Lecture 7: Basic hydraulics of water transport

The Islamic University of Gaza- Environmental Engineering Department

Networks Design and Pumping Stations
EENV 5315
The cornerstone of any healthy population is access to safe drinking water.
The population growth in developing countries almost entirely wiped out the
gains. In fact, nearly as many people lack those services.
INTRODUCTION
Developing Country Needs for Urban and Rural Water Supply,1990 and 2000
Population not served
(millions) in 1990
Expected Population
Increase 1990-2000
(millions)
Total Additional
Population
Requiring
Service 2000
(millions)
Urban
243 570 813
Rural
989 312 1301
Total
1232 882 2114
Shaft of water holder at the Acropolis at Athens, Greece. (Photograph by L. W. Mays).
Water distribution pipe in Ephesus, Turkey. (Photographs by L. W. Mays).
Reference
Z
2
Z
1
g
P

1
g
P

2
g
V
2
2
2
g
V
2
2
1
E o
Energy, Piezometric and pressure Head
E E E o + = 2 1
E
g
V
g
P
Z
g
V
g
P
Z + + + = + + o
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
2 1 1
Bernoulli equation states that for constant flow, an energy balance between two
pipes cross section can be written as: or expressed in developed
form, per unit weight (in MWC):
Elevation Head: this is an amount of flow potential energy in one cross section
defined by the elevation. This correspond to Z in cross section
Pressure Head :this is an amount of the flow potential energy in one cross
section defined by the water pressure.
Piezometric Head : this is the sum of elevation and pressure head in
one cross section.
Velocity Head : this is an amount of flow kinetic energy in one cross section
defined by the water velocity.
g
P

g
P
Z

+
g
V
2
2
Energy Losses
(Head losses)
Major Losses Minor losses
The roughness
of the pipe
The properties
of the fluid
The mean
velocity, V
The pipe
diameter, D
The pipe
length, L
Head (Energy) Losses
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance
due to which some of energy (head) of fluid is lost.
Compound Pipe flow
The system is called compound pipe flow: When two or more pipes with
different diameters are connected together head to tail (in series) or connected
to two common nodes (in parallel)
A. Flow Through Pipes in Series
pipes of different lengths and different diameters connected end to end
(in series) to form a pipeline
Discharge: The discharge through each pipe is the same
Head loss: The difference in liquid surface levels is equal to the sum of the
total head loss in the pipes:
3 3 2 2 1 1
V A V A V A Q = = =
H
L
total = H
L1
+ H
L2
+ H
L3
B. Flow Through Parallel Pipes:
If a main pipe divides into two or more
branches and again join together
downstream to form a single pipe,
then the branched pipes are said
to be connected in parallel
(compound pipes).
Points A and B are called nodes.
Q
1
, L
1
, D
1
, f
1
Q
2
, L
2
, D
2
, f
2
Q
3
, L
3
, D
3
, f
3

=
= + + =
3
1
3 2 1
i
i
Q Q Q Q Q
g
V
D
L
f
g
V
D
L
f
g
V
D
L
f
2 2 2
2
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
= =
3 2 1 f f f L
h h h h = = =
Discharge:
Head loss: the head loss for each branch is the same
Example
Four pipes connected in parallel as shown. The following details are given:
Pipe L (m) D (mm) f
1 200 200 0.020
2 300 250 0.018
3 150 300 0.015
4 100 200 0.020
If Z
A
= 150 m , Z
B
= 144m,
determine the discharge in each
pipe ( assume P
A
=P
B
= P
atm
)
Q1
Q4
Q3
Q2
Q Q
A
B
Solution
Z
A
- Z
B
= h
f
= h
f1
= h
f2
= h
f3
=h
f4
(neglect minor losses)
150 -144 = 6 h
fi
=
But Vi = =
g
V
D
L
f
i
i
i
i
2
2
i
i
A
Q
2
4
i D
Qi

t
2 2
2
8
6
i gD
Q L f i i
t
=
Substitute for Pipe 1, 2, 3 and 4
Q = 0.0762 + 0.1146+ 0.28 + 0.1078 = 0.579 m
3
/s
MODERN WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
All water transport and distribution system and devices have to satisfy the following
criteria:
a) To be constructed and/or manufactured of materials that are not harmful for
human being life.
b) To be resistant to mechanical; and chemical attacks possible in distribution
system
c) To be constructed and manufactured of durable materials.
Urban water distribution is composed of three major components:
distribution piping
distribution storage
pumping stations
These components can be further divided into subcomponents, which can in
turn be divided into sub-subcomponents.
The pumping station component consists of structural, electrical, piping, and
pumping unit subcomponents.
The pumping unit can be further divided into sub-subcomponents:
pump, driver, controls, power transmission, piping and valves.
The exact definition of components, subcomponents, and sub-
subcomponents is somewhat fluid and depends on the level of detail of the
required analysis and, to a somewhat greater extent, the level of detail of
available data.
Water Distribution System
Pumping Station
Distribution Piping Distribution Storage
Electrical Structural Pumping Piping Tanks Pipes Valve Pipes Valve
pump driver Power transmission controls
Hierarchical relationship of Components, Subcomponent, and sub-subcomponent.
(Cullinane, 1989)
Pipes
Pipe sections or links are the most abundant elements in the network.
These sections are constant in diameter and may contain fittings and other
appurtenances, such as valves, storage facilities, and pumps.
Pipes are the largest capital investment in a distribution system.
Pipes used in water supply are made of various materials. They can be
categorized in three large groups:
Rigid (iron, prestressed concrete, asbestos cement)
Semi-rigid (steel, ductile iron)
Flexible (PVC, PE, HDPE, glass reinforced plastic)
System Components
Transmission: This is the basic part of water transport and distribution system
that represents a large proportion of investment.
It consists of various types of pipes, joints, fittings and connections, that
operate together with miscellaneous control equipment.
Trunk main: To transport water from the source to the distribution area. (usually
above 400mm to few meters).
Secondary main: To link main distribution pipes with the service reservoir or
/and with the trunk distribution mains.
Distribution Main: carry water from the secondary main to the smaller
consumers. These are in particular pipes laid in the roads and streets of urban
areas with diameters in principal 100-200mm.
Service pipe: To bring water from distribution main directly to a public dwelling.
In case of domestic supplies service pipes are generally less than 25mm
diameter.
Water distribution network pipelines classification
Design Criteria
Are the design limitations required to get the most efficient and
economical water-distribution network.
Velocity Pressure
Pipe Sizes
Head Losses Design Period
Average Water Consumption
The design criteria for water distribution system can be divided in non-
hydraulic and hydraulic design consideration.
One of the non-hydraulic criteria can be the ability to isolate part of the
system especially during emergency operation.
Hydraulic design criteria are primarily related to the flow and pressure in the
network. Moreover, criteria for minimum and maximum pipe capacities, flow
velocities, pressure fluctuations and pressure gradients are relevant factors.
Velocity
Not be lower than 0.6 m/s to prevent sedimentation
Not be more than 2 m/s to prevent erosion and high head losses.
Commonly used values are 1 - 1.5 m/sec.
Diameter (mm) Velocity ( m/sec )
100 0.9
150 1.21
250 1.52
400 1.82
Design Criteria ( Velocity )
Source: Standards Handbook
Diameter (mm) Head losses ( m/km )
100 7.7
150 4.8
200 3.4
250 2.6
300 2.1
350 1.7
400 1.7
Design Criteria ( Head Losses )
Source: Water Supply ( 4th Edition )
Instead of pressure gradient, the velocity can also be used as a design criterion
(both parameters are correlated by friction loss calculations).
Pressure in municipal distribution systems ranges from 150-300
kPa in residential districts with structures of four stories or less
and 400-500 kPa in commercial districts.
Also, for fire hydrants the pressure should not be less than 150
kPa (15 m of water).
In general for any node in the network the pressure should not be
less than 25 m of water.
Moreover, the maximum pressure should be limited to 70 m of
water
Pressure
The pressure criterion can be formulated as a min. /max. In general 5 mwc above
the highest tap is sufficient. For urban areas this means min. 20-25 mwc above
street level. In case of high building, internal posting system has to be installed.
As mentioned in the Standard Handbook, in multi-storied structures the following
pressures are satisfactory.
No. of Floors Pressure Required ( kg / cm
2
= 0.98 bar)
Up to and below 3 stories 2
3 - 6 2.1 - 4.2
6 - 10 4.2 - 5.27
Above 10 5.27 - 7
Design Criteria ( Pressure )
Source : Standards Handbook
Maximum pressure limitations are required to reduce the additional
cost of the pipe, strengthening necessary due to the high pressure.
Pipe sizes
Lines which provide only domestic flow may be as small as 100 mm (4 in) but
should not exceed 400 m in length (if dead-ended) or 600 m if connected to
the system at both ends.
Lines as small as 50-75 mm (2-3 in) are sometimes used in small
communities with length not to exceed 100 m (if dead-ended) or 200 m if
connected at both ends.
The size of the small distribution mains is seldom less than 150 mm (6 in) with
cross mains located at intervals not more than 180 m.
In high-value districts the minimum size is 200 mm (8 in) with cross-mains at
the same maximum spacing. Major streets are provided with lines not less
than 305 mm (12 in) in diameter.
General requirement for pipe network
1. Mains should be divided into sections and valves should be provided so that
any section may be taken out of operation for repair.
2. Dead ends are to be avoided. If a dead-end is must, a hydrant should be
provided for cleaning.
3. Air valves at summits and drains at the lowest point between summits should
be installed.
4. Mains should follow the general contour of the ground.
5. The minimum cover under roadway should be 90cm and under paths 75 cm.
6. Proper installation and operation of water supply system requires that a number
of appurtenances be provided in the pipeline;
a. Gate valve: they are used at summits and to isolate a particular section.
b. Sluice gate: They are used in pipelines laid at steep grades or in openings into
wells
c. Check valves: (non return valve): to allow flow in one direction only.
7. Pipes constructed of steel and other flexible material must have valves that
automatically allow air to enter when the pipeline is emptied in order to prevent
a vacuum, which will cause the pipe to collapse.
General requirement for pipe network (continue)
Network Layout
Estimate pipe sizes on the basis of water demand and local code requirements.
The pipes are then drawn on a digital map (using AutoCAD, for example) starting
from the water source.
All the components (pipes, valves, fire hydrants) of the water network should be
shown on the lines.
Hydraulic Analysis
After completing all preliminary studies and layout drawing of the network, one of
the methods of hydraulic analysis is used to
Size the pipes and
Assign the pressures and velocities required.
Hydraulic Analysis of Water Networks
The solution to the problem is based on the same basic hydraulic principles that
govern simple and compound pipes that were discussed previously.
The following are the most common methods used to analyze the Grid-system
networks:
1. Hardy Cross method.
2. Sections method.
3. Circle method.
Hardy Cross Method
This method is applicable to closed-loop pipe networks
(a complex set of pipes in parallel).
It depends on the idea of head balance method
Was originally devised by professor Hardy Cross.
Assumptions / Steps of this method:
1. Assume that the water is withdrawn from nodes only; not directly from pipes.
2. The discharge, Q , entering the system will have (+) value, and the discharge, Q ,
leaving the system will have (-) value.
3. Usually neglect minor losses since these will be small with respect to those in
long pipes, i.e.; or could be included as equivalent lengths in each pipe.
4. Assume flows for each individual pipe in the network.
5. At any junction (node), as done for pipes in parallel,

=
out in
Q Q Q =

0
or
6. Around any loop in the grid, the sum of head losses must equal to zero:
Conventionally, clockwise flows in a loop are considered (+) and
produce positive head losses; counterclockwise flows are then (-) and
produce negative head losses.
This fact is called the head balance of each loop, and this can be valid
only if the assumed Q for each pipe, within the loop, is correct.
h
f
loop
=

0
The probability of initially guessing all flow rates correctly is virtually null.
Therefore, to balance the head around each loop, a flow rate correction ( )
for each loop in the network should be computed, and hence some iteration
scheme is needed.
A
7. After finding the discharge correction, (one for each loop) , the
assumed discharges Q
0
are adjusted and another iteration is
carried out until all corrections (values of ) become zero or
negligible. At this point the condition of :
is satisfied.
A
A
h
f
loop
~

00 .
How to find the correction value ( )
A
h k Q
f
x
=
Q Q = +
0
A
h k Q k Q k Q x Q
x x
Q
f
x x x
x x
= = + = + +

+

(

( )
( )
( ) ( )
0 0 0
1
0
2
2
1
2
A A A
| |
h k Q k Q x Q
f
x x
x
= = +

0 0
1 ( )
A
Since for each loop in the grid

= =
loop loop
x
f
Q k h 0
k Q k Q x k Q
x x
x

= + =


0 0
1
0
( )
A
therefore we have (for each loop in the network)
A =

k Q
x k Q
h
x
h
Q
x
x
f
f
0
0
1 ( )
Note that if Hazen Williams (which is generally used in this
method) is used to find the head losses, then
h k Q
f
=
185 .
A =

h
h
Q
f
f
185 .
If Darcy-Wiesbach is used to find the head losses, then
h k Q
f
=
2
A =

h
h
Q
f
f
2
85 . 1
87 . 4
7 . 10
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
HW
f
C
Q
D
L
h
g
V
D
L
f h
f
2
) (
2
=
Hardy Cross Method
The figure below represents a simplified pipe network.
Flows for the area have been disaggregated to the nodes, and a
major fire flow has been added at node G.
The water enters the system at node A.
Pipe diameters and lengths are shown on the figure.
Find the flow rate of water in each pipe using the Hazen-
Williams equation with C
HW
= 100.
Carry out calculations until the corrections are less then 0.2
m
3
/min.