a
business process than do benchmark modeling methods?
Al: The proposed modeling method captures more information about a business
process than benchmark modeling methods do.
124
Table 6.1. Summary of Information Captured by Four Methods.
Information about a Business Process
The objective of a business process
The importance of a business process (strategic importance
and value to customers).
Work products/outcomes of a business process.
Relationships between work products and objectives of a
business process.
Customer satisfaction level of the process.
Resources used to produce the work products
Relationship between work products and resources.
Activities performed on resources (the smallest unit of task
carried out on a single resource.)
Relationship between activities and resources.
Relationship between activities and process steps (Which
activities constitute a process step).
Relationship between process steps and resources (Inputs
and outputs of process steps).
Relationship between a business process and process steps
(Which process steps constitute a business process).
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events (Uiggering, prerequisite, terminating) for
the business process and process steps.
Cycle time of a process step and the business process.
Quality measurement of process step and a business
process.
Costs of the process steps and the business process.
Process operators and fimctional department and their
responsibilities.
Resource owners and process owners.
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers,
Customers)
Interaction between stakeholders and a business process
Rummler &
Brache
Imphcit/No
No
Exphcit
No
ImpUcit
Imphcit
Imphcit
Exphcit
Imphcit
Exphcit
Imphcit at
process-step-
level: Exphcit
at fiinctional
department-
level
Exphcit
Exphcit
Imphcit
Exphcit
Explicit
Explicit
Exphcit
No
Exphcit
Exphcit
Ould
Exphcit
No
Imphcit
Explicit
No
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Explicit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Explicit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Imphcit
implicit
Imphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
No
No
Jacobson et
al.
No
No
Exphcit
No
Imphcit or
Exphcit
Exphcit
Explicit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Imphcit
Explicit
Exphcit
Imphcit
Imphcit
Implicit
Imphcit
Exphcit
No/Implicit
Exphcit
Explicit
Proposed
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Imphcit/
Exphcit
Exphch
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Explicit
Exphcit
Exphcit
Exphcit
No
No
125
Table 6.2. The Number of Kinds of Information Captured by Four Methods.
Explicitly Captured Information
Explicit or Implicit
Implicitly Captured Information
Implicit or No
Total Captured
Information Not Captured
Rummler &
Brache
11
0
6
1
18
3
Ould
13
0
4
0
17
4
Jacobson et
al.
11
1
5
1
18
3
Proposed
18
1
0
0
19
2
The evaluation revealed that the proposed method captures all five aspects of a
business process: the strategic, functional, behavioral, informational, and organizational
aspects. It also captures performance measurements of a business process. However, the
evaluation also revealed that h does not capture stakeholder information and the
interaction between stakeholders and a business process. Jacobson's method was
assessed that h has difficuhy capturing the strategic aspect of a business process: the
objective and importance of a business process. It also captures performance
measurement only implichly. Similarly, the evaluation showed that Rummler and
Brache's method has difficulty capturing the strategic aspect of a business process: the
objective and importance of a business process. It only implichly captures informafion
regarding resources used by a business process. RAD does not capture stakeholder
information and how stakeholders interact whh a business process. It captures
performance measurements only implichly.
In short, two of the benchmarks do not capture the strategic aspect of a business
process, which is crhical for conducfing a strategy-driven, organizafional-wide change
inhiative. None of the benchmark methods capture all of the four performance
measurements of a business process or process steps explicitly. As mentioned before,
process performance measurement is crhical in setting goals, diagnosing a process,
evaluating impacts of reengineering, and thus achieving BPR. The proposed method
provides BPR analysts with this kind of information explichly, which is a crhical
advantage over the benchmark methods.
126
Abilhy to Support BPR Activities
As summarized in Table 6.3, the comparison showed that the proposed method
supports all six phases specified by Ketfinger et al. (1995), while the Rummler and
Brache's method supports five of them and the other two methods support four of them.
Based on this evaluation, the second question was answered as follows:
Q2: Does the proposed modeling method support more BPR activhies than do
benchmark modeling methods?
A2: The proposed modeling method supports more BPR activhies than
benchmark methods do.
In short, this resuh shows that a BPR analyst can use the proposed method throughout a
BPR project including subsequent incremental improvement projects. However, a BPR
analyst who uses any of the benchmark methods may have to learn and use additional
modeling methods to complete a BPR project.
Regarding the ability of support BPR acfivhies, more detailed comparisons were
conducted. The resuhs are presented in the next two sections.
Table 6.3. The BPR Phases Supported by the Four Methods.
BPR Phases
Envision
Inaugural
Diagnosis
Redesign
Reconstruction
Evaluation
No. of Phases Supported
Rummler &
Brache
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
5
Ould
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
4
Jacobson et
al.
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
4
Proposed
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
6
Abilhy to Support Particular BPR Activhies in More Detail
As summarized in Table 6.4, the comparison showed that the proposed method
supports the envision phase by 8 sub-activhies, while Rummler and Brache's method
uses 5 sub-activhies to support this phase, and Quid's and Jacobson's methods use 4 sub-
127
acfivhies to support this phase. The detailed analysis revealed that the proposed method
covers most of the analytical acfions specified in the benchmark methods although
clarificafion of strategy was not specifically mentioned in the proposed method.
However, specifying the work products as resource objects and target process
performance measurement, the proposed method clarifies a strategy that is implemented
by a new process. This could be complemented if the method could capture the
stakeholders and the interaction between them and the process. Through the extensive
evaluation of the importance and heahh of business processes, the proposed method helps
a BPR analyst identify reengineering opportunities and select a target process. The three
benchmark methods do not support the selection of a target process and the discovery of
BPR opportunities in detail.
Table 6.4. The Number of Actions Specified by Each Method for BPR Phases.
BPR Phases
Envision
Inaugural
Diagnosis
Redesign
Reconstruction
Evaluation
Total
Rummler &
Brache
5
2
8
7
0
3
25
Ould
4
0
6
15
0
2
27
Jacobson et
al.
4
0
7
23
2
0
36
Proposed
8
1
14
9
2
3
37
The comparison showed that Rummler and Brache's method specifies two sub-
activhies for the inaugural phase, while the proposed method uses only one activity to
support this phase (Table 6.4). The other two methods do not support this phase.
Rummler and Brache's method helps BPR analysts idenfify how a target business process
influences and is influenced by other process. This informafion helps to plan the project.
This is hs advantage over the other methods, including the proposed method. The
proposed method provides performance measurements of the selected business process
cleariy. Thus it helps a BPR analyst set clear goals of a BPR project. Clearly stated
128
goals are critical in the diagnosis of the business process and the evaluation of
reengineering effort.
As summarized in Table 6.4, the comparison revealed that the proposed method
supports the diagnosis phase by 14 sub-acfivhies, while Rummler and Brache's method
uses 8 sub-acfivhies to support this phase, Jacobson's method uses 7 sub-activhies to
support this phase, and Quid's method uses 6 sub-activhies to support this phase. All
methods cover basically the development of models for the existing process,
measurement of the process (cost, resource allocation, cycle time, quality, and customer
safisfaction), establishment of goals, identification of problems, and evaluation of process
steps (fundamental/non-fundamental or value-adding/non-value-adding). However, the
benchmark methods do not provide a BPR analyst whh performance measurements of a
business process explichly. The comparison showed that the proposed method clearly
specified more detailed steps for this phase. The proposed method specifies more
detailed steps and provides a BPR analyst whh explicitly captured information to support
the diagnosis phase. Through this capabilhy, the proposed modeling method helps a BPR
analyst understand problems and identify the causes of the problems. As mentioned in
the Chapter II, recent BPR methodologies emphasized the importance of the diagnosis
phase to avoid repeating the same problems in a reengineered process. The extensive
support for the diagnosis phase by the proposed method was considered an advantage
over the benchmark method.
According to the comparison, Jacobson's method was assessed that h supports the
redesign phase by 23 sub-acfivhies. This was followed by Quid's method, which uses 15
sub-activities to support this phase. The proposed method uses 9 sub-activhies to support
the redesign phase. Rummler and Brache's method uses 7 sub-activhies to support this
phase.
The comparison revealed that the proposed method specified fewer actions for
this phase than Jacobson's method. Four main reasons were identified. First, Jacobson's
method specifies the model development of the redesigned process in seven steps. On
the other hand, the proposed method suggests continuous refinement of two models,
repeating the steps of the redesign phase. Second, Jacobson's method requires sequential
129
analysis on three different diagrams. Meanwhile, the proposed method uses one diagram
to conduct the sequence analysis. Third, Jacobson's method specifies more detailed steps
for determining the job responsibility manipulating the interface and control objects.
This was recognized as hs advantage over the proposed method. In the proposed method,
a similar analysis was done by (re)clustering process steps for a job performer or a
department. Finally, detailed steps described for each of the analytical actions for this
phase specified by the proposed method were not counted separately.
The comparison also showed that proposed method specified fewer actions for
this phase than Quid's method. Two primary reasons were identified. First, Quid's
method specifies more detailed steps for determining the job responsibilhy manipulating
roles. This was recognized as an advantage over the proposed method. Second, detailed
steps described for each analytical action for this phase specified by the proposed method
were not counted separately. Overall, the proposed method was assessed that it covers
most analytical actions specified in Quid's method ahhough the proposed method did not
mention the generalist to specialist redesign strategy mentioned by Quid's method.
Moreover, compared to Rummler and Brache's method, the proposed method
specifies fewer steps for determining the departmental and job responsibilhy. In
summary, the proposed method may have a disadvantage in specifying the departmental
and job-level responsibilhy over the benchmark methods.
The comparison revealed that the proposed method and Jacobson's method
support the reconstrucfion phase by 2 sub-activhies, while Rummler and Brache's
method and Quid's method do not support this phase. The proposed method did not
mention how to design a supporting information system whereas Jacobson's method did.
This is because Jacobson's method was derived from their 0 0 information system
development method while the proposed method focuses on process redesign as
described before. Only the proposed method specified steps for the development of an
implementafion plan. This was idenfified as an advantage of the proposed method.
According to the comparison, the proposed method, as well as Rummler and
Brache's method and Quid's method, supports the evaluation phase by 3 sub-activhies.
The three methods equally support this phase specifying similar activhies. Jacobson's
130
method does not support this phase. However, only the proposed method provides
performance measurements of a reengineered process explichly.
As shown in Table 6.4, in total, the proposed method uses 37 sub-acfivhies to
support all six phases. Jacobson's method uses 36 sub-activhies to support 4 phases.
Quid's method uses 27 sub-acfivhies to support 4 phases. Rummler and Brache's method
uses 25 sub-activhies to support 5 phases.
Based on this analysis, the third question was answered as shown below ahhough
the answer was not definhe.
Q3: Does the proposed modeling method support particular BPR acfivhies in
more detail than do benchmark modeling methods?
A3: The proposed modeling method supports particular BPR activhies in more
detail than benchmark methods overall ahhough the evaluation showed somewhat
mixed results.
The analysis revealed several advantages of the proposed method over the
benchmark methods. The more detailed supports for the envision, inaugural, and
diagnosis phases are considered its major advantages. The method supports the
evaluation of the existing processes to discover BPR opportunhies. It also helps a BPR
analyst set clear goals of a BPR project. Also, through its extensive support for the
diagnosis phase, the method can assure that a BPR analyst understands the problems
before starting the redesign phase. The method can help increase the success rate of a
BPR project by providing a systematic approach to the envision, inaugural and diagnosis
phases as well as the subsequent redesign phase. As mentioned in the Chapter II, the
diagnosis is crhical to avoid repeafing the same problems in a reengineered process.
Also, only the proposed method provides detailed steps for the development of
implementafion plans for the reconstrucfion phase. Finally, only the proposed method
explichly provides four critical performance measurements of a reengineered process to
support the evaluation phase.
131
Abilhy to Provide a Model that Contains More Information about
a Business Process for a Specific Analytical Action
Comparing abilhies of methods of providing information for each of the
analytical actions required a detailed analysis of the evaluation. This task was found
extremely difficuh because the four methods listed analytical actions at different levels of
details and many of them were not compatible. Therefore, the average number of
information hems per action was used to compare the four methods and draw a
conclusion without introducing a bias.
As shown in Table 6.5, the overall average number of informafion hems per
analytical action provided by the proposed method was higher than those of the
benchmark methods. The proposed method provided 3.43 information hems per
analytical action. This is followed by Jacobson's method (3.22 per acfion). Rummler
and Brache's method was the third, providing 2.72 per acfion. Quid's method provided
2.56 per action.
Table 6.5. The Average Number of Information Items per Action Provided by Each
Method.
Phases
Envision
Inaugural
Diagnosis
Redesign
Reconstruction
Evaluation
Overall
Rummler &
Brache
3.00
1.50
2.00
2.29
N/A
6.00
2.72
Ould
2.25
n/a
2.50
2.80
N/A
1.50
2.56
Jacobson
etal.
3.00
n/a
3.00
3.42
2.50
N/A
3.22
Proposed
3.63
4.00
2.50
3.78
4.00
5.67
3.43
When analyzing each phase specified by Kettinger et al. (1995), the proposed
method had the highest average number of information hems for the envision, inaugural,
redesign, and reconstruction phases. For the envision phase, the proposed method
provided 3.6 per acfion, while Jacobson's method and Rummler and Brache's method
provided 3.0 per action. Quid's method provided 2.3 per action. For the inaugural phase,
the proposed method provided 4.0 per acfion and Rummler and Brache's method
132
provided 1.5 per action. The other two methods did not support this phase. For the
diagnosis phase, Jacobson's method provided the highest average number of information
items (3.0 per acfion). The proposed method fied as the second with Quid's method (2.5
per acfion). Rummler and Brache's method provided 2.0 per action. For the redesign
phase, the proposed method provided 3.8 per acfion, followed by Jacobson's method (3.4
per action). Quid's method and Rummer and Brache's method provided 2.8 and 2.3 per
action, respectively. For the reconstruction phase, the proposed method provided 4.0 per
action, while Jacobson's method provided 2.5 per action. The other two did not support
this phase. For the evaluation phase, Rummler and Brache's method provided the highest
average number of information items (6.0 per action). The proposed method was the
second (5.67 per action).
In short, the proposed phase, on average, had the highest average for four of the
six phases. It was second for the other two phases. Based on the analysis, the fourth
question was answered as shown below although the answer was not definite.
Q4: Does the proposed modeling method provide a model which contains more
information about a business process for a specific analytical action than do
benchmark modeling methods?
A4: The proposed modeling method provides a model that contains more
information about a business process for a specific analytical action than
benchmark modeling methods.
Summary
The answers to the four quesfions indicated that the proposed method is more
comprehensive than the benchmark methods. The proposed method captures more
information about a business process than the benchmark method and supports all of the
phases specified by Ketfinger et al. (1995). It also specifies more detailed analytical
acfions for most of the phases and on average provides more information for each of the
analytical actions.
In short, the proposed method can support a BPR analyst throughout a BPR
project including subsequent incremental improvement projects. However, the
133
benchmark methods may need support from other modeling methods to complete a BPR
project. The proposed method supports the selection of a target process and
establishment of BPR project goals by explichly capturing the performance
measurements, heahh and importance of a business process. Also, the proposed method
specifies more detailed steps and provides explichly captured information about a
business process for the diagnosis acfivhies. This extensive supports for the envision,
inaugural, and diagnosis phases can increase the success rate of BPR project. This is
because a BPR analyst can identify BPR opportunhies, set clear project goals and have
clear understanding of the problems. Then, the method helps a BPR analyst
systematically derive the structure of a reengineered process, avoiding repeating the same
problems. The three benchmark methods do not support the first three phases of a BPR
project as much as the proposed method does. Therefore, a BPR analyst who uses the
benchmark methods may fall in a pitfall of designing a solution (reengineered process)
with little understanding of the problems. The detailed support provided by the proposed
method for the first three phases of a BPR project can reduce heavy reliance on a BPR
analyst's experience and intuition. Also, the proposed method provides more detailed
steps for the development of implementafion plans. Finally, the proposed method
explicitly captures four critical performance measurements of a reengineered process to
monitor the process.
The analysis also revealed the limhations of the proposed method. First, the
proposed method does not capture the two kinds of information two of the benchmark
methods capture: (a) stakeholders of a business process (i.e.. Suppliers, Customers); and
(b) interaction between stakeholders and a business process. However, by adding the
stakeholder as an attribute of the process objects, the proposed method can capture these
two kinds of informafion.
Another limitation of the proposed method was that the proposed method
provided fewer analytical acfions for the redesign phase than Jacobson's and Quid's
methods. This occurred because the analytical actions specified for the proposed method
for the redesign phase were described in the more aggregated form, and the detailed steps
were described as part of text paragraphs. Ahhough the proposed method provided
134
analytical actions equivalent to those of the two methods on the content base, the more
detailed steps should be listed to help BPR analysts identify them easily.
The third limhation was that the proposed method may not support the
determination of organization structure sufficiently, compared to the benchmark methods.
The proposed method needs fijrther refinement.
The last limhation identified by the analysis was the fact that the proposed
method does not provide more information about a business process for all of the
analytical actions specified by the method. However, the proposed method provided the
more information for analytical actions crhical for BPR, especially for the evaluation of a
process using quantitative measurement. Again, the steps for BPR projects may need to
be refined to accommodate the limhation.
135
CHAPTER VII
SUMMARY, CONTRIBUTIONS, AND LIMITATIONS
This last chapter summarizes the research first. The research outcomes are then
presented. Next, the contributions of the research are elaborated. The final section
discusses the limitation of the research and areas of fiature research.
Summarv of the Research
This research began whh the identificafion of a problem in BPR. The problem was
identified as the lack of an efficient comprehensive modehng method to support a BPR
project under the concept of business process change management. The research
proposed a modeling method that utilizes the 0 0 concept in order to resolve this problem.
Then, the proposed modeling method was validated, demonstrating its comprehensiveness
regarding the ability to capture sufficient information about a business process and support
BPR project activities. In short, the validation demonstrated that the proposed modeling
method has a modeling framework that captures information about a business process
more explicitly than the three benchmark methods used in the comparative analysis. It
was also found that the proposed method specified steps to support all six phases of a
BPR project specified by Kettinger et al. (1995), while the benchmark methods did not do
for all of the phases. Addhionally, it was found that the method supports the envision,
inaugural, and diagnosis phases in more detail than the benchmark methods do. Thus, it
can reduce the reliance on a BPR analyst's experience and intuifion.
Deliverables of the Research
The principal deliverables produced as outcomes of the research include (a) a
knowledge-level conceptual model for a BPR modeling method, (b) a symbol-level
conceptual model for a BPR modeling method, and (c) the validation of the proposed
method. These three are discussed in the next three sections.
136
A Knowledge-Level Conceptual Model for a BPR Modehng Method
The dissertation developed a conceptual model for a BPR modeling method. This
helped to better understand what knowledge-level concepts were required to support BPR
activities. This conceptual model provided a theoretical basis on which a BPR modeling
method could be developed.
While developing the conceptual model, the desired behavior of a BPR modeling
method was identified. The desired behavior was described as the functional capabilities
of a BPR modeling method. Then, knowledge concepts that were required to produce the
behavior were derived. The business process knowledge was described as the first of such
knowledge concepts. This knowledge contained inhially nineteen kinds of knowledge
about a business process (see pp. 55-56). After the vahdation process, two additional
kinds of information were identified. They were: (a) stakeholders of a business process,
and (b) interaction between the stakeholders and a business process or process steps. This
research concluded that when a BPR modeling method has all of the twenty-one kinds of
knowledge about a business process, BPR analysts have enough information to carry out
BPR activhies efficiently.
The BPR acfivity knowledge was described as another knowledge concept. This
knowledge included actions that should be carried out to support each BPR activity. This
research concluded that these actions support all phases throughout a BPR project under
the concept of process change management.
The relevance knowledge was described as the third knowledge concept. This
knowledge concept contained which knowledge about a business process was relevant to
each BPR action and how the information was manipulated and analyzed by each BPR
action.
Then, a set of knowledge-level proposhions was developed showing the
relationship between those knowledge-level concepts and the desired behavior. Finally,
the conceptual model was presented showing the relationship among these three types of
knowledge.
137
A Symbol-Level Conceptual Model for a BPR Modeling Method
A symbol-level representation of the conceptual model then was developed to
show how the knowledge-level concepts were implemented as a BPR modeling method.
As the first type of symbol-level concepts, an extended 0 0 modeling framework was
developed. This was done in order to create mechanisms for a BPR modeling method that
captured all the nineteen kinds of information about a business process initially identified
in the research. The modeling framework used two types of objects. The structure of
both was developed by adding new components to the tradhional object. Using these two
types of objects and their inter-relationship, aU nineteen kinds of information about a
business process could be captured in a model explichly. By adding one attribute, a
stakeholder, to the process object, h may be possible to capture both addhional kinds of
information identified through the vahdation process although this must be validated.
As another type of symbol-level concepts, steps of the extended 0 0 modeling
method, was also specified. This was done in order to implement the BPR activity
knowledge as the sequence of steps that BPR analysts should follow while carrying out
BPR activities. Information cohection templates and information presentation formats
were also developed as symbol-level concepts for the relevance knowledge. The modeling
method consisted of six phases. Each of the six phases consisted of several steps. Steps
specified which information coUecfion formats and model formats are used for each BPR
action. These steps work as a guideline for the BPR analysts so that they can carry out
BPR activifies more efficiently. The validation showed that these steps encompass all six
phases specified by Kettinger et al. (1995) under the concepts of business process change
management. However, more detailed steps should be identified to determine job
responsibilhies and organizafional structure.
Then, a set of symbol-level propositions was developed to show how those
symbol-level concepts produced the desired behavior. Finally, a symbol-level conceptual
model of a BPR modeling method was developed showing the relationship among the
three symbol-level concepts.
138
Validation of the Extended 0 0 Modeling Method
Any scientific investigation is conducted under limited time and resources. This
research was not an exception of this. Due to the time and resource limitations, the
validation focused on testing the comprehensiveness of the proposed method. The
method developed in this dissertation was evaluated by three experts and compared with
three existing modeling methods for BPR. The evaluation and comparative analysis
showed that the proposed method was more comprehensive than the three benchmark
methods in the following four areas:
1. Ability to capture more information about a business process.
2. Ability to support more BPR activhies.
3. Ability to support particular BPR activhies in more detail.
4. Ability to provide a model that contains more information about a business process for
a specific analytical action.
As discussed before, the validation process identified that the proposed method
supports the envision, inaugural, and diagnosis phases in more detail than the benchmark
methods do. As a result, the proposed method can increase the success rate of a BPR
project. Using the proposed method, a BPR analyst can identify BPR opportunities, set
clear project goals, and have clear understanding of the problems. Then, a BPR analyst
systematically derives the structure of a reengineered process, avoiding repeating the same
problems. Also, the proposed method provides more detailed steps for the development
of implementafion plans. Finally, the proposed method exphcitly captures four crhical
performance measurements of a reengineered process to monhor h.
The validation process also idenfified that stakeholders of a business process or
process steps and the interaction between the stakeholders should be captured in a model.
This information is helpfial to identify or clarify a business strategy. Also, the validation
revealed that the proposed method should list detailed actions for the redesign phase, in
addhion to describing them as part of text paragraphs.
139
Contributions of the Research
The main contribution of the research is a conceptual model of a BPR modeling
method which includes three types of knowledge. Other primary contributions include an
extended 0 0 modeling method and the validation results.
Previous BPR research has not focused on the idenfification of information about a
business process that is necessary to carry out essential BPR activhies. This research
provided a list of such information as part of a conceptual model of a BPR modehng
method. It is very difficuh to improve or propose a BPR modeling method whhout
knowing what information about a business process is essential to complete a BPR
project. The list developed in this study helps BPR researchers conduct fijrther studies
regarding the capabilhies that a BPR modeling method should have in order to be
effective.
Second, little research effort has been done to identify which BPR activities should
be supported by a modeling method and what information should be used for each of
those activities. The conceptual model of a BPR modeling method proposed in this
research specified how and what information about a business process should be used for
specific BPR activities carried out during a BPR project. Thus, the conceptual model can
serve as a basis for developing a more comprehensive BPR modeling method. In addition,
few modeling methods specify systematic analytical actions to redesign a business process
using a model. The proposed conceptual model of a BPR modeling method resolves this
problem.
Third, the 0 0 modeling method proposed in this study can serve as a starting
point for developing a modeling framework to capture explichly all the crhical information
needed to carry out a BPR project. This contributes to reduce the lack of a
comprehensive modeling framework that can capture information by hself about a
business process critical to BPR.
Fourth, Ihtle research effort has taken place to develop a modeling method that
supports BPR activhies throughout a project, as well as subsequent continuous
improvement projects. This research viewed BPR under the concept of process change
140
management, which is the current trend in BPR (Kettinger et al. 1995). The conceptual
model of the proposed BPR modeling method specified what informafion about a business
process should be used for particular BPR project activhies. In addhion, h specified how
informafion about a business process should be used for particular BPR project activhies.
This comprehensiveness of the proposed modeling method fills the gap in informafion
integrafion created by applying a set of several modeling techniques that do not integrate
information captured by each. Moreover, the proposed method supports the envision,
inaugural, and diagnosis phases unlike the other methods (such as the benchmark
methods). Through this capability, the method can help a BPR analyst identify BPR
opportunifies, establish clear project goals, and have clear understanding of the problems.
Then, this helps a BPR analyst assure that exisfing problems will be eliminated in a
reengineered process, increasing a success rate of BRP.
Fifth, lack of a good automated tool for reengineering has been identified as
another critical issue. The research has developed a conceptual model of a BPR modeling
method that is more amenable to automation by treating a modeling method as a system.
This helps BPR researchers conduct research for developing architectural frameworks for
automated BPR tools.
Finally, the validation process identified that comparing the existing methods can
help to develop a more comprehensive BPR modeling method by identifying the strengths
of each method.
Limitafions of the Research
There were several limitations in the research. The first limitafion resuhed from
the limhed validafion due to limited time resources. Several limitations of the validation
procedure used in this research were presented in Chapter V. In addhion to them, several
limitations were identified in the validafion. It is desirable to use a real ongoing BPR
project to test the functionality and usability of the modeling method. An automated tool
should be developed based on the conceptual model and apphed to a specific problem
141
domain. Also, the robustness of a modeling method should be tested using several BPR
projects that are different in nature.
Second, the validation process identified two major issues the proposed method
needs to resolve. It needs to capture (a) stakeholders of a business process; and (b)
interaction between the stakeholders and a business process or process steps. By adding
one attribute, stakeholders, to the process object, h may be possible to capture these two
addhional kinds of information. However, validation of this must be conducted. The
steps of the method need to be refined to provide more detailed analytical actions for
determining organizational structure.
Another limitation identified was that the modeling method may not support some
BPR activities sufficiently. Although the proposed method supports all of the six BPR
phases specified by Kettinger et al. (1995), the research concentrates on supporting
selection, documentation, analysis, redesign, evaluation and monitoring activities. The
determination of job responsibilhies and organizational structure, as well as the selection
of an appropriate change approach, is not fully supported by the proposed BPR modeling
method. Although the development of an implementafion plan was supported by the
proposed method in more detail than by the benchmark methods, the support may not be
sufficient. The more efficient use of a process model to develop an implementation plan
should be invesfigated in the future research. Moreover, little BPR research has been
done to discuss the issue of selecfing an appropriate change approach under the concept of
business process change management. The effective use of a model to select a change
approach also needs further attenfion from BPR researchers. In the research, only a
limited effort has been made to explore these issues.
Finally, a modeling method should be implemented as an automated tool to
validate the amenability of the conceptual model of the BPR modeling method developed
in the research.
142
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148
APPENDIX A
THE FIRST-ROUND DELPHI PACKET SENT TO THE EXPERT COMMITTEE
149
Appendix A contains the first-round Delphi letter, brief explanation of the
framework for the comparative analysis, documentation of an Extended 0 0 Modeling
Method for BPR, and inhial evaluations of the four methods, proposed and three
benchmark methods. This packet was sent to the three expert committee members.
150
Area of Information Systems and Quantitative Sciences
College of Business Administration
Texas Tech University
Comparative Analysis of Modeling Methods for Business Process Reengineering
Instructions
Background
Thank you for agreeing to participate in our comparative analysis of modeling methods for
Business Process Reengineering. Your insights will be most helpfiil in determining the comprehensiveness
of modeling methods for Business Process Reengineering. Specifically, we need your help to accurately
evaluate four modeling methods using a framework developed for this analysis.
This package contains:
(1) Explanation of the framework used in this analysis.
(2) Busmess Process Engineering Methodology article by Kettinger et al. (1995).
(3) Published and unpublished materials of each modeling method.
(4) An initial evaluation of each modeling method (a hardcopy and a file on a diskette).
Tasks
(1) Please read the enclosed brief explanation of the framework to understand the framework used in this
analysis reading. The framework has two parts: (a) a framework for enterprise model feature; and (b) a
framework for analysis and visualization features. A framework for enterprise model feature is used to
evaluate what information about a business process is captured by each modeling method. A framework
for analysis and visuahzation features is used to evaluate what business process reengineering activities are
supported by each modeling method. Please use the enclosed article by Kettiger et al. (1995) to understand
what activities should be carried out for each phase specified in their method.
(2) Please specify how strongly you agree or disagree with each of items of the initial evaluation of each
modeling method. Please specify "Strongly agree," "Agree," "Disagree," or "Strongly disagree."
(3) Please comment on reasons for disagreement.
(4) Add any missing item(s) to the initial evaluation, (i.e., add additional information captured by a
modeling method to a framework for the enterprise model feature; add additional analytical actions
specified by a modeling method to a framework for the analysis and visuahzation features.)
Please use a file on the enclosed diskette to complete tasks and return it to us in time for analysis on August
23, 1997. A self addresses, stamped envelope has been enclosed for your convenience. Please contact us if
you have any questions. Again thank you for your help.
Sincerely,
Kazuo Nakatani
knakatan@fgcu. edu
7941 Georgian Bay Circle #205
Fort Myers, Fl 33912
(941)561-0306
151
Comparative Analysis of Modeling Methods for Business Process Reengineering
Brief Explanation of Framework
The analysis uses a comparative analysis to determine the comprehensiveness of
the proposed BPR modeling method. Specifically, the analysis attempts to find the answer
to the foUowing four questions:
Ql: Which modeling method captures more information about a business?
Q2: Which modeling method supports more BPR activifies?
Q3: Which modeling method supports particular BPR activities in more detail?
Q4: Which modeling method provides a model that contains more information about a
business process for a specific analytical action?
Evaluation Framework
A framework used in this analysis was developed based on questions developed by
Enterprise Integration Laboratory at the Department of Industrial Engineering, University
of Toronto (1995). The framework has two parts: (a) a framework for enterprise model
feature; and (b) a framework for analysis and visualization features. For the Enterprise
feature, the following two questions were developed:
What information about a business process does a modeling method capture?
What mechanisms does a modeling method use to capture each information hem?
Then, to make the comparisons easier, these two questions were transformed into
a framework in a table format. The framework contains the smaUest common
denominator by taking an intersection of aU methods.
152
Table 1 shows the framework to be used to compare the Enterprise Model feature
of modeling methods.
Simharly, two questions were developed to evaluate the Analysis feature:
What kind of analysis is specified by a method for a particular stage of BPR?
What models are produced by a method to support the analysis?
In addition, the Visualization feature will be evaluated using the follov^ng two
criteria:
What information is presented in a visualized format?
What format is used to present the information?
These four questions will be used to evaluate the comprehensiveness and step
details specified by each method.
To make the comparisons easier, these four questions were transformed into a
framework in a table format. To fairly compare the ability of BPR modeling methods to
support BPR activities, a framework should contain a comprehensive list of BPR
activities. Activities specified in the BPR methodology proposed by Kettinger et al.
(1995) is used as a basis because their methodology seems the most comprehensive.
Table 2 shows the framework to be used to compare the Analysis and Visualization
features.
Using the Enterprise Model, Analysis, and Visualization feature criteria, the
comprehensiveness of modeling methods will be evaluated.
153
Table 1. A framework for the Enterprise Model feature.
Information about a Busmess Process
The objective of a business process
The importance of a busmess process (strategic importance and
value to customers).
Work products/outcomes of a business process.
Relationships between work products and objective of business
process.
Customer satisfaction level of the process.
Resources used to produce the work products
Relationship between work products and resources.
Activities performed on resources (the smallest unit of task carried
out on a single resource.)
Relationship between activities and resources.
Relationship between activities and process steps (Which activities
constitute a process step).
Relationship between process steps and resources (Inputs and
outputs of process steps).
Relationship between a business process and process steps (Which
process steps constitute a business process).
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events for the business process and process steps.
Cycle time of a process step and the business process.
Quality measurement of process step and business process.
Costs of the process steps and the business process.
Process operators and functional department.
Resource owners and process owners.
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers, Customers)
Interaction between stakeholders and a busmess process
Captures?
(Explicit/
Implicit/No)
Mechanism
(Constructs
used)
Table 2. A framework for the Analysis and Visuahzation features.
BPR
Activities
by
Kettinger et
al.
Envision
Inaugurate

Diagnose
S _
Redesign
Reconstruct
Evaluate
Analytical
steps
specified
How
specified
(list/texUial)
Models
produced
Type of
models
(graphic/tab
ular/text/etc)
Information
included m
models
Notation
used to
show
information
154
Evaluation Process
There are several issues we need to consider to achieve accurate and unbiased
comparisons.
1 Differences in terminology: Since different authors use different terminology to
represent the same or similar concepts, the correspondence of terminology among
different methods must be made on the basis of the contents not of the names.
Lacking an agreement on terminology, h is unavoidable to use some working
terminology in the framework for a comparative analysis. The terminology used in the
framework for the Enterprise Model feature is by no means considered as a proposal
for some kind of a standard. Carefiil examination of the concepts and notations
advocated by each methodology must be done to determine whether those are variants
on the same basic idea. The entire document of published materials should be
reviewed manually with care.
2. Subjective evaluation: On some questions, the answers are quhe subjective. We aim
to reduce this subjectivity by using the Delphi method. First, the methods is evaluated
by the author. Then, three expert committee members will investigate the evaluation
resuhs. When there are essential differences, the issues will be discussed until some
measure of consensus is reached. The Delphi method wih be used for this process.
The evaluation will also be forwarded to the methods' original authors to obtain
feedback. The feedback from the original authors will be forwarded to the expert
committee members and evaluated by them to determine whether the evaluation wih
be modified. This will help increase the accuracy and reduce the bias.
155
Considering the above issues, the following steps were developed as a plan:
1 The author evaluated the Enterprise Model feature of methods by filling out the
framework for this feature. The explanation of constructs of the modeling methods
was carefiilly reviewed. The order of evaluation was as follow:
a. Process Flow Diagram by Rummler and Brache.
b. Role Activity Diagram by Ould.
c. 0 0 modeling method by Jacobson et al.
d. An extended 0 0 modeling method by Nakatani.
2. The author evaluated the Analysis and Visualization features of methods by filling out
the framework for these two features. The explanation of when and how to use the
models was investigated. A list of analytical activhies, as well as their detailed
descriptions, was carefiilly reviewed. Also, examples described in the materials, if
available, were carefiilly reviewed. The order of evaluation was as follow:
a. Process Flow Diagram by Rummler and Brache.
b. Role Activity Diagram by Ould.
c. 0 0 modeling method by Jacobson et al.
d. An extended 0 0 modeling method by Nakatani.
3. The expert committee (you) will be asked to investigate the evaluation results in order
to ensure an accurate evaluation.
a. Each committee member will carefiilly review the materials and use page
reference to ensure the author's evaluation accuracy.
b. When essential differences are found, the Delphi method wiU be used to reach
consensus. During the first round, each committee member wiU be asked
156
whether he/she agrees or disagrees with the author's evaluation. Also, they v^ll
be asked to write reasons for disagreement. These responses will be complied
and used for the second round. For the disagreed hems, the first-round
responses from the committee members will be compiled and forwarded back to
them and re-evaluated. This process will be repeated three times. In the case
no consensus is achieved at the end of the third round, the disagreement will be
reported in the evaluation.
4. The evaluation will be forwarded to the original authors of the methods to obtain
feedback. This will help to increase the accuracy and reduce the bias.
5. The feedback, if obtained, will be evaluated by the committee members. The
evaluation will be modified accordingly if the feedback is supported by some physical
evidence. The feedback from the original author will be forwarded to the expert
committee members for the evaluation. The Delphi method wiU be used to reach the
consensus about the revision of the evaluation. In the case no consensus will be
achieved, the disagreement will be reported.
6. The comparisons will be done how many hems are covered by each method. The
more hems are covered, the more comprehensive the modeling method is. Although
each method will not be ranked, the evaluation will reveal their comprehensiveness.
157
Document of an Extended 0 0 Modeling Method for BPR Used in Validation
An Extended 0 0 Modeling Framework
The proposed extended 0 0 modeling framework uses two types of objects to
capture information about a business process. Those two are a process object and a
resource object. These two types of objects have been extended from the tradhional
objects by adding new components into their structure.
Process Objects. A
process object is used to describe a
business process and process steps.
The structure of the process object
is shown in Figure 1. The process
object has six components. The six
components are name, owner,
operator, attribute, interface and
operation. The name represents the
overall characteristic of the process
object. The owner defines a person
who is responsible for the process.
By identifying the process owner
independent of the existing business
department, a cross-fianctional
perspective is facilhated. The operator defines who is to perform the process step and the
fiinctional department to which the operator belongs. The operator can be a human or
programmable machine.
The attribute component has seven parts. They are objective, worth, customer
satisfaction level, cycle time, quality measurement, cost, and event. The objective is used
to evaluate whether or not the process object is fiindamental and value-adding. In the
fijture system, the objectives of all process steps should be consistent with the objective of
a business process. The worth is used to store importance of the process object. The
Parent Interface
Process Object Name
Input
Interface:
1. Process Objects
2. Resource Objects
Operation
Owner
Attribute
1. Objective
2. Worth
a. Strategic Importance
b. Value to Customer
c. Classfication
Operator
1. Department
2. Processor
3. Customer Satisfaction Level (weight)
a. Target Level
b. Current Level
c. Expected
4.Cycle Time (weight)
a. Optimum
b. Average
c. Worst-case
d. Expected
Output
Interface:
1. Process Objects
2. Resource Objects
5. Quality Measurement (weight)
a. Target
b Status-quo
c. Expected
6. Cost (weight)
a. Target
b. Status-quo
c Expected
7. Event
a Prerequisite Event
b. Consequent Event
c. Triggering Event
Child Interface
Figure 1. A Structure of the Process Object
158
worth has three parts: the strategic importance to the organization, the value to customers,
and classification. Classification is used to store classification made by a BPR analyst
according to the resuhs from analytical actions. Classification can be fiindamental or
nonfiindamental. The customer satisfaction level is used to evaluate the heahh of the
process object. This is usually specified at a business process level but not at the process
step level because customers recognize the process through the work products. However,
this attribute can sometimes be specified at the process-step level because the customer
satisfaction can be measured for the process steps that require the interaction whh
customers. Target, current, and expected are specified in this part. The expected
customer satisfaction level is used to store assessed or simulated value for a reengineered
process. The cycle time is used to determine whether or not the process object needs to
be redesigned. The optimum cycle time, average cycle time, worst-case cycle time, and
expected cycle time are specified. Expected cycle time is derived by summing up its
children's average cycle times. Thus, this represents a cycle time without problems
between those children process steps. The quality measurement part is used to specify
how the quality of the process is measured and to identify which process step is the
bottleneck in a business process. Target, status quo, and expected qualities are specified
in this part. The expected quality is used to store assessed or simulated value for a
reengineered process. The cost part is used to specify the cost incurred in carrying out the
process object. Target, status quo, and expected costs are specified in this part. The
expected cost is used to store assessed or simulated value for a reengineered process. The
attributes mentioned can also be used to assess the impact of the change, as well as the
urgency for the change. Each of these performance measurements has weight. Assigning
weight to each of these, BPR analysts can select measurement variables they want to use.
The event part is divided into the prerequisite event, consequent event and triggering
event. The prerequisite event must have occurred before the process starts. The
consequent event is created by the completion of the process step. The consequent event
of a process object corresponds to the prerequishe event of the next process object in the
process sequence. The process sequence is specified by tracing the consequent and
159
prerequishe events of the process objects. The triggering event is used to specify a special
event that triggers the process step.
The interface has four parts. They are input, output, parent and children. The
input specifies the input resource objects. In the most detail level of process objects, the
operations performed on the resource objects for the process objects are specified. Thus,
atomic activities are aggregated into a process step. The input also specifies the inputs
from the previous process object in the process sequence. The output specifies the
resource objects that the process object passes to the next process objects in the sequence.
The parent and children interfaces are used to specify a whole-to-part relationship among
process objects. The parent part specifies the next higher level of process object and the
children part specifies the next lower process objects. A whole-to-part relationship among
process objects is represented as shown in Figure 2.
The operation component defines the
operations performed on the attributes of the
process objects. Therefore, this represents the
intemal architecture of information manipulation
logic in the relevance knowledge. The following
operations can be specified: (a) logical steps to
determine the overall importance of the process
object using the weight; (b) logical steps to
determine the overall health of the process object
using the customer satisfaction level, cycle time.
Whole
Process Object
Children
Part
Parent
Process Object
Parent
Part
Process Object
quality measurement, and cost; (c) logical steps to F'g"^ 2. A Whole-to-Part Relationship
^ -^ of the Process Objects,
determine the level of needs for a change in the
process objects; (d) logical steps for simulation; (e) logical steps for assessing the impact
of change; (f) logical steps to monhor the performance of process objects and conditions
when a warning message for improvement request is produced; and (g) logical steps to
select a change approach.
160
Resource Interface
1. General
2. Parent (is_a_part_oO
3. Functional
Resource Object Name
Owner
1 Worth
a. Strategic Importance
b. Value to Customer
c. Calssification
2 Cost
3. Informational Charactenstics
Operation
Resource Interface
1. Speafic
2. Children (consistof)
Process
Interface
Resource Ohjer.t; A
resource object describes work
products and resources. The structure
of a resource object is shown in Figure
3. The resource object has five
components. They are the object
name, owner, attribute, operation and
interface. The name component
defines the general characteristic of ^^^^^^ ^ ^ Structure of a Resource Object,
resource object. The owner component is used to specify the person who is responsible
for managing and allocating the resource object.
The attribute defines the detailed characteristics of the resource objects. The
attribute component has three parts. They are worth, cost, and informational
characteristics. The worth part is used to capture the strategic importance of the resource
object, hs value to the customers and classification. Classification can be fundamental or
nonfundamental. The cost part is used to capture the costs of obtaining or producing the
resource object. Those hems captured in the information characteristics part are
application-dependent.
The operation defines the atomic activities performed on the resource object. A
set of operations of various objects constitutes a process step when they are accessed by
the same process object.
The interface has two parts; process interface and resource interface. The process
interface specifies the relationship with the process objects that use the resource object.
The resource interface specifies the relationship whh other resource objects. There are
three types of relationships defined in the resource interface, a whole-to-part, general-to-
specific and functional. Cardinality of a functional relationship is also specified here. By
specifying the resource interface, h is possible to know what resource objects are
necessary to produce other resource objects. Figure 4 shows a whole-to-part, a general-
to-specific, and functional relationships among resource objects.
161
Whole
General Functional
Resource Object
Resource Object
Children
J
Specific
Part
Resource Object
le.
Parent
tource Obje ct
Part Specific
Parent
Resource Object
General
[Resource Object Resource Object
General
Specific
Mgure 4. Whole-to-Part, General-to-Specific, and Functional Relationships of Resource Objects.
In sum, an extended 0 0 modeling framework uses two types of extended objects:
process objects and resource objects. These two types of extended objects and their inter-
relationships are adequate to define information about a business process.
Information Collection Formats and Information Presentation Formats
The extended 0 0 modeling method uses two types of formats.
Information collection formats.
Information presentation formats.
To carry out BPR activities efficiently, consistent but customized information collection
formats and information presentation formats are necessary. Therefore, one basic
information collection format and three basic information presentation formats are used.
These basic formats are customized for each BPR activity. These customized formats
contain only relevant information for each of the BPR activities they support.
Information Collection Format. A template format is used for the basic
information collection format. This basic template is customized for different BPR
activities. Therefore, relevance of information and level of details can be specified for
each BPR activity. The use of consistent format makes information collection actions
performed at different stages of a BPR project easier. Figures 5 and 6 show two basic
templates used to collect information. They are called the process object template (Figure
5) and resource object template (Figure 6).
162
For the process selection, templates with selected items are used (Figure 7). For
measurement attributes of a process object template, current or status-quo part is filled in
to describe a business process. After goals are set, their target part is filled in. A resource
object template used for the selection does not contain informational characteristics and
operations. For the documentation activity, two types of templates whh all hems are used
except for the expected part of measurement attributes. For the design activity, two types
of templates with all fields are used to document new objects. For the monitoring activity,
a process object template with measurement attributes is used (Figure 8).
Information Sources
OBJECT NAME:
OWNER:
OPERATOR:
ATTRIBUTE:
OBJECTIVE
WORTH:
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION LEVEL:
CYCLE TIME:
QUALITY MEASUREMENT:
COST:
EVENT:
OPERATION:
INTERFACE:
INPUT:
OUTPUT:
PARENT:
CHILDREN:
object name (verb + object)
process owner name (proper noun)
processor name (proper noun)
functional department (proper noun)
objective of the process (infinitive + object)
strategic importance (likert-scale/numeric)
value to customer (likert-scale/numeric)
classification (fundamental/nonfundamental)
target level (likert-scale/numeric)
current level (likert-scale/numeric)
expected level (likert-scale/numeric)
optimum cycle time (numeric)
average cycle time (numeric)
worst-case cycle time (numeric)
expected cycle time (numeric)
target (numeric)
status-quo (numeric)
expected (numeric)
target (numeric)
status-quo (numeric)
expected (numeric)
prerequisite event 1, 2, 3 ,.... (noun clause)
consequent event 1, 2, 3,.... (noun clause)
triggering event 1, 2, 3,.... (noun clause)
operation logic 1, 2, 3,...
previous process object name, resource 1, 2, 3,....
resource object name, (optional: attributes 1, 2, 3,....)
next process object name, resource 1, 2, 3,....
resource object name, (optional: attributes 1, 2, 3,....)
parent process object name 1, 2, 3,....
child process object name 1, 2, 3,....
Figure 5. A Template of a Process Object.
163
OBJECT NAME:
OWNER:
ATTRIBUTE:
WORTH:
COSTS:
INFORMATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS:
OPERATION:
INTERFACE:
RESOURCE INTERFACE:
GENERAL:
SPECIFIC:
PARENT:
CHILDREN:
FUNCTIONAL:
PROCESS INTERFACE:
Information
object name (noun)
resource owner name (proper noun)
strategic importance (likert scale/numeric)
value to customer (likert scale/numeric)
classification (fundamental/nonfundamental)
target (numeric)
current (numeric)
attribute 1, 2, 3,....
operation logic 1, 2, 3,...
resource object name
resource object name 1, 2, 3,....
resource object name 1, 2, 3,....
resource object name 1, 2, 3,....
resource object name 1, cardinality
resource object name 1, cardinality
process object name 1, 2, 3,....
Source
Figure 6. A Template of a Resource Object.
Information Sources
OBJECT NAME:
OWNER:
ATTRIBUTE:
OBJECTFVE :
WORTH:
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION LEVEL:
CYCLE TIME:
QUALITY MEASUREMENT:
COST:
EVENT:
OPERATION:
INTERFACE:
INPUT:
OUTPUT:
PARENT:
CHILDREN:
object name
process owner name
objective of the process
strategic importance
value to customer
target level for goal setting
current level
optimum cycle time for goal setting
average cycle time
worst-case cycle time
measurement 1.target for goal setting, status-quo, expected
measurement 2.target for goal setting, status-quo, expected
target for goal setting
status-quo
prerequisite event 1, 2, 3 ,....
consequent event 1, 2, 3,....
triggering event 1, 2, 3,....
operation logic 1, 2, 3,...
resource object name
resource object name
parent process object name 1, 2, 3,....
child process object name 1, 2, 3,....
Figure 7. A Template of a Process Object for Process Selection Activity.
164
OBJECT NAME:
ATTRIBUTE:
WORTH:
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION LEVEL:
CYCLE TIME:
QUALITY MEASUREMENT:
COST:
Information
object name
strategic importance
value to customer
current level
average cycle time
worst-case cycle time
measurement 1.target,
measurement 2.target.
target
status-quo
status-quo, expected
status-quo, expected
Sources
Figure 8. A Template of a Process Object for Process Monitoring Activity.
Information Presentation Formats. Several information presentation formats are
used to support all BPR activhies. For the process selection, three types of information
presentation formats are used. The process diagram developed for this activity shows an
overview of an organization as a set of business processes. The first one is cahed the
process object diagram (Figure 9). The second one is called the resource object diagram
(Figure 10). The resource object diagram shows the relationship among major input
resources and work products. The third one is called the process selection table (Figure
11). The table format is useful to rank business processes, compare them, and select one
for a particular BPR project.
For the process documentation, a more detailed process object diagram with the
process sequence may be constructed (Figure 12). A more detailed resource object
diagram is also constructed (Figure 13).
Diagrams developed during the documentation activity are used as basis for the
process analysis. Information relevant to each analytical action should be displayed in
each of process or resource objects. The following eight types of a process object
diagrams need to be constructed:
Process object diagram whh cycle time information (Figure 14).
Process object diagram whh quality measurement information.
Process object diagram with cost information.
165
Process object diagram with objective information (Figure 16).
Process object diagram with classification.
Process object diagram whh inputs, outputs, and classification information.
Process object diagram whh classification and event information.
Resource object diagram whh relating process objects and their classification
(Figure 17).
Process 1
Organization
X
Process 2 Process n
Figure 9. A Process Object Diagram for Process Selection.
Work Product
Resource 1
Resource 'i
I
Figure 10. A Resource Object Diagram for Process Selection.
166
Business Process 1
Business Process 2
Business Process 3
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Figure 11. Process Selection Table.
Business Process
. ^ ^
Process step 1
X
Process step
1-1
Process step
1-2
Process step
1-3
Process step 2
Process step 1
Process step
1-4
Higher level sequence
Detailed level sequence
Figure 12. A Process Object Diagram for Process Analysis and Design.
Work Product 1 Resource 4
Resource 1
m
Resource 2 Resource 3
Figure 13. A Resource Object Diagram for Process Analysis and Design.
167
Process 1
Opbrnum: 3 di s
A v e n g e 7 d i y t
Wo r i l Gi i c 16 d i v
Ei p c c l c d . 3 5 d i y i
Process 1 -1
Op b mu m: 1 d i y
A v c r i | c 2 d i v i
W n l - c i t c : 7 d*yi
Ei p c c l c d : 1.3 dayi
^
Process 1-2
Opt i mum. 1 S day
Avc T*| c : 2. 5 d i y i
W ori l - cat c: 4 dayi
Ei pc c t c d: l . S di vf
Process 1-3
Op b Bu m: 0. 3 day
Av c r a | c ; 2 dayi
Wor i t - c Bi c : 3 dayi
Expe c t e d: 0. 3 d i y i
Figure 14. A Process Object Diagram whh Cycle Time Information.
The first three diagrams above are used to identify bottleneck process steps. Figure 14
shows a process object diagram with cycle time information as an example. Other
diagrams shows the information in a similar way In addition to these process object
diagram, the performance comparison table is used to make the comparison of process
steps easier (Figure 15). The last five diagrams are used to classify objects into
fiindamental and nonfiindamental. The objective hierarchy diagram (Figure 16) should be
developed to show the objective of a business process and hs subobjectives. Each of
subobjectives specified in this diagram needs to be compared with the process object
diagram v^th objective information to identify which process objects are fiindamental
(Figure 16). Then, a process object diagram with the classification is constructed. When
this process object diagram shows inputs and outputs, the necessity of those resources
objects in achieving the objectives can be evaluate. .Also, this diagram can be used to
identify nonfiindamental process objects by looking for those that do not provide inputs to
fiindamental process objects. In addhion, the process object diagram with event
information can be used to identify process objects that do not provide prerequishe events
to fiindamental process objects. This also helps to identify nonfiindamental process
objects. After nonfiindamental process objects are identified, a resource object diagram
with relating process objects can be used to classify resource objects into fiindamental and
168
onfiindamental (Figure 17). The classification made by BPR analysts should be recorded
1 the classification field of their information collection templates.
Business Process 1
Process step 1
Process step 1 -1
Process step 1 -2
Process step 2
Process step 2-1
1 Process step 2-2
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Figure 15. A Performance Comparison Table for Process Analysis and Design.
Objective Hierarchy Diagram
Objective
Subobjective 1
t
Subobjective 1-1
Subobjective 1-2
Subobjective 2
Subobjective 2-1
Process 1
Objective 1
X
Process 1-1
Objective 1-1
Process 1-2
Objective 1-1
Process 1-3
Objective 1-3
Subobjective 2-2
Subobjective 3
Subobjective 3-1
Subobjective 3-2
Subobjective 3-3
Process Diagram with Objective Information
Figure 16. Objective Hierarchy Diagram and a Process Object Diagram with Objective
Information.
169
Work Product 1
Work Product 2
Process 1-2 F
Resource 1
Process 1-2-1: F
Process 1-3 N
Resource 2
Process 1-2-2: F
Process 1-3-1 N
Process 1-2-3: N
Process 1-3-2: N
Figure 17. A Resource Object Diagram with Relating Process Objects and their
Classification.
For the process design, a detailed process object diagram with process owner
information and objective hierarchy diagram are used to identify new process objects that
provide inputs and prerequishe events to fiindamental process objects. After all the details
of such new objects are specified using templates, a process object diagram with the
inputs, outputs and event information can be used to convert unnecessary sequential
processing into parallel processing. A process object diagram whh cycle time information,
one with quality measurement information, one with cost information, and the
performance comparison table can be used to evaluate the impact of change.
For the process implementation activity, a process object diagram with the
operator can be used to design the desired human resource architecture. Clustering
process objects for the same operator or department should be done (Figure 18). The
performance comparison table can be used to evaluate the impact of change. Process
diagrams with performance measurement information are also usefiil.
For the monhoring activity, the process selection table and the performance
comparison table can be used. Process object diagram whh cycle time information, one
with quality measurement information, one with cost information, and the performance
comparison table can be used to evaluate the impact of change.
170
Higher level sequence
Detailed level sequence
Figure 18. A Process Object Diagram for Process Implementafion.
The Steps of the Extended 0 0 Modeling Method
This section presents the steps of the extended 0 0 modeling method. The steps of
the proposed extended 0 0 modeling method include six major phases:
1. Selection of a business process for a BPR project.
2. Development of a model of the exisfing business process.
3. Analysis of a model of the existing business process.
4. Development of a model for the reengineered process.
171
5. Implementation of the reengineered process.
6. Monhoring of the reengineered process.
sequence and necessary heration of the BPR activities and actions are also specified,
i^igure 19 shows this sequence and necessary heration.
Selecfion of a Business Process for a BPR Project. The selecfion of a business
process requires the construcfion of a process-level model. Each business process is
represented by a process object. All required information can be coUected by using a
process object template for the selection phase. The objective should be defined as to
what is currently being done. At this point, a process object diagram should be
constructed. Next, work products produced from process objects are identified as
resource objects. Then, resources used to produce those work products are identified as
resource objects. A resource object template for the selection phase is used to define
those resource objects. At this point, a resource object diagram should be drawn. By
performing these actions, the boundaries of business processes can be estabhshed.
Then, a process selection table is constructed using the data for weight, customer
satisfaction level, cycle time, quality measurement and cost. From the strategic
importance and value to customers, the overall importance of a business process is
determined. The simplest way to determine the overall importance is averaging those two.
BPR analysts can use a more complicated formula. Those formulas should be specified as
operations in the process objects. Then, the processes are ranked using the overah
importance. Next, the health of the business processes is assessed using the customer
safisfaction level, cycle time, quality measurement, and cost. A five-point Likert scale is
probably the simplest way to specify the overall heahh. Then, using their heahh, the
processes with the same importance are sorted within the business processes. Then, the
level of the urgency for change is determined using the overall importance and health of
business processes. Again, a five-point Likert scale is probably the easiest way to specify
h.
172
1. Selection of a business process for a BPR project
Identify process objects for major business processes
Fill in process object template for all process objects
Draw process object diagram
Identify resource objects for work products for each of the business processes
Identity resource objects for resources used in each of the business processes
rill in resource object template for all resource objects
Draw resource object diagram
Construct process selection table
Rank business processes using their overall importance
Rank business processes using their overall health
Rank business processes using their urgency for change
Select a business process for a BPR project
Set goals
V
2. Development of a model of the existing business process
^ Identity detailed resource objects for resources used in the business process
Fill in resource object template for all resource objects
Update resource ooject diagram
Decpmpose the business process & specify them as process objects
Fill in process object template for all process objects
Construct process object diagram for a business process
Relate process objects & resource objects and fiU in templates
Add process sequence to process obi
w
>
ect diagram
r
3. Analysis of a model of the existing business process
Redefine process and resource owners
Conduct cycle time analysis: Construct a process object diagram & performance comparison table
Conduct quality measurement analysis: Construct a process object diagram & performance comparison table
Conduct cost analysis: Construct a process object diagram & performance comparison table
Identify bottleneck process objects & resources objects
Initiate an incremental improvement if viable
Conduct objective analysis: Construct a process object diagram
Classify process objects into fundamental
Conduct input-output analysis: Construct a process object diagram
Conduct event analysis: Construct a process object diagram
Classify process objectts into nonfundamental
Conduct resource analysis: Construct a resource object diagram
Classify resource objects into fundamental or nonfundamental
V
^
4. Development of a model for the reengineere
w Add new fundamental and valiie-addir
Fill in template for all of those newly
Conduct input-output analysis and eve
Attempt to eliminate nonfundamental
Redraw process object diagram & resc
Conduct sequence analysis
Update information on a template & r<
Cneck consistency
Construct performance comparison ta
' Evaluate whethei the goals aie achiev
^
5. Implementation of the reengineered business
^ dust er process objects fnr a jnh title
Define new job responsibilitfes for a p
Cluster process objects for a departme
Define new job responsibilities for a f
Implement prototype of a business pre
Construct a performance comparison 1
Partition a model and prioritize parts
Develop an implementation plan
1
6. Monitoring of the reengineered business pro
,. > Updatp the inff^pnatinn on templates
Construct performance comparison ta
^ Evaluate whether change is necessary
d business process
le process objects and resource objects
dentified objects
nt analysis if necessary
and nonvalue-adding process objects & resource objects
)urce object diagram
:draw process object diagram
Die
0
'
process
rocess operator
nt
unctional department
)cess or simulate it
able and evaluate the results
'
cess
jle using updated information
1
Figure 19. Steps of an Extended 0 0 Modeling Method
173
Next, a business process is selected for a particular project, considering
constraints. At this point, BPR analysts should not consider many constraints. Time
:onstraint should be considered because BPR need to produce a significant improvement
in a relatively short period of time. Resource constrains should not be considered
seriously because h limhs innovative ideas of redesign. Finally, the goals of a BPR project
are set in terms of the measurement variables. This first phase may be skipped when a
target process is easily selected without analysis.
Development of a Model of the Existing Business Process. The process object
that represents a target business process must be identified if the first phase has been
skipped. All resources to produce work products are identified if not all of them have
been identified in the first phase. A resource object template is used to collect information
about those resources. The resource object diagram is updated. While doing this, the
business process is decomposed into process steps and the process steps are defined as
process objects. The decomposition process should be terminated when a process step
cannot produce any recognizable outcome. A process object template is used to collect
information about those process steps. Target value of measurement variables should be
specified, considering the goals of the project set in the selection phase. At this point, a
process object diagram should be developed for the business process. While filling out the
process object templates, cycle time should be specified for each process object
independently of other process objects. This is important to identify whether there is a
problem between process steps but not in each process step. Then, the process objects
and resource objects are related and their relationships are specified in the interface of the
process objects and the resource objects. Finally, a process sequence is added to the
process object diagram. This is achieved by connecting the process objects according to
their prerequishe events and consequent events.
The step sequence shown in Figure 19 is general. To refine the model, steps
should be performed iteratively. The existing business process can be thoroughly
understood by continually refining the object definhions, object relafionships and the
174
iagrams. Also, the decomposhion of processes and the identificafion of resources can be
ione together in a spiral way rather than independently.
Analysis of a Model of the Exisfing Business Process. This phase starts whh
edefining the owner of process objects and resource objects. This facilitates a cross-
unctional perspective to analyze and redesign a business process. The broadest possible
new should be created. All the information specified in the model of the existing process
s evaluated based on this redefined owner's perspective.
The next step is the cycle time analysis, where cycle time of each process object is
nvestigated. A process object diagram whh cycle time information should be constructed.
\ process object with a long cycle time is a candidate of redesign. Target cycle time
should be used as a benchmark. A worst-case cycle time should be compared with its
average and target cycle times. If the worst-case cycle time is seriously longer than the
average or target cycle time, the process object needs to be redesigned. Standardizing,
simplifying, or automating the process step should be considered. In addition, the
expected cycle time of a parent process object should be calculated by adding hs children's
average cycle times. Where hs average cycle is longer than hs expected cycle fime, there
is a problem, such as a communication problem between process steps, backlog, delay, or
redundancy. The cycle time part of a performance comparison table should be constructed
to make the comparison among process objects easier.
The third step is the quality measurement analysis, where the quality of process
objects is examined. A process object diagram whh the quality informafion is constructed.
Target quality and status-quo are compared. If there is substantial difference between
them, the process step needs redesigning. Simplifying, standardizing or error proofing the
process step must be considered. The quality measurement part of a performance
comparison table should be constructed to make the comparison among process objects
easier.
The fourth step is the cost analysis. A process object diagram whh the cost
informafion should be constructed. Allocafion of costs to each process step requires the
implementation of activity-based costing. With this data, high cost process steps can be
175
lentified. If those process steps are neither fiindamental nor value-adding, the ehminafion
if them must be attempted in the next phase. If they are fiindamental or value-adding, the
eduction of cost should be attempted in the next phase. The cost part of a performance
;omparison table should be constructed to make the comparison among process objects
easier.
Through the cycle time, quality measurement, and cost analyses, BPR analysts
ihould be able to identify where bottlenecks are. At this point, they should initiate an
ncremental improvement if h is viable.
The next step is the objective analysis. The objective of the business process is
edefined regarding what should be achieved from the newly defined process owner's
Derspective. Then, the objective is decomposed into subobjectives and the objective
lierarchy diagram should be constructed. Consistency of each subobjective with its
superordinate objective must be ensured. In addition, a BPR analyst needs to evaluate
tiow much each subobjective contributes to its superordinate objective. These newly
defined objectives are compared with the objectives of the process objects of the existing
business process. A process object diagram with the objective information and the
objective hierarchy diagram should be compared. By doing this, the necessity of each
process object in achieving a particular objective can be evaluated. The process object is
likely to be nonfiindamental where the current objective of a process step does not match
with any of redefined subobjectives.
The next step is the input-output analysis. The purpose of this analysis is to
identify which process objects provide inputs into fiindamental process objects. A process
object diagram with the input, output, and classification information is constructed. The
next step is the event analysis. The purpose of this analysis is to identify which process
objects produce prerequishe events of fiindamental process objects. A process object
diagram with the event, and classification information is constructed. These two analyses
are crhical in identifying redundant process objects and resource objects. Process objects
that produce redundant inputs or redundant prerequisite events to a fiindamental process
176
lould be classified as nonfiindamental. Also, process objects that produce outputs or
/ents only for nonftimdamental process objects are classified as nonfiindamental.
Finally, the necessity of resource objects is evaluated. This can be done by
jcamining the resource object diagram with the related process objects and their
lassification. Resource objects should be classified into fiindamental or nonfiindamental.
Development of a model for the reengineered process. In the first step of this
base, the analyst should consider adding new fundamental process objects and resource
bjects. Using a newly defined process owner's and resource owner's view, h is
ecessary to identify where the inputs to the fiindamental process objects have been
iroduced originally. By providing the inputs to the fiindamental process objects from the
iriginal sources, it is possible to reduce the cycle time, errors, and cost. Frequently, those
ource process steps are out of the scope of the project. Therefore, it is critical to broadly
dentify the process owner and resource owner in the third phase. If those source process
teps are out of the current scope, BPR analysts may need to include them in the scope of
he project. In addhion, BPR analysts should also consider adding new fiindamental
)rocess objects and resource objects in achieving the redefined objectives of the business
)rocess. All the components of those objects must be specified using templates. Addition
)f new process objects and resource objects may make some existing process objects and
esource objects nonfiindamental. In that case, the input-output and event analyses may
leed to be conducted again.
In the next step of this phase, nonfiindamental process objects, which provide
lehher inputs nor prerequishe events to a fiindamental process object, must be eliminated,
lelated resource objects are likely to be nonfiindamental resource objects; therefore, the
jlimination of them should be attempted. This may require adding a new process object or
esource object. Therefore, the addhion of new objects and eliminafion of objects should
)e carried out in a spiral way.
At this point, a process object diagram should be redrawn. Similarly, a resource
Dbject diagram should be redrawn.
177
The next step is the sequence analysis. A sequence should be added to the process
bject diagram. The sequence analysis investigates the prerequishe events and consequent
vents. Unnecessary sequential processing should be converted into parallel processing,
iased on broadly defined process owner's perspective, process steps should be performed
s parallel as possible by assigning cross-fiinctional project team as operators,
[itercommunication between relatively independent but related process steps should be
icilitated to achieve parallel processing.
Again, the process object diagram must be updated. All informafion on process
ibject templates must be updated if necessary. Similarly, the resource object diagram
lust be updated and all information on the resource object templates must be updated. It
5 also necessary to make sure there is consistency All relationships among process
ibjects and resource objects need to be checked.
The next step is to estimate the impact of the reengineering. A performance
;omparison table is constructed using updated information. The expected values are
ecalculated or assessed. Then they are compared whh the data for the existing process,
f the improvement does not achieve the BPR goals, analytical steps of the third phase and
he steps of the fourth phase should be performed until satisfactory outcomes can be
ichieved.
Implementation of the Reengineered Business Process. The first step is to identify
ill the process objects performed by the same operator. Such process objects are
clustered on the process object diagram. Then, the job responsibility is defined for that
)perator. The second step is to identify all the process objects performed by operators
hat belong to the same fiinctional department. Then such process objects should be
clustered on the process object diagram. Next, the responsibility for that department is
iefined. To obtain the desired resuhs, h may be necessary to redefine the operator of the
)rocess objects. Using this informafion, a prototype of the business process may be
mplemented to estimate the change impact. Simulation is another ahemative used for this
)urpose. The expected data is collected for measurement variables. A performance
comparison table is constructed using the expected values. The expected data is
178
mpared whh the data for the existing process. The above steps should be repeated until
e desired organizational structure can be obtained.
Once the desired organizational structure is determined, the process object
agram can be parthioned and those parts should be priorhized to develop an
iplementation plan. Time and resource constraints must be considered to develop an
iplementation plan.
Monhoring of the Reengineered Business Process. The first step is to periodically
^hect data for strategic importance, value to customer, customer safisfacfion level, cycle
me, quality measurement, and cost. Also, the objective may need to be updated. A
jmplate is used to collect the data. Then, a performance comparison table should be
onstructed using the updated information. When a minor discrepancy is found between
le collected data and target value, an incremental approach should be suggested. When a
lajor discrepancy is found, a more radical approach should be suggested.
179
'able A. 1. Inhial Evaluation of Rummler and Brache's Method (Enterprise Model
eature).
Information about a Business Process Captures? Mechanism (Constructs used) Pages
"he objective of a business process No N/A N/A
lie importance of a business process (strategic
mportance and value to customers).
No N/A N/A
Vork products/outcomes of a business process. Explicit Arrow from Organization to Market in
Relationship Map
p.105
lelationships between work products and
)bjective of business process.
No N/A N/A
Customer satisfaction level of the process.
Resources used to produce the work products
Relationship between work products and
resources.
Activities performed on resources (the smallest
unit of task carried out on a single resource.)
Explicit Measures and Goals in Relationship Map
(Process-level), Process Map (Process-step-level)
p.58-61,p.l42,
p. 144
Implicit Annotation attached on arrow in Relationship
Map and Process Map
p.p.49-52
Implicit Through inputs and outputs relationship in
Relationship Map
p.36, p.38
Relationship between activities and resources.
Relationship between activities and process steps
(Which activities constitute a process step).
Relationship between process steps and resources
(Inputs and outputs of process steps).
Explicit Rectangle (step) in Process Map p.p.49-52
Implicit
Explicit
Relationship between a business process and
process steps (Which process steps constitute a
business process).
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events (triggering, prerequisite,
terminating) for the business process and process
steps.
Implicit at
process-step-
level: Explicit at
functional
department-level
Annotation attached on arrow and Rectangle
(step) in Process Map
Decomposition of process step into more detailed
steps
Annotation attached on arrow and Rectangle
(step) in Process Map. (Intemal customer-
supplier/input-output relationship among function
may be captured explicitly in Relationship Map)
Explicit
Explicit
Cycle time of a process step and the business
process.
Quality measurement of process step and
business process.
Implicit
p.p.49-52
p.33 Figure
4. 1. , p. l 41,
p. 148
p. l 41, p. l 48
(p.36, p.38)
Decomposition of process into process steps
Arrow in Process Map
p.33 Figure 4.1.
p.p.49-52
Through a sequence of process steps
Explicit
Explicit
Measures and Goals in Relationship Map
(Process-level), Process Map (Process-step-level),
Functional Model, Job Model
p.p.49-52
p.58-61,p.l42,
p. l 44, p. p. l 51-
154
Measures and Goals in Relationship Map
(Process-level), Process Map (Process-step-level),
Functional Model, Job Model
p.58-61,p.l42,
p. l 44, p. p. l 51-
155
180
Table A1. Continued.
Information about a Business Process
^osts of the process steps and the business
irocess.
'rocess operators and fiinctional department and
heir responsibilities.
Resource owners and process owners.
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers,
Customers)
interaction between stakeholders and a business
process
Captures?
Explicit
Explicit
No
Explicit
Explicit
Mechanism (Constructs used)
Measures and Goals in Relationship Map
(Process-level), Process Map (Process-step-level),
Functional Model, Job Model
Column dedicated to show Functional
Department in Process Map: Role/Responsibility
Matrix: Functional Model: Job Model.
N/A
Box for Customer/Markel/Suppliers
Arrows between Customer/Market/Supplier and
Organization
Pages
p.58-61,p.l42,
p.l44,p.p.l51-
156
p.p.50, p.70,
p.73, p.p.l51-
155
N/A
p.38 Figure 4.3
p.38 Figure 4.3
181
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Table A. 3 Initial Evaluation of Quid's Method (Enterprise Model Feature).
Information about a Business Process
The objective of a business process
The importance of a business process (strategic
importance and value to customers).
Work products/outcomes of a business process.
Relationships between work products and
objective of business process.
Customer satisfaction level of the process.
Resources used to produce the work products
Relationship between work products and
resources.
Activities performed on resources (the smallest
unit of task carried out on a single resource.)
Relationship between activities and resources.
Relationship between activities and process steps
(Which activities constitute a process step).
Relationship between process steps and resources
(Inputs and outputs of process steps).
Relationship between a business process and
process steps (Which process steps constitute a
business process).
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events (triggering, prerequisite,
terminating) for the business process and process
steps.
Cycle lime of a process step and the business
process.
Quality measurement of process step and
business process.
Costs of the process steps and the business
process.
Process operators and functional department.
Resource owners and process owners.
Captures?
Explicit
No
Implicit
Explicit
No
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Implicit
Explicit
Implicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
No
Mechanism (Constructs used)
Goal/subgoal and state description with
annotation
N/A
Goal and state description
Goal/subgoal and state description with
annotation
N/A
Annotation for activities. Annotation (gram) for
Interaction, Entity of E/R diagram
Entity and Relationship among entities of E/R
diagram
Activity, Interaction
Annotation for activity. State transition diagram
Role, Decomposition of Activity, Decomposition
to another RAD
State, Annotation for activity. Annotation for
Interaction
Set of roles. Decomposition of Activity
Sequence of states and activities and interactions
(threads)
State, Annotation for Interaction, Case
refinement. Concurrent threads. External event,
Intemal event
External event. Annotation for each activity
Annotation for each activity or case refinement
frequencies
Annotation for each activity
Role
N/A
Pages
p.39, p.40, p.43
N/A
p.39, p.40, p.43
p.39, p.40, p.43
N/A
p.p.91-92,
p. 143
p. 143
p.37, p.45
p.p.91-92
p.43, p.p.97-
102, p.p.102-
110
p.43, p.45,
p.p.91-92
p.26, p.42.
p.p.97-102,
p.p.102-110,
p.p.122-123
p.77,p.81
p.42, p.45,
p.48,p.49-55,
p.p.56-59,
p.p.61-62, p.65
p.62,p.92,
p. 153
p.92
p.92, p. l54
p.p.29-30, p.42
N' A
187
Table A.3. Continued.
Information about a Business Process
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers,
Customers)
Interaction between stakeholders and a business
process
Captures?
No
No
Mechanism (Constructs used)
Pages
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
188
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Table A.5. Initial Evaluation of Jacobson et al.'s Method (Enterprise Model Feature)
Information about a Business Process
The objective of a business process
The importance of a business process (strategic
importance and value to customers).
Work products/outcomes of a business process.
Relationships between work products and
objective of business process.
Customer satisfaction level of the process.
Resources used to produce the work products
Relationship between work products and
resources.
Activities performed on resources (the smallest
unit of task carried out on a single resource.)
Relationship between activities and resources.
Relationship between activities and process steps
(Which activities constitute a process step).
Relationship between process steps and resources
(Inputs and outputs of process steps).
Relationship between a business process and
process steps (Which process steps constitute a
business process).
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events (triggering, prerequisite,
terminating) for the business process and process
steps.
Cycle time of a process step and the business
process.
Quality measurement of process step and
business process.
Costs of the process steps and the business
process.
Process operators and functional department and
their responsibilities
Resource owners and process owners.
Captures?
No
No
Explicit
No
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Implicit
Explicit
Explicit
Implicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
No
Mechanism (Constructs used)
N/A
N/A
Entity object
N/A
Metrics for use case
Entity object
Associations among objects
Use case description. Operations of object class
Use case description. Operations of object class
Use case description
Use case description. View of participating objects
in use case. Interaction diagram
Use case, Extends/Uses association. Subsystem,
Super use case - Sub use case
Use case (description may not tell sequence).
Interaction diagram
Use case description
Metrics for use case
Metrics for use case
Metrics for use case
Interface object. Control object
N/A
Pages
N/A
N/A
p. l l 6
N/A
p.84
p. l l 6
p.l 17, p.p. 120-
121
p.p.98-99,
p.p.108-109,
p. 122
p.p.98-99,
p.p.108-109,
p. 122
p.98, p.p.108-
109
p.p.108-109,
p. l 29, p. l 30,
p.l32
p.p.108-109,
p. 134, p. 137,
p.l42,p.325
p.73, p. 106,
p.p.108-109,
(p. 110), p. 132
p.73, p.98, p.99
p.l51
p.l51
p.l51
p. l l 3, p. l l 5
N/A
194
Table A.5. Continued.
Information about a Business Process
Captures?
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers,
Customers)
Interaction between stakeholders and a business
process
Explicit
Explicit
Mechanism (Constructs used)
Pages
Actor
p. l 01, p. l 03
Use case description. Association (Arrow)
between Actor and System or Use case
p. l 01, p. l 04,
p.p.108-109,
p . l l l
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fable A.7. Initial Evaluation of Proposed Method (Enterprise Model Feature).
Information about a Business Process
Tie objective of a business process
lie importance of a business process (strategic
tnportance and value to customers).
Vork products/outcomes of a business process.
lelationships between work products and
)bjective of business process.
[Customer satisfaction level ofthe process.
lesources used to produce the work products
Relationship between work products and
esources.
Activities performed on resources (the smallest
init of task carried out on a single resource.)
Relationship between activities and resources.
Relationship between activities and process steps
[Which activities constitute a process step).
Relationship between process steps and resources
[Inputs and outputs of process steps).
Relationship between a business process and
process steps (Which process steps constitute a
business process).
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events (triggering, prerequisite,
terminating) for the business process and process
steps.
Cycle time of a process step and the business
process.
Quality measurement of process step and
business process.
Costs ofthe process steps and the business
process.
Process operators and functional department and
their responsibilities
Resource owners and process owners.
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers,
Customers)
Interaction between stakeholders and a business
process
Captures?
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
No
No
Mechanism (Constructs used)
Attribute (Objective) of a process object
Attribute (Worth) of a process object and
resource object
Resource object
Output interface (resource object) of Process
object
Attribute (customer satisfaction level) of a
process object
Resource object
Resource interface among resource objects
Operations of resource object
Operations of resource object
Input and output interfaces of process object.
Process interface of resource object. Whole-to-
part relationship among process object
Input and output interfaces (resource object) of
process object. Process interface of resource
object.
Whole-to-part relationship among process object
Attributes (consequent events and prerequisite
events relationship) of process object
Attribute (event) of process objects
Attribute (cycle time) of process object
Attribute (quality measurement) of process object
Attribute (cost) of process object and resource
object
Operator of process object
Owner of process object and resource object
N/A
N/A
Pages
p. l, Figure 1,
p.2
p. l . Figure 1,
p.5. Figure 3
p.5. Figure 3
p. l . Figure 1
p. l . Figure 1,
p.2
p.5. Figure 3
p.5, Figure 3
p.5. Figure 3
p.5. Figure 3
p. l . Figure 1,
p.3, p.p.5-6.
Figure 2
p. 1, Figure 1,
p.3, p.p.5-6,
Figure 2
p.p.3-4, Figure
2
p. l . Figure 1,
p.3
p. l . Figure 1,
p.3
p. l . Figure 1,
p.2
p. l . Figure 1,
p.2
p. l. Figure 1,
p.3, p.5. Figure
3
p. l . Figure 1
p. l . Figure 1,
p.5 Figure 3
N/A
N/A
203
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C
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PQ
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v
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t
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r

3

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235
236
c
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PQ
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r

3

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248
APPENDIX C
THE SECOND-ROUND DELPHI LETTER AND QUESTIONS SENT
TO THE EXPERT COMMITTEE
249
Appendix C contains the second-round Delphi letter and questions sent to the
three expert committee members. Due to the space limitation, the "mechanism" and
"pages" columns ofthe Enterprise Model Feature are not included in this appendix
although they were included in the packet sent to the expert committee members. For the
same reason, the "how specified," "model produced," "type of models," "information
included in models," "notation used to show information," and "pages" columns ofthe
Analysis and Visualization Features are not included in this appendix although they were
included in the packet sent to the expert committee members. See the Appendix A for
those omitted columns.
250
Area of Information Systems and Quantitative Sciences
College of Business Administration
Texas Tech University
Comparative Analysis of Modeling Methods for Business Process Reengineering
Instructions
We have listed on separate sheets the responses to the first round ofthe comparative analysis ofthe
four modeling methods. The hst contains only discrepancies in the responses by the participants. The three
participants have agreed with all of other items. Please do the following things to these Usts:
1. Review all items on each hst and read the comments made by the participants.
2. Review each modeling method again about these items and specify how strongly you agree or disagree
with each of items of the evaluation of each modeling method. Please specify "Strongly agree,"
"Agree," "Disagree," or "Strongly disagree."
3. Please comment on reasons if you change your first response. Note: You don't need to change your
first responses if you don't agree with the evaluation .
Please use a file attached to this e-mail to complete tasks and return it to us in time for analysis on June 12,
1998. Please contact us if you have any questions. Again thank you for your help.
Sincerely,
Kazuo Nakatani
knakatan@fgcu. edu
7941 Georgian Bay Circle #205
Fort Myers, Fl 33912
(941)561-0306
251
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258
APPENDIX D
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270
APPENDIX E
THE THIRD-ROUND DELPHI LETTER AND QUESTIONS SENT
TO THE EXPERT COMMITTEE
271
Appendix E contains the third-round Delphi letter and questions sent to the three
expert committee members. Due to the space Hmitation, the "mechanism" and "pages"
columns ofthe Enterprise Model Feature are not included in this appendix although they
were included in the packet sent to the expert committee members. For the same reason,
the "how specified," "model produced," "type of models," "information included in
models," "notation used to show information," and "pages" columns ofthe Analysis and
Visualization Features are not included in this appendix although they were included in
the packet sent to the expert committee members. See the Appendix A for those omitted
columns.
272
Area of Information Systems and Quantitative Sciences
College of Business Administration
Texas Tech University
Comparative Analysis of Modeling Methods for Business Process Reengineering
Instructions
We have listed on separate sheets the responses to the second round ofthe comparative analysis ofthe
four modeling methods. The hst contains only discrepancies in the responses by the participants. The three
participants have agreed with all of other items in the second round. Please do the following things to these
lists:
1. Review all items on each list and read the comments made by the participants.
2. Review each modeling method again about information captured, and specify how explicitly/implicitly
the information is captured. Please specify "Explicit," "Implicit," or "No."
3. Review each modeling method again about analytical activities supported, and specify how strongly
you agree or disagree with each of items of the evaluation of each modeling method. Please specify
"Strongly agree," "Agree," "Disagree," or "Strongly disagree."
4. Please comment on reasons if you change your second roimd responses. Note: You don't need to
change your second round responses.
Please use a file attached to this e-mail to complete tasks and return it to us in time for analysis on July 27,
1998. Please contact us if you have any questions. Again thank you for your help.
Sincerely,
Kazuo Nakatani
knakatan@fgcu. edu
7941 Georgian Bay Circle #205
Fort Myers, Fl 33912
(941)561-0306
273
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286
APPENDIX G
THE LETTER SENT TO THE ORIGINAL DEVELOPERS OF
THE BENCHMARK METHODS
287
Area of Information Systems and Quantitative Sciences
College of Business Administration
Texas Tech University
Analysis of Modeling Methods for Business Process Reengineering
Dear Dr. XXXXX:
As part of our research regarding Business Process Reengineering (BPR), we are evaluating several modeling methods.
We evaluated your XXXXXX modeling method as a viable modeling method for BPR. Three evaluators evaluated
your method using a framework developed for this analysis and made a consensus on most ofthe items. To more
accurately evaluate your modeling method, we need your help. Your agreement and comments on our evaluation will
be most helpful in determining the comprehensiveness of your modeling method. I appreciate your cooperation in
advance.
Tasks
(1) Please read the enclosed brief explanation ofthe framework to understand its use in this analysis. This framework
has two parts: (a) a framework for the enterprise model feature; and (b) a framework for analysis and visualization
features. The framework for the enterprise model feature is used to evaluate what information about a business process
is captured by your modeling method. The framework for analysis and visualization features is used to evaluate what
business process reengineering activities are supported by your modeling method. Please use the enclosed article by
Kettiger et al. (1995) to imderstand what activities should be carried out for each phase specified in the method.
(2) Please specify how strongly you agree or disagree with each of items in our evaluation of your modeling method.
Please specify "Strongly agree," "Agree," "Disagree," or "Strongly disagree."
(3) Please provide reasons and evidence (such as a page number in the pubUshed material) for your disagreement.
(4) Add any missing item(s) to the initial evaluation, (i.e. add additional information captured by a modeling method to
a framework for the enterprise model feature; add additional analytical actions specified by a modeling method to a
framework for the analysis and visualization features.) Provide us with supporting evidence.
(5) Please sign the consent form.
Please use an enclosed document to complete these tasks, sign this form and retum to us by September 30, 1998. A
self addressed, FedEx hitemational Air Waybill has been enclosed for your convenience. Please contact us if you have
any questions. Thank you once again for your help.
Sincerely,
Kazuo Nakatani
knakatan@fgcu.edu
CIS Department, College of Business, Florida Gulf Coast University
10501 FGCU Boulevard South, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565
(941)590-7364
CONSENT STATEMENT
Please check the one which most accurately describes your assessment of our evaluation of your XXXXX modeling
method:
QI have read the evaluation of my modeling method done by three evaluators and I agree with their evaluation with no
disagreement.
GI have read the evaluation of my modeling method done by three evaluators and I agree with their evaluation with
several minor disagreements. I provided the evidence to support my disagreements.
I have read the evaluation of my modeling method done by three evaluators and I do not agree with their evaluation.
I have provided the evidence to support my disagreements.
Signature Date
288
Comparative Analysis of Modeling Methods for Business Process Reengineering:
Brief Explanation of Framework
Evaluation Framework
An evaluation framework used in this analysis was developed based on questions developed by Enterprise
Integration Laboratory at the Department of hidustrial Engineering, University of Toronto (1995). The framework has
two parts: (a) a framework for enterprise model feature; and (b) a framework for analysis and visualization features.
For tiie Enterprise Model feature, the following two questions were developed:
What information about a business process does a modeling method capture?
What mechanisms does a modeling method use to capture each information item?
Then, to make the comparisons easier, these two questions were transformed into a framework in a table format.
The framework contains the smallest common denominator by taking an intersection of all methods evaluated in this
study.
Similarly, two questions were developed to evaluate the Analysis feature:
What kind of analysis is specified by a method for a particular stage of BPR?
What models are produced by a method to support the analysis?
In addition, the Visualization feature were evaluated using the following two criteria:
What information is presented in a visualized format?
What format is used to present the information?
These four questions were used to evaluate the comprehensiveness and details ofthe steps specified by your method.
To make the comparisons easier, these four questions were transformed into a framework in a table format.
To fairly compare the ability of your Object-Oriented modeling method to support BPR activities, a framework
contains a comprehensive list of BPR activities. Activities specified in the BPR methodology proposed by Kettinger et
al. (1995) was used as a basis because their methodology seems the most comprehensive.
Using the Enterprise Model, Analysis, and Visuahzation feature criteria, the comprehensiveness of modeling
methods will be evaluated.
Data Collection
Data was collected from the pubhshed materials. The use of pubhshed materials as data sources is one ofthe
common approaches used in the comparative analysis of systems design methodologies (Olle, Sol, & Tully, 1983;
Fichman & Kemerer, 1992). The use of published materials helps to reduce bias in the evaluation process because
anyone can refer to the materials to investigate the accuracy ofthe evaluation. The published material used to collect
data about your modeling method was:
Author(s). (Year). Title. City, State: Publisher.
Issues in Evaluation Process
There are several issues we have considered to achieve an accurate and unbiased evaluation.
1. Differences in terminology: Since different authors used different terminology to represent the same or similar
concepts, the correspondence of terminology among different methods must be made on the basis ofthe contents,
but ofthe names. Lacking agreement on the terminology, it was imavoidable to use some working terminology in
the framework for this comparative analysis. The terminology used in the framework for the Enterprise Model
feature is by no means considered as a proposal for some kind of a standard. In our evaluation, careful
examination ofthe concepts and notations advocated by your method has been done to determine whether those
are variants on the same basic idea. The entire document of published materials has been reviewed manually with
care.
2. Subjective evaluation: In some questions, the answers are quite subjective. We tried to reduce this subjectivity by
using the Delphi method. First, your method was evaluated by the primary researcher of this study. Second, three
expert committee members investigated the evaluation results. When there were essential differences, the issues
were discussed until some measure of consensus was reached. The Delphi method was used for this process. The
evaluation is now forwarded to you, the original authors ofthe method, to obtain feedback. Any feedback from
you will be forwarded to the expert committee members and analyzed by them to determine whether or not the
evaluation will be modified. This will help increase the accuracy and reduce bias.
289
APPENDIX H
THE FINAL EVALUATION RESULTS
290
Table H. 1. Final Evaluation of Rummler and Brache's Method (Enterprise Model
Feature).
Information about a Business Process
The objective of a business process
The importance of a business process (strategic
importance and value to customers).
Work products/outcomes of a business process.
Relationships between work products and
objective of business process.
Customer satisfaction level ofthe process.
Resources used to produce the work products
Relationship between work products and
resources.
Activities performed on resources (the smallest
unit of task carried out on a single resource.)
Relationship between activities and resources.
Relationship between activities and process steps
(Which activities constitute a process step).
Relationship between process steps and resources
(Inputs and outputs of process steps).
Relationship between a business process and
process steps (Which process steps constitute a
business process).
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events (triggering, prerequisite,
terminating) for the business process and process
steps.
Captures?
Implicit/No
No
Explicit
No
Implicit
Implicit
Implicit
Explicit
Implicit
Explicit
Implicit at
process-step-
level: Explicit at
functional
department-level
Explicit
Explicit
Implicit
Mechanism (Constructs used)
The annotations and tables on p. 58 - 61. Identify
goals as well as measures.
N/A
Arrow from Organization to Market in
Relationship Map
N/A
Measures and Goals in Relationship Map
(Process-level), Process Map (Process-step-level)
Annotation attached on arrow in Relationship
Map and Process Map
Through inputs and outputs relationship in
Relationship Map
Rectangle (step) in Process Map
Annotation attached on arrow and Rectangle
(step) in Process Map
Decomposition of process step into more detailed
steps
Annotation attached on arrow and Rectangle
(step) in Process Map. (Intemal customer-
supplier/input-output relationship among function
may be captured explicitly in Relationship Map)
Decomposition of process into process steps
Arrow in Process Map
Through a sequence of process steps
Pages
p. 58-61
N/A
p.I05
N/A
p.58-61,p.l42,
p. 144
p.p.49-52
p.36, p.38
p.p.49-52
p.p.49-52
p.33 Figure
4. I. , p. I4I,
p. 148
p. l 41, p. l 48
(p.36, p.38)
p.33 Figure4.1.
p.p.49-52
p.p.49-52
291
Table H.L Continued.
Information about a Business Process
Cycle time of a process step and the business
process.
Quality measurement of process step and
business process.
Costs ofthe process steps and the business
process.
Process operators and functional department and
their responsibilities.
Resource owners and process owners.
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers,
Customers)
Interaction between stakeholders and a business
process
Captures?
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
No
Explicit
Explicit
Mechanism (Constructs used)
Measures and Goals in Relationship Map
(Process-level), Process Map (Process-step-level),
Functional Model, Job Model
Measures and Goals in Relationship Map
(Process-level), Process Map (Process-step-level),
Functional Model, Job Model
Measures and Goals in Relationship Map
(Process-level), Process Map (Process-step-level),
Functional Model, Job Model
Column dedicated to show Functional
Department in Process Map: Role/Responsibility
Matrix: Functional Model: Job Model.
N/A
Box for Customer/Market/Suppliers
Arrows between Customer/Market/Supplier and
Organization
Pages
p.58-61,p.l42,
p. l 44, p. p. l 51-
154
p.58-61,p.l42,
p. l 44, p. p. l 51-
155
p.58-61,p.l42,
p. l 44, p. p. l 51-
156
p.p.50, p.70,
p.73, p.p. 151-
155
N/A
p.38 Figure 4.3
p.38 Figure 4.3
292
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Table H.3. Final Evaluation of Quid's Method (Enterprise Model Feature).
Information about a Business Process
The objective of a business process
The importance of a business process (strategic
importance and value to customers).
Work products/outcomes of a business process.
Relationships between work products and
objective of business process.
Customer satisfaction level ofthe process.
Resources used to produce the work products
Relationship between work products and
resources.
Activities performed on resources (the smallest
unit of task carried out on a single resource.)
Relationship between activities and resources.
Relationship between activities and process steps
(Which activities constitute a process step).
Relationship between process steps and resources
(Inputs and outputs of process steps).
Relationship between a business process and
process steps (Which process steps constitute a
business process).
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events (triggering, prerequisite,
terminating) for the business process and process
steps.
Cycle time of a process step and the business
process.
Quality measurement of process step and
business process.
Costs ofthe process steps and the business
process.
Process operators and functional department.
Captures?
Explicit
No
Implicit
Explicit
No
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Implicit
implicit
Implicit
Explicit
Mechanism (Constructs used)
Goal/subgoal and state description with
annotation
N/A
Goal and state description
Goal/subgoal and state description with
annotation
N/A
Annotation for activities. Annotation (gram) for
Interaction, Entity of E/R diagram
Entity and Relationship among entities of E/R
diagram
Activity, Interaction
Aiuiotation for activity. State transition diagram
Role, Decomposition of Activity, Decomposition
to another RAD
State, Annotation for activity. Annotation for
Interaction
Set of roles. Decomposition of Activity
Sequence of states and activities and interactions
(threads)
State, Annotation for Interaction, Case
refinement. Concurrent threads. External event,
Intemal event
External event. Annotation for each activity
Annotation for each activity or case refinement
fi-equencies
Annotation for each activity
Role
Pages
p.39, p.40, p.43
N/A
p.39, p.40, p.43
p.39, p.40, p.43
N/A
p.p.91-92,
p. 143
p. 143
p.37, p.45
p.p.91-92.
Chapter 8
p.43, p.p.97-
102, p.p.102-
110
p.43, p.45,
p.p.91-92
p.26, p.42.
p.p.97-102,
p.p.102-110,
p.p.122-123
p.77,p.81
p.42, p.45,
p.48, p.49-55,
p.p.56-59,
p.p.61-62, p.65
p.62, p.92,
p. l53
p.92
p.92, p. 154
p.p.29-30, p.42
298
Table H.3. Continued.
Information about a Business Process
Resource owners and process owners.
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers,
Customers)
Interaction between stakeholders and a business
process
Captures?
Explicit
No
No
Mechanism (Constructs used)
Role
N/A
N/A
Pages
N/A
N/A
N/A
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Table H.5. Final Evaluation of Jacobson et al.'s Method (Enterprise Model Feature).
Information about a Business Process
The objective of a business process
The importance of a business process (strategic
importance and value to customers).
Work products/outcomes of a business process.
Relationships between work products and
objective of business process.
Customer satisfaction level ofthe process.
Resources used to produce the work products
Relationship between work products and
resources.
Activities performed on resources (the smallest
unit of task carried out on a single resource.)
Relationship between activities and resources.
Relationship between activities and process steps
(Which activities constitute a process step).
Relationship between process steps and resources
(Inputs and outputs of process steps).
Relationship between a business process and
process steps (Which process steps constitute a
business process).
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events (triggering, prerequisite,
terminating) for the business process and process
steps.
Cycle time of a process step and the business
process.
Quality measurement of process step and
business process.
Costs ofthe process steps and the business
process.
Process operators and fiinctional department and
their responsibilities
Captures?
No
No
Explicit
No
Implicit/Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Implicit
Explicit
Explicit
Implicit
Implicit
Implicit
Implicit
Explicit
Mechanism (Constmcts used)
N/A
N/A
Entity object
N/A
Metrics for use case
Entity object
Associations among objects
Use case description. Operations of object class
Use case description. Operations of object class
Use case description
Use case description. View of participating
objects in use case. Interaction diagram
Use case, Extends/Uses association. Subsystem,
Super use case - Sub use case
Use case (description may not tell sequence).
Interaction diagram
Use case description
Metrics for use case
Metrics for use case
Metrics for use case
Interface object. Control object
Pages
N/A
N/A
p. 116
N/A
p.84
p. 116
p.l 17, p.p. 120-
121
p.p.98-99,
p.p.108-109,
p. 122
p.p.98-99,
p.p.108-109,
p. 122
p.98, p.p.108-
109
p.p.108-109,
p. 129, p. 130,
p.l32
p.p.108-109,
p. l34, p. l37,
p. l42, p. 325
p.73, p. 106,
p.p.108-109,
(p.l 10), p. 132
p.73, p.98, p.99
p.l51
p.l51
p. l51
p. l l 3, p. l l 5
306
Table H.5. Continued.
Information about a Business Process
Resource owners and process owners.
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers,
Customers)
Interaction between stakeholders and a business
process
Captures?
No/Implicit
Explicit
Explicit
Mechanism (Constructs used)
While there is discussion of process owners on
pages 309-310, there is no fi-amework or diagram
for capturing this info
Actor
Use case description. Association (Arrow)
between Actor and System or Use case
Pages
p.309-310
p.l01,p.l03
p.l01,p.l04,
p.p.108-109,
p. l l l
307
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Table H.7. Final Evaluation of Proposed Method (Enterprise Model Feature).
Information about a Business Process Captures? Mechanism (Constructs used) Pages
The objective of a business process Explicit Attribute (Objective) of a process object p. l . Figure I,
p.2
The importance of a business process (strategic
importance and value to customers).
Explicit Attribute (Worth) of a process object and
resource object
p. l . Figure 1,
p.5. Figure 3
Work products/outcomes of a business process. Explicit Resource object p.5. Figure 3
Relationships between work products and
objective of business process.
Implicit/Explicit Output interface (resource object) of Process
object
p. l . Figure 1
Customer satisfaction level ofthe process. Explicit Attribute (customer satisfaction level) of a
process object
p. l . Figure 1,
p.2
Resources used to produce the work products Explicit Resource object p.5. Figure 3
Relationship between work products and
resources.
Explicit Resource interface among resource objects p.5. Figure 3
Activities performed on resources (the smallest
unit of task carried out on a single resource.)
Explicit
Relationship between activities and resources. Explicit
Relationship between activities and process steps
(Which activities constitute a process step).
Explicit
Relationship between process steps and resources
(Inputs and outputs of process steps).
Explicit
Relationship between a business process and
process steps (Which process steps constitute a
business process).
Explicit
The sequential relationship among process steps.
Critical events (triggering, prerequisite,
terminating) for the business process and process
steps.
Cycle time of a process step and the business
process.
Quality measurement of process step and
business process.
Costs ofthe process steps and the business
process.
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Explicit
Process operators and functional department and
their responsibilities
Resource owners and process owners.
Explicit
Explicit
Operations of resource object p.5. Figure 3
Operations of resource object p.5. Figure 3
Input and output interfaces of process object.
Process interface of resource object. Whole-to-
part relationship among process object
p. l . Figure 1,
p.3, p.p.5-6,
Figure 2
Input and output interfaces (resource object) of
process object. Process interface of resource
object.
p. l . Figure 1,
p.3, p.p.5-6.
Figure 2
Whole-to-part relationship among process object p.p.3-4, Figure
2
Attributes (consequent events and prerequisite
events relationship) of process object
Attribute (event) of process objects
Attribute (cycle time) of process object
p. l . Figure 1,
p.3
p. l , Figure 1,
p.3
p. l . Figure 1,
p.2
Attribute (quality measurement) of process object
Attribute (cost) of process object and resource
object
Operator of process object
p. l . Figure 1,
p.2
p. l . Figure 1,
p.3, p.5. Figure
3
Owner of process object and resource object
p. 1, Figure 1
p. l . Figure 1,
p.5 Figure 3
_L
315
Table H.7. Continued.
Information about a Business Process
Stakeholders of a business process (i.e. Suppliers,
Customers)
Interaction between stakeholders and a business
process
Captures?
No
No
Mechanism (Constructs used)
N/A
N/A
Pages
N/A
N/A
316
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